11. - 1o oo oo. hr: ohr : 1 ( ): . , . :-18n22,1810 =- Jn n = 1,2,3,... ( ). 2 ( ): - , . , o - . := |f - Ei| = h :. (n) .. n, , , .. , , .12. - 1 Bohr , . Bohr : . , . . Max Planck: 1900 Max Planck , , , , (quantum = , ). () - : = h: ( J). ( 1s Hz).h Planck 6,63 10-34 Js , Planck.: () () : c = , c . :: ( J).f: ( J).i: ( J). h: H Planck, 6,63 1034 Js: H ( s1 Hz). - : : ( ) . ( ).: ( ) .13. - : - (- , ). -. - (). . De Broglie: , - . , m u :h=mu , . , , . , , , . () Heisenberg: .. ., , - . Heisenberg Bohr, . Schrdinger: . , . - . Shrdinger : . .14. - 1 : Schrdinger , . (x, y, z) x, y, z . . , = 0 0 . 2: 2 . 2 , .: : = 0,2 2 = 0,04 : = -0,1 2 = 0,01, - . 2 : 2, -e2 -e , . 2 .: :: Schrdinger Bohr.15. - 2: :. : , , .. : ( ), , - .. : , 90% .: 2 , .: , :xyz :Schrdinger ( n, m

). (n, , m

) . , spin ms, , .16. - 1 :. n.. n . (n,, m

, ms) . (n): ( ). n : 1, 2, 3, ... n, - , . , . , n, . . : (n): :1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ...K L M N O P Q ... (): ( ). , . , n, = 0, 1, 2, 3, ... (n - 1). n . . - . : (m

): - ( ) x, y, z. m

, , :m

= -, - +1, ..., 0, ...,- 1, .17. - .H m . s = 0, . p ( = 1) : .: n = 1,= 0, m

= 0, 1s . n = 2,= 1, m

= -1, 2py .: 2 + 1 m

- 2 + 1 ... s: = 0, 2 + 1= 2 0 + 1 = 1 s. p: = 1, 2 + 1= 2 1 + 1 = 3 p. d: = 2, 2 + 1= 2 2 + 1 = 5 d. K spin (ms): spin (spin). ms , +1/2 1/2 . ms , . ms = +1/2 : spin spin (). ms = -1/2 : spin spin (). (n, , m

, ms) .: : n = 1,= 0, m

= 0, ms = +1/2, 1s spin (). : n = 2,= 1, m

= -1, ms = -1/2, 2py spin ().: 2, spin.18. - 1 p : p ( = 1), . m

n. p - , s . : (2) . s : s = 0, ( ), . s . , n, .19. - : s , p . . , , , , :20. - 1 1 : :-18n22,1810 =- Jn . , := |f - Ei| = h -, : c = - ( - ). ( ).. 1: -0,242 1018 J -0,545 1018 J. :. -0,4 1018 J;. .. , ;. ;. ;. ;: Planck h = 6,63 1034 J s21. - :. -0,4 1018 J , n. :-18n22,18 10 = - Jn1818 18 2 18 222,18 10 J0, 4 10 J 0, 4 10 n 2,18 10 n 5, 45n = = = 5,45 , .. :18 1818 2A A2 2A A2,18 10 J 2,18 10 JE 0, 242 10 J n 9n n = = = An = 318 1818 2B B2 2B B2,18 10 J 2,18 10 JE 0, 545 10 J n 4n n = = = Bn = 2. > , .. :18B AB A34E E0, 303 10 Jh h6, 63 10 J s= = = 14 -1= 4, 5710 s. = 0 J n. .. :18AA34E E0, 242 10 Jh h6, 63 10 J s= = = 16 -1= 0, 03610 s :8 116 1c 3 10msc 0, 036 10 s= = = = -78, 3310 m2 : : h=mu Kg - m/s.22. - 1 2: 105 m/s .: rO = 16, Planck h = 6,63 1034 NA = 6,02 1023 mol1.: :2O OM r 2 Ar 2 16 32 = = =A 1 mol , NA , 32 g. :223 O2332g / molm 5, 315 10 g6, 02 10 / mol= = = -265, 31510 Kg:2234O26 5 1Oh 6, 63 10 Jsm u5, 315 10 10ms = = = -131, 24710 m3 : : n . n, m

. n, , m

ms. 3: :. 3d. 4s. 3px :. 2 (n, ). , 3d n = 3 = 2 - (3, 2).. 3 (n, m

). 4s n = 4,= 0 m

= 0 (4, 0, 0).. 4 (n,, m

ms). -, 3px n = 3,= 1 m

= +1 o ms +1/2 -1/2. : (3, 1, +1, +1/2) (3, 1, +1, -1/2).23. - . 1. n = 2 n = 4; , ; Planck h = 6,63 1034 Js.: 2 4 : |4 - 2| :21844J 10 18 , 2E =21822J 10 18 , 2E = :J 10 0875 , 42J 10 18 , 24J 10 18 , 2E E 192182182 4 = = = : = h1934 4, 087510 J h h6, 63 10 J s= = = = 14 -16,16510 s 6,165 1014 s1.2. - n = 3.. .. . Planck h = 6,63 1034 Js.:. :i. n = 3 n = 1 (3 1). 1.ii. n = 3 n = 2 (3 2) n = 2 n = 1 (2 1). 2 3:. :: 18i2i2,18 10 JEn= :18f2f2,18 10 JEn= 2 2i fn n > .24. - 1 : = |f - Ei| 18 182 2f i2,18 10 J 2,18 10 Jn n = -182 2f i1 1 = 2,1810 - Jn n ni nf - = h:-182 2f i341 12,18 10 Jn n h h6, 63 10 Js = = = 15 -12 2f i1 1 = 3, 29 10 - sn n c = : 8 1152 2f ic 3 10msc 1 13, 29 10n n= = = 2 2-8 i f2 2i fnn= 9,118510 mn - n (1) ni nf (1) : (3 1) ni = 3 nf = 1, :2 26 8 i f12 2i fn n 9 1 9,1185 10 m 9,1185 109 1n n = = -71 = 1, 026 10 m (3 2) ni = 3 nf = 2, :2 26 8 i f22 2i fn n 94 9,1185 10 m 9,1185 109 4n n = = -72 = 6, 565 10 m (2 1) ni = 2 nf = 1, :2 26 8 i f32 2i fn n 4 1 9,1185 10 m 9,1185 104 1n n = = -73 = 1, 216 10 m3. : (e), (p) ( 4 2+2He) :me < mp < m. .: : h=mu, - ::eehm u= , :pphmu= :hmu=25. - , . me < mp < m, : e > p > .4. :. 2d . 3s . 1p . 3f:. 2d = 2, n 3, 0, 1, 2, ..., n - 1. n 2.. 3s n = 3 = 0. .. 1p = 1, n 2, 0, 1, 2, ..., n - 1. n 1.. 3f = 3, n 4, 0, 1, 2, ..., n - 1. n 3.5. :. (2, 1, 0, 1) . (1, 0, 1, -1/2) . (2, 1, -1, +1/2) . (3, 3, -1, +1/2) . (0, 2, -2, -1/2):. (2, 1, 0, 1) ms +1/2 -1/2 1 .. (1, 0, 1, -1/2) m

-, ...0, ...+. , = 0 m

= 1, .. (2, 1, -1, +1/2) .. (3, 3, -1, +1/2) 0, n - 1. , n = 3 = 3, .. (0, 2, -2, -1/2) n 1, 2, 3, .... , n = 0, .: : n < 1 n |m

| > ms 1/226. - 1 6. :. f;. ;. ;:. f = 3, (2 + 1). f : 2 3 + 1 = 7 .. n = 3, 0, 1, 2, 3 . 3s (3, 0): = 0, 2 + 1 = 2 0 + 1 = 1 s. 3p (3, 1): = 1, 2 + 1 = 2 1 + 1 = 3 p. 3d (3, 2): = 2, 2 + 1 = 2 2 + 1 = 5 d. : 1 + 3 + 5 = 9 .. 2 + 1. 2 + 1 = 5, = 2.= 2, d .7. 4p .: n 4p : n = 4. 4p := 1.O m

4p : m

= -1, 0, +1.O ms : ms = -1/2, +1/2. 4p : n = 4,= 1, m

= -1, ms = -1/2 (4, 1, -1, -1/2) n = 4,= 1, m

= -1, ms = +1/2 (4, 1, -1, +1/2) n = 4,= 1, m

= 0, ms = -1/2 (4, 1, 0, -1/2) n = 4,= 1, m

= 0, ms = +1/2 (4, 1, 0, +1/2) n = 4,= 1, m

= +1, ms = -1/2 (4, 1, +1, -1/2) n = 4,= 1, m

= +1, ms = +1/2 (4, 1, +1, +1/2)27. - . :1. Bohr.2. Bohr;3. ; - .4. . Heisenberg.. Heisenberg Bohr;5. Schrdinger;6. 2;7. ;8. ;9. ;10. ;11. ;12. ;13. spin;14. :. . ;15. s p ; :1. Bohr, ............................... . - ..............................., ...............................2. Bohr, ............................... , ..............................................................3.-:...............................28. - 1 4. Bohr :. ................................ .............................................................. - , .. ..............................................................5. De Broglie, ............................... , ............................... ............................... , m u : ...............................6. () ..............................., .............................................................. . ............................... Bohr, .............................................................. ............................... ............................... .7. . ............................... ( ).. ............................... ( ).. ............................... - ( ) x, y, z.. spin ............................... (spin).8. ............................... .9. . n = 3, ....., ..... ...... n = ...... (3, 1) ..... .. s = ..... m

= ...... d ..... .. L ..... ..... .. ..... .. 2pz n = .....,= ..... m

= .....10. -............................................................... - .29. - - : () ();1. , . ()2. -2,18 10-19 J. ()3. - . ()4. - n = 3 n = 1 - n = 6 n = 2. ()5. -2,18 10-18 J. ()6. n, m

. ()7. p n = 3. ()8. 2 s , 2 p . ()9. - . ()10. 3 p 2 p. ()11. 3 d 4 p. ()12. L 2 4 . ()13. :. n = 3. (). . (). . (). = 2. ()14. p - . ()15. spin . ()16. spin 1, 2, 3, ..., n - 1. ()30. - 1 :1. 1, L - 2, L 3. :. 1 = 2 + 3. 2 = 1 + 3. 3 = 1 + 2. 1 < 2 + 32. , L L 1, 2, 3 1, 2,3 .i. 1, 2 3 :. 1 < 2 < 3. 1 < 3 < 2. 2 < 1 < 3. 2 < 3 < 1ii. 1, 2 3 :. 2 > 3 > 1. 1 > 2 > 3. 2 > 1 > 3. 1 > 3 > 23. n = 1 n = 3 n = 2 n = 4, - 13 24 . 13 24 :. 13 = 24 > 0 . 13 > 24 > 0. 13 < 24 < 0 . 13 = 24 < 04. - ;. n = 5 n = 2 . n = 4 n = 1. n = 5 n = 1 . n = 6 n = 25. Heisenberg, - :. .. .. . .6. m u, :. = hmu . = hm/u . = h/mu . = m/hu7. L :. n = 0 . n = 1 . n = 2 . n = 38. 2p :. n = 2,= 1 . n = 2,= 0 . n = 2,= 2 . n = 3,= 29. To (3, 1, 1) :. 3px . 3py . 3s . 3pz 31. - 10. d :. 1 . 3 . 5 . 711. 5px :. (5, 0, 0, +1/2) . (5, 2, 1, -1/2) . (5, 1, 1, -1/2) . (5, 3, 2, +1/2)12. :. (1, 0, 0) . (3, 2, 2) . (4, 4, -3) . (3, 2, 1)13. 6s :. 13 . 12 . 6 . 114. n = 3, :. s . p . d . f15. m

= -3, :. 4s . 5p . 3d . 4f 16. O :. .. .. .. .17. n = 2, l = 1, ml = 0 :. . . . .18. :. . . . .19. Bohr:. , .. , . . , , 32. - 1 1. ( ) ( ): 1. hr2. De Broglie3. Heisenberg4.Schrdinger . = h/mu. . . 2. : 1. n = 12. n = 23. n = 34. n = 4 . L. N. K. M:3. : 1. n2. 3. m

4. ms . . . . / 4. : 1. 4p2. 2s3. 4d4. 2p5. 3s . (4, 1). (3, 0). (4, 2). (2, 0). (2, 1)33. - 5. : 1. 1s2. 3p3. 4s4. 3f5. 3d . 1 . 3 . 5 . 7 6. - ( ): 1. 1s2. 2s3. 2px4. 2py5. 2pz . (2, 0, 0). (2, 1, 1). (1, 0, 0). (2, 1, 0). (2, 1, -1)7. : 1. 1s2. 3s3. 2px4. 2py5. 3px 34. - 1 8. ( ) ( ) ( ): . 2p. 5f. 3s. 1s. 3d 1.= 02.= 13.= 24.= 35.= 4 . n = 1. n = 2. n = 3. n = 4. n = 59. . ( ) ( ): . n. . m

. ms 1. -22. -1/23. 24. 3 . - . -. . -10. : . n = 2. n = 3. n = 4 . 1. 32. 43. 94. 16 . 1. 2. 3. 435. - - 1. - = 1,026 107 m . n1 . :. ;. ;. ;: c = 3 108 m/s, h = 6,63 10-34 Js.(. . n = 3 . n = 2 . 1,216 107 m)2. ;: c = 3 108 m/s, h = 6,63 10-34 Js.(. 9,124 10-8 m 91,24 nm)3. 4g ; r = 1.: NA = 6,02 1023 mol1.(. 5,249 106 J )4. 4g ;: NA = 6,02 1023 mol1.(. 1,312 106 J)5. 3 2 .: c = 3 108 m/s, h = 6,63 10-34 Js.(. = 6,565 10-5 m, = 4,57 1012 s-1)6. - = 9,7210-8 m. = 4,8610-7 m. ;: c = 3 108 m/s, h = 6,63 10-34 Js.(. n = 2)7. = 103 nm n 1. En;: c = 3 108 m/s, h = 6,63 10-34 Js.(. En = 0,242 1018 J)36. - 1 8. : - 1 = 2,1810-18 J 2 = 0,54510-18 J 3 = 0,24210-18 J .. .. .. ;: c = 3 108 m/s, h = 6,63 10-34 Js.(A. 1 = 1,026 10-5 m, 2 = 6,565 10-5 m, 3 = 1,216 10-5 m)9. , L L K 1, 2 3 1, 2 3 . .. 1 > 2 > 3. 1 = 2 + 3. 1 < 2. 2 312 3 =+10. .. n = 4 n = 2 . n = 5 n = l . n = 3 n = 1 . n = 2 n = 1. n = 4 n = 1(A. > > > > )11. , , :J1610 18 , 218 = .. -; , ;. .i. ;ii. ;: c = 3 108 m/s, h = 6,63 10-34 Js.(A. . n = 4, 2,043 1018 J . i. 6, ii. 9,72 108, 187,58 108)12. L K L 12.1/2.(A. 27/5)37. - 13. de Broglie - 0,01 c.: h = 6,63 10-34 Js.(A. = 2,428 10-10 m)14. - 9,1210-8 m.: h = 6,63 10-34 Js.(A. 2,423 10-35Kg)15. 9,6 10-9 m. A - 7,58 106 ms-1 .: h = 6,63 10-34 Js.(A. 9,11 10-31 Kg)16. e- - :. n = 3 . n = 3,= 2, m = 2 . n = 3,= 1. n = 3, m = 1 . n = 3, ms = -1/217. :. e- L . e- 3s. . 4d.18. :. 3s . 4p . 3d . 5f . 2px19. :. (1, 0, 0) . (3, 0, 0) . (2, 1, 0) . (2, 1, -1)20. :. n = 1 . n = 2 . n = 3 . n = 421. :. . L . 22. :. 2s . 3p . 3d . 4f23. :. (2, 0, 1, +1/2) . (1, 2, 0, -1/2) . (3, 1, 0, 1) . (2, 2, 2, +1/2)24. - :. n = 3,= 2, m

= 0 . n = 1,= 0 . n = 3 . n = 2,= 138. - 1 . : -18-2,1810J161. . ;. ;. ;2. 6 1014 s-1:. ;. ;(A. 1. . N, . 4 : 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f,. 16 2. . 5 10-7 m, . L)39. 2o oo oo. (aufbau) : Pauli: - (n, , m

, ms). . Pauli ( ) . : s ( = 0): 2 + 1 = 2 0 + 1 = 1 . 1 2 = 2 . p ( = 1): 2 + 1 = 2 1 + 1 = 3 . 3 2 = 6 . d ( = 2): 2 + 1 = 2 2 + 1 = 5 . 5 2 = 10 . f ( = 3): 2 + 1 = 2 3 + 1 = 7 . 7 2 = 14 .: L: L n = 2. n = 2 = 0 = 1. L , 2s (2, 0) 2p (2, 1). 2s 2 + 1 = 2 0 + 1 = 1 s. 2p 2 + 1 = 2 1 + 1 = 3 p. L 4 . 2 , - L : 4 2 = 8 .40. - 2 :. O , , n.. , , - - . : : , , . . n, . - . , n, . , -. . -41. (n + ). n + n. , :1s - 2s - 2p - 3s - 3p - 4s - 3d - 4p - 5s - 4d - 5p - 6s - 4f - 5d - 6p - 7s - 5f - 6d - 7pE - . - .: 11a: 11 . : 2 1s (1s2). 2 2s (2s2). 6 2p (2p6).To 3s (3s1). : 11a: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 11a: (2)L(8)M(1):. , , , ... , 3s, 3p 3d .. ... 24Cr : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d5 4s1 29Cu : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4s1 ( 3d5) (3d10) 3d , . 3d , 4s . 4d 5s . , , 4s 3d, , 3d 4s. 4d 5s . : 26Fe: :42. - 2 . 2 1s (1s2).. 2 2s (2s2).. 6 2p (2p6).. 2 3s (3s2)., , 3d 4s., :26Fe: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 4s2 4s 3d . Fe2+ :26Fe2+: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 und: ( ) spin. , - .: 8: :8: 1s2 2s2 2p4 4 2p (2px, 2py, 2pz): 1 spin . ., :. 6 3p (3p6).. 2 4s (4s2).. 6 3d (3d6).:. Hund spin.. Hund .. , - . ... , 2 .43. 1 : : n + , . , . n + , - n. , - , .. 1: :. 3s, 3p, 4d, 4f, 5s, 5d, 6s, .. 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 3d, . .:. n + , :3s (n = 3,= 0): n += 3 + 0 = 3 3p (n = 3,= 1): n += 3 + 1 = 44d (n = 4,= 2): n += 4 + 2 = 6 4f (n = 4,= 3): n += 4 + 3 = 75s (n = 5,= 0): n += 5 + 0 = 5 5d (n = 5,= 2): n += 5 + 2 = 76s (n = 6,= 0): n += 6 + 0 = 6 4d, 5s 4f, 5d n + , 4d, 4f n, ., , :3s, 3p, 5s, 4d, 6s, 4f, 5d. ., 2s, 2p 3s, 3p, 3d L, M , . , :1s, 2s = 2p, 3s = 3p = 3d44. - 2 2: , , , :. 13l . 16S2-. 25Mn . 25Mn2+:. 13l , , 13. 13l : 13l: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p1. 13l : 13l: K(2), L(8), M(3). , Hund 3p spin., 13l :. 16S2- 2-, 2 , 18. 16S2- : 16S2-: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6. 16S2- : 16S2-: K(2), L(8), M(8). 16S2- , 16S2- :2 : : . . , Hund. 3d, 4s 4d, 5s , - 4s, 5s , 3d 4d . , .45. 3 - spin: : , . , - , Hund. spin, - +1/2. spin (ms = +1/2), , spin (+1/2 -1/2) .. 25n , , 25. 4s 3d . 3d, 4s, . 25n : 25n: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 3d5, 4s2. 25n : 25n: K(2), L(8), M(13), N(2). , Hund 3d spin., 25n :. 25n 25n2+ 4s ( 3d). : 25n2+ : 25n: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 3d5. 25n2+ : 25n: K(2), L(8), M(13). , Hund 3d spin., 25n2+ :46. - 2 3: - spin :. 15P . . 35r:. O 15P , , 15. 15P : 15P: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p3. , Hund 3p spin., 15P : 3 . spin : 3 (+1/2) = +3/2.. 35r 1-, 1 , 36. 35r :35r: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6,3d10, 4s2, 4p6. 35r , spin .47. . 1. :. n = 3, = 2 . n = 2 . n = 2,= 1, m

= 0 . n = 2, m

= 2:. n = 3, = 2 3d , 5 . 2. n = 3, = 2, 5 2 = 10 .. n = 2 L , 2s 2p 1 3 . , n = 2, 4 . - 2. n = 2, 4 2 = 8 .. H n = 2,= 1, m

= 0, 2pz . 2. n = 2,= 1, m

= 0, - 2 .. n = 2, m

= 2 , - .2. :1. 16S: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p42. 3Li: 1s2, 2p13. 20Ca: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p64. 6C: 1s2, 2s2, 3p1, 2d15. 9F: 1s2, 2s2, 3p6,. , , ;. , ;:. . , 1, 2, 4. . , 3. . , 5.48. - 2 . . , : 1, 3, 5. 2 : 3Li: 1s2 2s1. 4 2d .3. . - : 7, 10e, 11Na, 35Br. ;. ;. spin 7, 10e 11Na;. : N3 Na+;:. 7 : 7: 1s2, 2s2, 2p3. 7 : 7: K(2), L(5). 10e : 10e: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6. 10e : 10e: K(2), L(8). 11a : 11a: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6,3s1. 11a : 11a: K(2), L(8), M(1). 35Br :35Br: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6,3s2, 3p6, 3d10, 4s2, 4p5. 35Br : 35Br: K(2), L(8), M(18), N(7). - , , Hund.. : 3 , e , Na 1 Br 1 .. : 1 , e 4 , a 49. Br 3 .. spin, - +1/2. spin (ms = +1/2), , spin (+1/2 -1/2) .: 3 (+1/2) = +3/2 e: 0 (+1/2) = 0 Na: 1 (+1/2) = +1/2. 3 a+ 10 , e.4. X, 23, .. X;. m

= 0;: 23, : p + n = 23 (1) 1 , : n - p = 1 (2) (1) (2) : p = 11, n = 12, 11 , 11 . 11 : 11: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6,3s1.. 3s .. m

= 0 s 2pz ., m

= 0 7 , :2 1s . 2 2s .2 2p . 1 o 3s .5. , :. 5 s .. spin 3/2.:. - , 5 s : 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s1To 11 , 11 . : = 11.50. - 2 . spin 3/2, 3 . 3 2p. - , 3 2p :1s2, 2s2, 2p3To 7 , 7 . : = 7.6. , 1 3p .: 3p 1 1 5 : - , 1 3p :1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p1To 13 , 13 . : = 13. - , 5 3p :1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p5To 17 , 17 . : = 17. 3p 13 17.51. . :1. . Pauli.. s, p, d, f;2. . .. - ;3. . Hund.. p 4 ;4. . f ;. , ; :1. Pauli, 2 ............................................................................................. -, ............................... .2. p ............................... - ...............................3. n = ..............................., ..............................., ............................... ...............................4. ..............................., , ............................... ............................... .5. , - ............................... ..............................., ...............................6. ..............................., - ..............................., ............................... spin. - 7 , ............................... ...............................52. - 2 7. , L, M, N:. ..............................., ..............................., .............................................................. .. ..............................., ..............................., .............................................................. .. ..............................., ..............................., .............................................................. .8. 8 :. ................................ ................................ ................................ 8 ............................... - spin ............................... - : () ();1. 3s. ()2. 2s 1s. ()3. 4d 3d. ()4. - Hund. ()5. 3p 2p. ()6. 3d . ()7. 9F 5 . ()8. 3p 4s . ()9. 4Be :()10. . ()11. , . ()12. , : s < p < d < f. ()13. = 2, 2 . ()53. 14. Hund, ms . ()15. . () :1. :. . Pauli. Hund . .2. O 3d :. 3 . 5 . 6 . 103. O L :. 2 . 8 . 4 . 184. 3d 4p :. n + l 3d. . d p. n + l , 3d.5. :. 3p . 3d . 4s . 3s6. - : 1. n = 3,= 2 2. n =2,= 1, m

= -1 3. n = 3,= 3 :. 18, 4 18 . 10, 2 0 . 10, 6 14 . 10, 2 14.7. (21Sc):. 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 2d10, 3s1. 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 3d3. 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 3d1, 4s2. 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 3d2, 4s18. , 7 s :. 7 . 13 . 19 . 299. 2 2p , :. 8 . 6 8 . 6 . 1354. - 2 10. 1s2, 2p2x, 2p1y, :. Pauli . . . Hund.11. 9F , spin :. +1/2 . -1/2 . 1 . 3/212. 26Fe 26Fe2+, :. 4s . 3d . 3p . 5f13. 12g2+ :. 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2. 1s2, 2s2, 2p6. 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p2. 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s114. 15P :. 3s2, 3p2x, 3p1y. 3s2, 3p1x, 3p2y. 3s1, 3p1x, 3p1y,3p1z. 3s2, 3p1x, 3p1y,3p1z15. 8O :1. Hund:. . . . 2. :. , . , . . 3. Pauli:. . . . 16. 14Si:1. p :. 2 . 4 . 6 . 82. s :. 2 . 4 . 6 . 83. spin :. 0 . +1/2 . 1 . +3/255. 1. , ( ): 1. 2s 2. 3px 3. 3p 4. 5f 5. 6. . 6 . 18 . 2 . 14 2. ( ) ( )::3. : 1. 82. 11a3. 35Br4. 25Mn . 1 . 2 . 5 4. ( ): 1. 72. 10Ne3. 15P4. 19K . 0 . 1 . 3 . 4 1. 19: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 3d12. 19: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p63. 19: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s14. 19: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p7 . . . . 56. - 2 5. - ' ( ), ( ) . . L. s. p. . d 1. 12. 23. 34. 45. 5 . 1. 3. 4. 5. 957. - 1. s, p, d, f, :. . . .(. . s = p = d = f . s < p < d < f)2. - , :. n = 5,= 1 . n = 3,= 0 . n = 4,= 3. n = 5,= 2, m

= 3 . n = 2, ms = +1/2 . n = 3, m

= 1(. . 6 . 2 . 14 . 0 . 4 . 4)3. , , , :. 6C . 12Mg . 17Cl . 20Ca. 35Br . 20Ca2+. 13Al3+. 15P34. - :. 3 p . , 7 p . 4 . ms 5/2(. . 7 . 13 . 24 . 25)5. 35 1 - .. , - .. = 0;. spin ;(. . 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p5 . 6 . +1/2)6. 19 ;(. 4, 0, 0, +1/2)7. , spin ;(. 20)8. X2 (2), L(8), M(8).. .58. - 2 . , n = 4 spin 1.. .. , :1. , .2. = 1 .3. 2+.(. . 22, 28, 32, 34. 1. 0 2. 12 3. 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 3d2). = 1;. - ms = -1/2;(. . 16 . 10 . 2)9. L spin - ;(. 4, 10)10. , (5, 0, 0, +1/2).. ;. n = 4;. = 2;(. . 37 . 8 . 10)11. 1s2, 2s2, 2p1, 3s1, 3p1. - . , , , .(. 1s2, 2s2, 2p3)12. 2 d .. ;. ;. s ;(. . 23 . 3 . 8)59. - 3o oo oo. : Moseley, ( ) . - , ( ) . 7 , 18 , . . , . , ( ). . : ( , ) .. s, p, d, f. 4 , s, p, d, f. s: , - nsx x = 1, 2.O s : (Li, a, K, ...) (e, Mg, Ca, ...). , - 1+ 2+ . :60. - 3 : s1s2 : IA IIA : 1 2:. ns1 ns2.. s , , . p: , ns2 npx. , , , , x = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. , , , -. 6 : : p1p2p3p4p5p6 : IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA VIIIA : 13 14 15 16 17 18:. He 1s2, s, p.. . s, p - ( ) . d: 3 12 (IB VIIIB), d ., ... (n - 1)dx ns2, x = 1, ..., 10 - 4 7 . ( ) s p.: x = 5 10, (n - 1)d5 10 ns1 ns2.61. - . 10 : : d1d2d3d4d5d6d7d8d9d10 : IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIIIB IB IIB : 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 f: f . ( ) f - , :(n - 2)fx ns2, x = 1, 2, ..., 14 28 , 14, 6 7 . (La), , (Ac) 6 7 . .:. f 3 B - .. 58 71, 90 103. d, f .:. 11a : 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s1 (2), L(8), M(1). : 3 : ( n = 3 - .) s : ( s .) s1 1 : ( : ... ns1.). 9F : 1s2, 2s2, 2p5 (2), L(7). : 2 : ( n = 2 - .) p : ( p .) p5 VI 17 : ( : ... np5.). 21Sc : 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 3d1, 4s2 (2), L(8), M(9), N(2).62. - 3 : 4 : ( n = 4 - .) d : ( d , , - 3d 4s.) d1 IIIV 3 : ( :... (n - 1)d1 ns2.) :[ ] - . .: Na : 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s1 [e]3s1. Br : 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 3d10, 4s2, 4p5 [Ar]4s2, 4p5.63. - : d - . , , (n - 1)d , ns . - d . . 1 : 4 . 3d -, 4s . 2 : 5 . 4d -, 5s . 3 : 6 . 5d -, 6s . :1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. . . .: 24Cr 29Cu , s d . 24Cr: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 3d5, 4s1 29Cu: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 3d10, 4s1 : ( ). , . . :. . . 64. - 3 : . : - , . - : . (), - . - . . , , - , - .65. - . , - , d, .: :. - . , . ..11a > 11Na+. . , ...17Cl < 17Cl. ...82 > 9F (Ei): , Ei1.: (g) +(g) + e, Ei1 = 1 > 0 , . KJ mol1. - . (Ei2) +(g).: +(g) 2+(g) + e, Ei2 = 2 > 0 ,66. - 3 , 1 < 2. :. : , .. :, .. : - , , -. . - . : - . 67. - . . , . (ea): - .: (g) + e (g) , ea = < 0 , : ea < 0. , : ea > 0.: :(g) + e 2(g) , > 0 . KJ mol1. - . . . , - . , -, :68. - 3 - : - 1/4 , . (3/4) , . , - .:. , .. , , .: 3 . 3 : 11a, 12Mg, 13Al, 14Si, 15P, 16S, 17Cl. , a Cl, :. . . .. . . .. . : a2O, MgO, Al2O3, SiO2, P2O5, SO3, Cl2O7 :a2O, MgO: . , Na, Mg - .69. - , , 20 :. , .Al2O3: . .. , .SiO2, P2O5, SO3, Cl2O7: . .. , .70. - 3 1 :, .. - .. - . : s nsx. p ns2npx. d ...(n - 1)dx ns2. f ...(n - 2)fx ns2.. : s, p, -, . d, , - (n - 1)dx ns2. f 3 .. 1: , ;. 12Mg . 36Kr . 40r . 59Pr:. Mg : 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2 [e]3s2. : n = 3. g 3 . 3s , Mg s. H 3s2, Mg IIA 2 .. r : 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 3d10, 4s2, 4p6. : n = 4. Kr 4 . 4p , Kr p. H 4s2, 4p6, Kr VIIIA 18 .. r : 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 3d10, 4s2, 4p6, 4d2, 5s2, [r]4d2, 5s2. :71. - 2: . 3Li, 6C, 11Na . 17Cl, 17Cl. 7N3, 9F:. :3Li: 1s2, 2s1: 1 , 2 6C: 1s2, 2s2, 2p2: 14 , 2 11Na: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s1: 1 , 3 2 :. , : . . . , . . : , . , .. : . . - . n = 5. Zr 5 . 4d , Zr d. O 4d 5s , Zr 4 VB .. Pr : 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 3d10, 4s2, 4p6, 4d10, 5s2, 5p6, 4f3, 6s2 [Xe]4f3, 6s2. : n = 6. Pr 6 . 4f , Pr f. To Pr, f, 3 V .72. - 3 3 - : : . .. : , . , . : , . , .. : , - , ., - . Li C . Li C ( C). Li a . a ( - Li). , : C < Li < Na. :17Cl: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p5 (2), L(8), M(7)17Cl: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6 (2), L(8), M(8) . Cl -, Cl. , 17Cl < 17Cl. :73: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6 (2), L(8)9F: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6 (2), L(8) . F , - . , 9F < 7373. - 3:. 11a, 20Ca;. 11a 20Ca .. 11a 20Ca .: :11Na: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s1 (2), L(8), M(1)20Ca: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s2 (2), L(8), M(8), (2). . : a 3s . Ca 1 2 4s .. Ca Na, . Ca , , a. Ca Na.. Ca Na, . , Ca Na.74. - 3 . 1. .: 1 1s , 2 . , 2 . 2 2s, 2p , 2 + 6 = 8. , 8 . 3 3s, 3p , 2 + 6 = 8. , 8 . 4 4s, 3d, 4p , 2 + 10 + 6 = 18 . , 18 . 5 5s, 4d, 5p , 2 + 10 + 6 = 18 . , 18 . 6 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p , 2 + 14 + 10 +6 = 32 . , 32 . 7 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p , 2 + 14 + 10 +6 = 32 . , 32 .H 32 7 , .2. :. 3 . 2 . 1 15 . 1 d1 :. s ns2 n > 1, n = 1 . , 4s2. , 3 :1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s2 [r]4s2..p ns2np5 n > 1, n = 1 p . , 2 3s2,3p5. , 2 :1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p5 [e]3s2, 3p5.. 15 V p ns2np3 n > 1, n = 1 p . , 1 15 :1s2, 2s2, 2p3 [e]2s2, 2p375. - . d1 : ...(n - 1)d1 ns2 n > 3, n < 3 n - 1 < 2, d. , 1 d1 , n = 4 :1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 3d1, 4s2 [Ar]3d1, 4s2.3. N :. 15P .. 36r.:. 15P . : 15P: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p3. n = 3. P 3 . 3s2, 3p3, P VA 15 . P 4 VA 15 . , 4s2, 4p3. :1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 3d10, 4s2, 4p3O = 33. r : 36r: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 3d10, 4s2, 4p6.To Kr - : 4s1. : 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s1 = 19.4. , , , .. , , .. , , , , .:. , , 3 , , , 4 3 . 3 s, p. , , s - 1 2 , p 13 14 .76. - 3 . 3s1. , : 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s1.To 11 , 11 , = 11. 3s2. , : 1s2, 2s2, 3p6, 3s2.To 12 , 12 , = 12. 3s2, 3p1. , : 1s2, 2s2, 3p6, 3s2, 3p1.To 13 , 13 , = 13. 3s2, 3p2. , : 1s2, 2s2, 3p6, 3s2, 3p2.To 14 , 14 , = 14. 14 ns2, np2 n > 1, n = 1 p . n = 2, 1s2, 2s2, 2p2, = 6. : n = 4, = 32 n = 5, Z = 50 n = 6, Z = 82To 7 14 , .5. : 3 s . , spin .. (Z) ;. ( ) 2, Cl NaOH.:. 3 s. , : 3sx. spin , 3s - , 2 . : 1s2, 2s2, 3p6, 3s2.To 12 , 12 . : = 12.. 2 , , 2 . . 2 : + 2 ()2 Cl : + 2Cl ACl2 + H2OTo AO aOH .77. - 6. : 3Li, 4Be. N :. .. .: : 3Li: 1s2, 2s1 4Be: 1s2, 2s2., Li 1 2 . e 2 2 .. 2 , Be . Ei1 , Be . , Ei1e > Ei1LiO :Li(g)(1s2, 2s1) Li(g)+ (1s2) + eBe(g)(1s2, 2s2) Be(g)+ (1s2, 2s1) + e. O :Li(g)+ (1s2) Li(g)2+ (1s1) + eBe(g)+(1s2, 2s1) Be(g)2+ (1s2) + e : Ei2e < Ei2Li. :1. Li+ Be+ L. Li+ .2. Li , , .3. Li+ , Be+ . - , .7. , : Ei1 = 590J/mol, Ei2 = 1144 KJ/mol, Ei3 = 4905 KJ/mol Ei4 = 6460 KJ/mol. ;: . , -. , 2 . , 2 .8. : 10, 17, 19, 23 59.. .. .78. - 3 . . .. f.: , , , :10: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6 p, 2 , 18 .17: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p5 p, 3 , 17 .19: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s1 s, 4 , 1 .23: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6,3d3, 4s2 d, 4 , 5 .59E: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 3d10, 4s2,4p6, 4d10, 5s2, 5p6, 4f3, 6s2 f, 6 , 3 .. , 1 (). , .. , d., .. 18 VIIIA . - .. 17 (). , - .. f .79. - . :1. seley.2. T ;3. ;4. ;5. s ;6. p ;7. . d ;. ;8. . f ;. ;9. . ;. - ;10. . ;. ;. ;. ;11. ; :1. O s ............................... . .............................................................................................s............................... , .2. ns2, npx, ............................... . 18 -...............................,.............................................................. ............................... - ..............................., ............................... ...............................3. d .............................................................. 80. - 3 d , .4. f ............................... , ............................... . f ............................... ..............................., ............................... ...............................5. , ............................... ,............................... ...............................6. :............................................................... . ............................................................... ..............................................................7. ............................... - , ............................... ............................... . ............................... ...............................8. : - : () ();1. s nsx. ()2. ns1 . ()3. p p . ()4. ns2, np6. ()5. O p . ()6. p . ()81. - 7. d ndx. ()8. s, p . ()9. , (n - 1)d , ns . ()10. 1 3d . ()11. 24Cr d 6 . ()12. ...3d24s2 . ()13. 14 - spin, . ()14. f - f. ()15. f 3 . ()16. 19 20Ca . ()17. 17Cl 35Br . ()18. , . ()19. - . ()20. , . ()21. , - . ()22. 19 3Li. ()23. 12g 11a. ()24. H , - . ()25. , , . ()26. , , - . ()82. - 3 :1. 14Si :. 3 VB .. 2 14 .. 3 14 .. 3 4 .2. 1 :. 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 3. s :. 8 . 13 . 2 . 14 4. p :. 6 . 7 . 10 . 12 5. :. s . p . s, d . s, p6. T ns2, np5 :. . . . 7. :. 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 8. d :. 20Ca . 21Sc . 39Y . 48Cd9. , :. 12g . 26Fe . 33As . 37Rb10. A 19, 22i, 29Cu 33As, :. i, Cu, As . Cu, As . Ti, Cu . 11. f :. 3 . . 5 . 12. , e, :. 6 . 7 . 8 . 18 13. [Ar]4s2, :. . . . 14. ;. 37Rb, 55Cs, 19K . 7N, 8O, 9F . Al3+, Al2+, Al+. 20Ca, 12Mg, 4Be15. To 3 :. . . . 16. , :. . . . 83. - 1. ( ): 1. 6C2. 21Sc3. 37Rb4. 57La . s. p. d. f2. ( ): 1. 9F2. 11Na3. 25Mn4. 33As5. 36Kr . 1 IA. 7 VIIB. 15 VA. 17 VIIA. 18 VIIIA:3. - , : 1. 12Mg2. 17Cl3. 24Cr4. 37Rb . E . . . 4. , : 1. ()2. r ( )3. r ( d)4. Ga ( 13 )5. Ra ( 2 ) . [Rh]7s2. 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s1. [Kr]4d2, 5s2. 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6. [Ar]3d10, 4s2, 4p184. - 3 - 1. , :. 12g . 18Ar . 26Fe . 33As . 37Rb(. . 3 ., 2 . . 3 ., 18 . . 4 ., 8 . . 4 ., 15 . . 5 ., 1 .)2. :. 6C . 35r . 20Ca . 22X. , , .3. :. 3 .. 3 .. 4 .(. . 18 . 20 . 19)4. 1 2 1 2 (2 > 1) 1 .. 1 2.. 3 3 = 2 + 16 2, 1, 2 3 1, 2 3.(. . 18 ., 1 . . 1 = 2, 2 = 3, 3 = 19)5., spin 1.. .. - .(. . = 6 . 1s2, 2s2, 2p6)6. 2 , 13 18 -; 3 .(. 2, 3, 8, ns2, ns2np1, ns2np6, Z = 12, Z = 13, Z = 18)7. . 12g : 1 = 738 J/mol, 2 = 1450J/mol 3 = 7730J/mol. .. 1 1 1 ;(. . To Mg . )85. - 8. . , , - :3 s 4 p 5 d.. , , . .(. . A = 3, ZB = 8, Z = 24 . : 1 ., 2 ., s .: 16 ., 2 ., p .: 6 , 4 ., d .. 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p4, = 16)9. ;. Na2O . CO2. Cl2O7. P2O5 a: 11, C: 6, Cl: 17, P: 15.(. . . . . )10. ( ) :. 26Fe2+, 26Fe3+. 9F, 9F. 19K+, 20Ca2+. 16S2, 17Cl(. . 26Fe2+ > 26Fe3+ . 9F < 9F . 19K+> 20Ca2+. 16S2 > 17Cl)11. : 19K, 11Na, 12Mg, :. . . (. . 19 . 12g . 12g)12. A: [Ar]4s2B: [Ar]3d10, 4s2, 4p5. , , ;. , , ;. , ;. , ;(. . A: , : . : 2 ., 4 . s .: 17 ., 4 ., p . . . )13. 1, 2, 3, 4 5 13, 5, 2, 6 14 n 3.. 1, 2, 3, 4 5.. . . .. , . ;(. . 1: 24, 2: 15, 3: 12, 4: 16, 5: 26. 1: 4 ., 6 ., 2: 3 ., 15 ., 3: 3 .,2 ., 4: 3 ., 16 ., 5: 4 ., 8 . . : 1, 3, 5,: 2, 4)86. - 3 . X 15 Ei1 .. X.. X .. : X, 9F, 11Na, 37Rb.. X ;. 1. 3.2. 3;. = x + 15, :1. .. .2. .(. . = 7 . (2, 0, 0, 1/2), (2, 1, 1, +1/2), (2, 1, 0, +1/2), (2, 1, -1, +1/2). F < X< Na < Rb . . 1. 1s2, 2s2, 2p62. Ne. 1. 4 ., 4 .2. , )113. - - - - 5o oo oo. : , ( ). . , . , . : () - . , , , . - , . . , , . .114. - 5 : NaCl: aCl(s) Na+(aq) + Cl(aq) , : T [M(OH)x] T [ (Mx) ..RCOONa]: , -, , , . aCl :aCl(s) 2HO Na+(H2O)x+Cl(H2O) : . , , - , - . : (.. ) . ( ) ( ). : .:O Cl: Cl + H2O H3O+ + Cl Cl . Cl + 2 ( 3+). : . .115. - - - : 3: 3 + 2+4 + 3 + , 4+. -. 3 . , : [3 RNH2] [ (x) (RCOOH)] - rrhenius: Arrhenius: +. . : + + . - Brnsted - Lowry: Brnsted - Lowry Arrhenius . +. :. : (+).. : (+).. .: 3: 3 + 24+ + : 2: + 3: + . : 4+: +. : + 4+.: Arrhenius .116. - 5 . . + , - : -. . + , : + + . + .: 2 +. 2S S2 , 2+. : , +, , -+ .: Cl F : Cl F. , , , : . - +, .: : Cl + HCO3CO32+HCl , HCO3 Cl Cl CO32.117. - - - : + + , .: 2 , :3 + 24+ + (1) C + 2 CN +H3O+ (2) (1) 2 (+) 3. (2) 2 (+) CN.Cl H2SO4 HNO3 H3O+ HSO4 H3PO4 CH3COOH H2CO3 H2S H2PO4 NH4+ HCO3 HPO42 H2OCl HSO4 NO3 H2O SO42 H2PO4 CH3COO HCO3 HS HPO42 NH3 CO32 PO43 OH . Cl Cl ( Cl), 2 ( ), .: Brnsted - Lowry :. ... CN, NH4+.... .. Cl, CN , S2 ... 4+ , 3+... ...SHCO3 .... E , , ... CH3COOH , H2SO4 . Brnsted - Lowry, :1 + 22 + 1118. - 5 - :. : , -, - . : , : (, a, Ca(OH)2, ...) T (aCl, KCl, RCOONa, ...) M . : Cl, HBr, HI, HNO3, HClO4, 2SO4 (1 ). . , (H3O+). , .:. : + + Ca(OH)2 Ca2+ + 2OHAl(OH)3 Al3+ + 3OH. :NH4Cl NH4+ + ClNaCl Na+ + ClRCOONa RCOO + Na+. :HBr + H2O H3O+ + BrHNO3 + H2O H3O+ + NO3HClO4 + H2O H3O+ + ClO4. : , , . -, , 2. : : 3,RNH2 () : CN,HF, ( ) O : RCOOH, .. CH3COOH , - .119. - - - :. : : + H2O+ + 3 + H2O4+ + F + H2OF + : : RNH2 + H2ORNH3+ + OH-CH3NH2 + H2OCH3NH3+ + OH-. : : + H2O + 3+HCN + H2OCN + H3O+HClO + H2OCl + H3O+ : : RCOOH + H2ORCOO + 3+HCOOH + H2OH3O+ + HCOOCH3COOH + H2OH3O+ + CH3COO: ( )... C5H4N4O3 : + H2O + 3+ : C5H3N4O3 : 2 , 2.:. 2S: 2 :2S + H2OHS + H3O+ HS + H2OS2 + H3O+ . 2SO4: To 2SO4 :2SO4 + H2OHSO4 + H3O+ , HS4 + H2OS42 + H3O+ , : 3 ... 3PO4: 3PO4 + H2O2PO4 + H3O+ 2PO4 + H2OPO42 + H3O+ PO42 + H2OPO43 + H3O+ 120. - 5 : . , - , ., - . : , . a ( ) b ( ).:H a Kb . : mol mol (). , : n c= =n c , :0 < < 1 : :. .. : ..: CH3COOH 3, .. : - , .: ( = 1), .121. - - - . C : , .. : - ... CN CN, CN.: Ostwald, - .: . , , : , . . . , .: 0,1 , = 0,1 0,1 , = 0,2. , .: , > ., .122. - 5 1 : , Cl, HBr, HI, HNO3, HClO4 H2SO4 . mol , :mn =Mr .Vn =Vm S.T.P. : c = n/V, . L. -. , . , .. 1: - :. 4,48 L Cl S.T.P., 400 mL 2.. 18,5 gr Ca(OH)2 500 mL H2O.: Ca: 40, O: 16, H: 1 2.:. mol Cl : HClV 4, 48LVm 22, 4L/ mol= =HCln = 0, 2mol L 0,4 L Cl:HCln 0, 2molV 0, 4L= = c = 0, 5M HCl , :123. - - - , : [3+] = 0,5 , [Cl] = 0,5 M.. Ca(OH)2 :rCa(OH)2 = ArCa + 2ArO + 2ArH = 40 + 2 16 + 2 1 = 74 mol Ca(OH)2 : 22Ca(OH)Ca(OH)m18, 5gMr 74g / mol= =2Ca(OH)n = 0, 25mol L 0,5 L Ca(OH)2:2Ca(OH)n0, 25molV 0, 5L= = c = 0, 5M Ca(OH)2 , :, : [Ca2+] = 0,5 , [OH] = 1 M. 2 : mol , :mn =Mr .Vn =Vm S.T.P. : c = n/V, . L. . - , . , c., = c. / c., - . 1:8,96 L 3 S.T.P. 0,8 L .. , 3 = 0,2.124. - 5 . 4+ 0,05 , 3;: mol 3 : 3NHV8, 96LVm 22, 4L/ mol= =3NHn = 0, 4mol : 3NHn0, 4molV 0, 8L= = c = 0, 5M 3 c, 0,5 , - :. = 0,2 :[4+] = 0,5 = 0,2 0,5 = 0,1 [] = 0,5 = 0,2 0,5 = 0,1 . 4+ 0,5 , [4+] = 0,05 .: 0,05 = 0,5 = 0,05/0,5 = 0,1: (% w/v % w/w) -. (c).. % w/v : x % w/v, : 100 mL x g 0,1 L xMrmol ., : x / Mrc0,1= xc = M0,1Mr. % w/w : x % w/w g/mL, : 100 g x g 110 L xMrmol ., : x / Mrc1/10= x10c = MMr125. - - - . 1. , , :. NH3. KOH . Na2SO4. HCN . HCOOH . CH3COONa:. H NH3 , . Brnsted - Lowry, : 3 + 2+4 + . , . - : + + . a2SO4 , . : a2SO4 2Na+ + SO42. To HC , . Brnsted - Lowry, : CN + 2CN + 3O+. To HC , . Brnsted - Lowry, :C + 2C + 3O+. To C3CNa , . - :C3CNa CH3C + Na+2.N :: , . :126. - 5 3. :1. ClO + H2OClO + H3O+2. H2S + CO32HCO3 + HS3. CN + H2OHCN + OH4. HCl + S2Cl + HS5. CH3COOH + NH3CH3COO + NH4+. .. , ;:. T - 1 . :. . , , : 2 1 , 3 . S 2 , 4 .4. N :. 7% w/v.. 15% w/w, 1,25 g/mL, = 0,2. : A = 70, = 75.:. . 7% w/v. , 100 mL 7 g . n = m/Mr :HAHAHAm 7gn 0,1molMr 70g / mol= = =, 0,1 L (100 mL) 0,1 mol HA. :HAn 0,1molV 0,1L= = c = 1M127. - - - , :: [3+] = 1. . 15% w/w. , 100 g 15 g B. n = m/Mr :HBHBHBm 15gn 0, 2molMr 75g / mol= = = = m/V 100 g :m 100gV 80mL 1, 25g / mL= = =, 0,08 L (80 mL) 0,2 mol H. :HBn 0, 2molV 0, 08L= = c = 2, 5M c, 0,2 2,5 = 0,5 , :: [3+] = 0,55. , CN, HSO4 H2S .. CN + H2SCN + HS. SO4 + HSH2S + SO42:H . 2S CN.H . SO4 H2S. : CN < H2S < HSO4.128. - 5 . :1. . ;. NaCl H2O, - .2. . ;. NH3 Cl, H2O, .3. . , Brnsted - Lowry;. F 2 - .4. . ;. .5. . ;. 2 .6. . ;. 3 2;7. . ;. ;8. . ;. -, ; :1............................................................... ............................... - ..............................................................2. ............................... ............................... .3. Brnsted - Lowry ..............................., ............................... - ...............................4................................ ...............................129. - - - 5. , ............................... ..............................., ............................... ...............................6. : 1 + 22 + 1, .............................................................. ..............................................................7. 3 + HCl NH4Cl, ..................................................... ................................. , .................................. .8. CH3COOH+H2OCH3COO+H3O+ CH3COOH ..............................., ............................... ............................... - ...................................................... .9. , :. HCO3 + H2OH3O+ + CO32. CO32 + H2OHCO3- + OH. 2CO3 + H2OHCO3 + 3+ ............................... , ............................... ............................... 2 ............................... .............................................................. , ............................... .10. ............................... mol mol ............................... ().11. ............................... ..............................., =...............................12. , , :. ................................ ............................... ................................ ............................... , ............................... .13. HCl + H2OH3O+ + Cl HCl .............................................................. Cl .............................................................., .............................................................. 3O+ ..............................................................,..............................................................130. - 5 - : () ();1. . ()2. . ()3. , CH3COOH , CH3COONa . ()4. Arrhenius . ()5. Brnsted - Lowry . ()6. - Brnsted - Lowry, . ()7. Cl Brnsted - Lowry. ()8. , Brnsted - Lowry . ()9. CO32 2CO3. ()10. 3 4+. ()11. , . ()12. , , . ()13. . ()14. . ()15. . ()16. , 0,2 0,01, - . () :1. :. .. .. .. .2. :. .. .. .. .131. - - - 3. :. .. .. , .. , .4. Brnsted - Lowry :. .. .. .. .5. SO4 :. 2SO4. SO42. HS. H2S6. 2 :. 3+. . +. 27. :. .. .. .. .8. :. .. 1 . 1.. 1.9. , :. , .. .. .. .10. , :. CN . HSO4. NaOH . Cl11. , :. .. .. , .. .132. - 5 2. ( ) , Brnsted - Lowry: 1. CN2. NH4+3. S24. HCl5. H2S6. CO327. H3O+8. OH9. Cl . . 3. : 1. Cl2. CH3COOH3. HPO424. HCO35. H2S6. H3O+7. H2SO48. H2CO39. H2O10. H3PO4 . CO32. OH. Cl. HSO4. PO43. CH3COO. HCO3. HS. H2O. H2PO4:1. : 1. 32. 33. a2O4. HF5. HCOOH . Io . 133. - - - - 1. g Al(OH)3 2, 600 mL, [] = 0,05 . : l = 27, O = 16, H = 1.(. 0,78 g)2. 4,48 L HCl S.T.P. 2 800 mL . .(. [H3O+] = 0,25 M, [Cl] = 0,25 M)3. ClO4 4,02% w/v. . : = 1, Cl = 35,5, O = 16.(. 0,4 M)4. 33,6 L 3 S.T.P. 2 , 0,2 , 3 0,4. .(. 3 L)5. 8 g 2 400 mL [3+] = 0,1 = 0,2. .(. 40)6. 3 :. 3 12,6% w/v [3+] = 2 .. CH3COOH 0,4 [3+] = 0,08 .. CN 5,4% w/v [3+] = 0,01 .N . : = 1, = 14, = 16, C = 12.(. . 1 . 0,2 . 0,005)7. - ( 115), - :. Cl + HSCl + H2S . HSO4 + NH3NH4+ + SO42. HCO3 + NH4+H2CO3 + NH3(A. . . . )134. - 5 . 3 : Cl 0,73% w/v [3+] = 0,2 . CH3COOH 1,2% w/v [3+] = 0,04 . CN 0,45% w/w, 1,2 g/mL [3+] = 0,01 .. , .. CH3COO + HCNCH3COOH + CN : = 1, Cl = 35,5, C = 12, O = 16, N = 14.(. . CN < CH3COOH < HCl . )135. - pH - - - pH - 6o oo oo. : () (3+). , - :2 + 23+ + , . (Kw):H :3c22[H O][OH]K[HO]+ = , , w :w = [H3O+][OH]H Kw M2, . w - Kc: 2 + 23+ + , c :3c22[H O][OH]K[HO]+ = , 1 L 1000g, = 1 g/mL, - 55,5 , :136. - 6 [3+], [] w , .: w = [H3O+][OH] .22 2HOHO HO2m1000gn Mr18g / mol[HO] 55, 5MV V 1L= = = =, c [H2O]2 = . w, :c [H2O]2 = w = [H3O+][OH] w . , - , - , w . 25 oC : w = [H3O+][OH] = 1014 [3+] []:. , 25 C: w = 1014, : [H3O+][OH] = 1014 [H3O+] = [OH], : [H3O+] = [OH] = 107:, , :[H3O+] = [OH]. , 25 C: w = 1014, : [H3O+][OH] = 1014137. - pH - - :, , :[H3O+] > [OH]. , 25 C: w = 1014, : [H3O+][OH] = 1014 [OH] [H3O+] OH . , [H3O+][OH] 1014 :[OH] > 107 > [H3O+]:, , :[OH] > [H3O+] pH : - 3+ - . , pH Srensen 1909. pH ( - ) . pH - H3O+ .pH = log[H3O+]A pH pOH ( - ):pH = log[OH]: : pX = -logX.. pKw = -logKwpKa = -logKapKb = -logKb [H3O+] [OH] H3O+ . , [H3O+][OH] 1014 :[H3O+] > 107 > [OH] [H3O+][OH] = w :pH + pOH = pKwH . 25 oC, w = 1014, : pH + pOH = 14138. - 6 : [3+] = 106 . w = 1013,. pH, pOH .. .. 25 C;:. pH = log[3+] = log106 = 6pKw = logKw = log1013 = 13: pH + pOH = pKw: 6 + pOH = 13 pOH = 13 - 6 = 7. pH = log[] [] = 10pOH = 107 M [3+] > [], .. Kw w 25 C (1013 > 1014). w , 25 C. pH pOH:. , 25 C: pH + pOH = 14, : [H3O+] = [OH] = 107, : pH = pOH = 7. , 25 C: pH + pOH = 14, : [H3O+] > 107> [OH], : pH < 7 < pOH. , 25 C: pH + pOH = 14, : [OH] > 107> [H3O+], : pH < 7 < pH 25 C, : pH = pKw/2 pH < pKw/2 pH > pKw/2139. - pH - - 1 pH : , 5. , , . , . , [3+] : pH = log[H3O+], pH . , [] : pH = log[], pH -. , : pH + pOH = pKw, pH. , [3+] [], pH. pH , pOH , - 3+ : [3+] = 10pH[] = 10pOH 3+ 106 , - , pH.. 1: r 25 C 0,081% w/v.. N pH pOH .. ; : = 1, Br = 80 w = 1014.:. : 0,081% w/v, 100 mL (0,1 L) 0,081 g HBr.MrHBr = ArH + ArBr = 1 + 80 = 81T mol r 0,1 L : 3 HBrHBrHBrm 0, 081gn 10 molMr 81g / mol= = =140. - 6 : 3+ Br, pH. : 3HBrn 10 molV 0,1L= =2c = 10 M r , :pH = -log[H3O+] = -log 102 = 2. :2 + 23+ + 2 : 2 mol . , : n1 = n2, : c1V1 = c2V2 . - : c1V1 = c2V2 : V2 = V1 - VH2OK , pH , , pH , . K , pH , , pH , . , pH 7, 25 C, .141. - pH - - 2: mL 2 V1 = 500 mL o c1 = 0,1 , pH 2 ;: pH , . , : pH : pH1 = -log[H3O+]1 = -log0,1 = 1 , pH . : pH2 = pH1 + 2 = 1 + 2 = 3 c2 , : pH : pH2 = -log[H3O+]2 pH2 = -logc2 c2 = 10pH2 = 102 M : 1 11 1 2 2 232c V 0,1M0, 5Lc V cV V 50Lc10 M= = = =, V2 = V1 + VH2O VH2O = V2 -V1 = 50 L - 0,5 L = 49,5 L = 49500 mL 3 : , : n = n1 + n2, : cTVT = c1V1 + c2V2 - pH .142. - 6 3: pH = 2, pH = 4 pH = 3;: . , : pH : pH = -log[H3O+] pH = -logc c = 10pH 3 :1 : c1 = 10pH = 102 M2 : c2 = 10pH = 104 MT : c = 10pH = 103 M V1, V2 , :VT = V1 + V2 : c1V1 + c2V2 = cTVT , :2 4 31 2 1 2 1 2 1 210 V 10 V 10 (V V ) 10V 0,1V V V + = + + = + 11 22V 0, 99V 0, 9VV 9= = 12V 1=V 10, 1/10. 4 : mol (n) mol (n). mol : n = n + n. : c = n /V M , pH . , , - .143. - pH - - 4: 4 L NaOH 0,01 = 25 C, 0,36 mol NaOH, . N pH . w = 1014.: aOH , : pH : c = 0,01 M, [] = 0,01 pOH = -log[OH] = -log102 = 2 pH + pOH = pKw pH + pOH = 14 pH + 2 = 14 pH = 12 mol NaOH :nc n cV 0, 01M4L 0, 04molV= = = = mol aOH NaOH :no = n + n = 0,04mol + 0,36mol = 0,4 molH :n 0, 4molc 0,1MV 4L= = = c = 0,1 M, [] = 0,1 pOH = -log[OH] = -log101 = 1 pH + pOH = pKw pH + pOH = 14 pH + 1 = 14 pH = 13 pH : pH = pH pH = 13 -12 = 1:, -pH, .144. - 6 5 : , : + + mol . . . M , - , mol . pH, . , , n() = n() = 0 pH = 7. 5: 1 L (1) Cl c1 = 0,01 M, 500 mL (2) c2 = 0,01 M (3).. pH 1 2.. 3. w = 1014.:. 1 Cl , - :pH = log[H3O+] = log102 = 2 2 KOH , :pOH = log[OH] = log102 = 2145. - pH - - : pH + pOH = pKwpH + pOH = 14 pH + 2 = 14 pH = 12. HCl :HCl + KOH KCl + H2O : n = cV mol HCl , :nHCl = c1V1 = 0,01M 1L = 0,01 mol n = c2V2 = 0,01M 0,5L = 0,005 mol HCl . :, 0,005 mol HCl 0,005 mol KCl. : VT = V1 + V2 = 1L + 0,5L = 1,5 L Cl Cl :T(HCl)T(HCl)Tn0, 005mol 1c MV 1, 5L 300= = = T(KOH)T(KOH)Tn0, 005mol 1c MV 1, 5L 300= = = Cl , : KCl , :, :[Cl] = 1/300 M + 1/300 M = 1/150 M, [+] = 1/300 [3+] = 1/300 , , :2 + 23+ + :14 ww 33K 10K [HO][OH]1/ 300[H O]++= = = -12[OH] = 310 M146. - 6 . 1. N pH HCl 107 . : w = 1014 log1,62 = 0,2:To HCl , : [3+] HCl - 106 , pH : x w:w = [3+][OH] 3+ :[3+] = (107 + x) M[] = x , : 1014 = (107 + x) x x2 + 107x 1014 = 0 x = 0,62 107: [3+] = (107 + x) M = (107 + 0,62 107) = 1,62 107 pH = log[3+] = log(1,62 107) = 6,82. 400 mL (1) HCl c1 = 0,25 M, 0,6 L (2) Br c2 = 1,5 M 3. 3 :. pH . . w = 1014.:. mol HCl HBr:: , :107 + x 107, pH 7, , , 25 C, pH = 7.147. - pH - - nHCl = c1V1 = 0,25 M 0,4 L = 0,1 molnHBr = c2V2 = 1,5 M 0,6 L = 0,9 mol 3 : V3 = V1 + V2 = 0,4 L + 0,6 L = 1 L Cl HBr 3 :HCl3n 0,1mol = V 1L= [HCl] = 0,1MHBr3n 0, 9mol = V 1L= [HBr] = 0, 9M HCl Br , - : 3 : [3+] = 0,1 + 0,9 = 1 pH = log[3+] = log1 = 0. 3 :[3+] = 1 , [Cl] = 0,1 M [Br] = 0,9 M, , :2 + 23+ + :14 ww 33K 10K [HO][OH]1[HO]++= = = -14[OH] = 10 M3. 10 g Ca 500 mL H2O 500 mL. pH ;: Ca = 40 w = 1014.: mol Ca:CaCaCam 10gn 0, 25molAr 40g / mol= = =To Ca 2 Ca(OH)2, , :148. - 6 Ca(OH)2 :2Ca(OH)n0, 25molV 0, 5L= = c = 0, 5M Ca(OH)2 , :pOH = log[OH] = log1 = 0: pH + pOH = pKwpH + pOH = 14 pH + 0 = 14 pH = 144. 0,4 L 1 3 c1 = 0,2 M, 0,2 L 23 c2 = 0,5 M 3. 3 30 mL , 4 900 mL. pH 4.: 1 2 : c1V1 + c2V2 = c3V3. V3 = V1 + V2. :1 1 2 21 1 2 2 3 1 21 2c V cV 0, 2M0, 4L 0, 5M0, 2Lc V cV c(V V )V V 0, 4L 0, 2L+ + + = + = =+ +3c = 0, 3M 30 mL 3 :3 33 3 4 44c V 0, 3M0, 03Lc V cVV 0, 9L= = =24c = 10 MTo 3 , :pH = log[H3O+] = log102 = 2149. - pH - - . :1. w;2. w;3. [3+] [];. . . . . .4. pH pOH ;5. pH pOH , 25 oC;6. w = 0,5 1014. 25 oC; :1. ............................... - ............................... ............................... , 25 C ...............................2. 25 C [3+] = 102 , [] =..............................., pH = ..............................., pOH = ............................... ...............................3. , , [3+] ..... [], [3+] ..... [].4. HCl 1 pH = ..... pOH = ..... ,pH...............................pOH...............................5.pH, , [3+] , ...............................6. Kw ............................... , ..............................., ............................... ..............................., - Kw ...............................7.pHpOH............................... , 25 C, pH pOH ...............................8. ............................... pH, ............................... pH.150. - 6 - : () ();1. [3+][] 1014. ()2. c , w w = Kc 55,52. ()3. , Kw . ()4. , pH = 7. ()5. [3+] = []. ()6. pH pOH :pH pOH = pKw. ()7. 25 C, [3+] < 107 pH < 7. ()8. 0,1 , :. pH = 0,1. (). [H3O+] = 0,1 . (). [H3O+] =[] = 0,05 . (). [H3O+] > []. (). pH < 7, 25 C. ()9. ()2 0,5 , :. pH = 14. (). pH = log0,5 (). [OH] =2[M2+]. (). [H3O+] > []. ()10. Y Cl 108 , pH = 8. ()11. , - :. pH . (). pH . (). . (). . (). Kw . ()151. - pH - - :1. :. w = [H3O+][OH] . w = [H3O+] + [OH]. w = [H3O+] [OH] . w = [H3O+] / [OH]2. 25 C :. [] > [3+] . [] < [3+]. pH < 7 . pOH > 7(E 2000)3. :. [] > [3+] . [] < [3+]. pH < 7 . pOH > 74. Kw = 1013 pH = 6,5 :. . . . 5. :. pH = 7 . [OH] = 107. [] = [3+] . Kw = 10146. pH, pOH pKw :. pH + pOH = pKw. pH pOH = pKw. pH pOH = pKw. pKw + pOH = pH7. HCl pH = 2, :. 0,2 . 0,01 . 2 . 0,1 8. Ca(OH)2 0,05 , pH :. 1 . 8 . 13 . 09. pH = 4, . pH :. 6 . 3 . 8 . 410. 25 C pH = 6, [] :. 106 . 8 . 108 . 1 11. , Kw:. . . . 12. 100 mL HCl 0,1 100 mL Ca(OH)2 0,1 M, :. . . . 152. - 6 1. : 1. [3+][]2. log[H3O+]3. pH + pOH4. logKw . pKw. Kw. pH2. : 1. 2. 3. . [3+] > []. pH < pOH. pH > pOH. [3+] < []. pH = pOH. [3+] = []:3. , 25 C pH : 1. NaOH 1 M2. HI 0,1 M3. KCl 2 M4. Ca(OH)2 5 104 M5. HNO3 104 M . 7. 4. 14. 11. 14. ( ). - pH ( ): 1. 2. 3. 34. aOH . pH. pH153. - pH - - - 1. pH pOH :. 3 102 . 5,6% w/v . a(OH)2 8,55 g/L. HCl 0,03 M r 0,07 M =39, = 16, = 1, a = 137 w = 1014.(. . pH = 2, pOH = 12 . pH = 14, pOH = 0 . pH = 13, pOH = 1 . pH = 1, pOH = 13)2. 200 mL 4,48 L HCl S.T.P. . pH pOH 25 C.(. pH = 0, pOH = 14)3. pH 0,56 g KOH 100 mL . K = 39, H = 1, O = 16 w = 10-14(. pH = 13)4. a pH = 12 500 mL. g . a = 23, H = 1, O = 16 w = 10-14(. m = 0,2 g)5. Cl 3,65% w/v. pH . H = 1 , Cl= 35,5.(. pH = 0)6. 100 mL 0,224 L Br, S.T.P. . :. pH . . . w = 10-14.(. . pH = 1 . [r] = 0,1 M, [3+]= 0,1 , [OH] = 1013 M)7. pH NaOH, 25 C :. 101 . 108 log1,05 = 0,02. (. . pH = 13 . pH = 7,02)8. 25 oC, [OH] = 10[H3O+], pH .(A. pH = 7,5)9. 300 mL pH =2. :. . pH 2,7 L .(. . C1 = 0,01 M. pH = 1)10. L 8 L a pH =13 - pH 1 ;( . 72 L)11. 1 0,1 2 pH = 11. 1 2 3 pH = 12;(. V1 / V2 = 1 / 10)154. - 6 . 0,08 g a 200 mL .. pH .. 2 , pH mol OH .. mL B 1 100 mL pH = 13. mL 50 mL pH 1 ;. pH .. mL 0,2 ; pH . a = 23 , H = 1 , O = 16 w = 10-14.(A.. pH = 12 . 0,002 mol, pH = 12 . 10 mL . 450 mL . 10 mL, pH = 7)12. 100 mL (A) I0,1 M. 200 mL (B) a pH = 13. :. pH . . pH , 700 mL . w = 1014(. . pH = 1 . c = 0,1 M . pHT= 12, [ I ] = 0,01 M, [Na+] = 0,02 M,[H3O+] = 1012 M, [OH] = 0,01 M)13. Cl 0,73% w/v 200 mL. , :. 0,02 mol NaOH . 0,04 mol NaOH . 0,06 mol NaOH pH , 25 C; : = 1, Cl = 35,5.(A.. pH = 1 . pH = 7 . pH = 13)14. 3 6 103 M 3103 , [3+] = 103 , 25 C;(A. V1/V2 = 4/5)15. 400 mL 0,46 g Na 0,78 g K, .. pH ;. 4 L, pH ;. , 0,04 L, pH ;. 10,08 g CaO, pH ; a = 23, K = 39, Ca = 40, O = 16 Kw = 1014.(A.. pH = 13 . pH = 12 . pH = 14 . pH = 14)155. a - b - Ostwald a - Kb stwald7o oo oo. - a :. : + 2 +3+ : 3c2[H O][A]K[HO][HA]+ = [2] 55,5 ., c [H2O] . 3c 2[HO][A]K[HO][HA]+ = Ka.+ -3a[HO][A]K =[HA]H a mol/L, . a , . , , - , a . a: a , ., a, . a, . a , .156. - 7 , , a . b : : + 2+ + a, b, :+ -b[HB][OH]K =[B] b a. : . b. b , , - . , Kb .: : . = 1 -, . , a, Kb. Ostwald: Ostwald , - a Kb. Ostwald:cM . , , :157. a - b - Ostwald , :c c= c = cH :+ 2 23[H O][A] c c c =[HA] c(1 ) c(1 )= = 2acK =1- 2a cK =1- Ostwald. 101 a/c 102, 1 1 :a = 2c ( )O Ostwald , - :2b cK =1- b = 2c ( ): a b c x, . : 2 2a bx xK = K =c - x c - x 101 a/c 102, b/c 102, c - x c, :2 2a bx xK = K =c c a = 2c b = 2c Ostwald , :a b = =c c :. , . , Ka, Kb , .. c . , c. : - .158. - 7 - .:. COOH 0,1M a = 105 100 mL , -. ;. . - ;:. Ka/c: Ka/c = 105/101 = 104Ka/c < 102, :2 aaKK c c= = , . . , Ka . .. , - . , a . , a = x2/c b = x2/c, Ostwald x, :a bx = c x = c :. , . , Ka, Kb , x .. c . , c. : x .: cM, a.. .. pH . a/c 102:O :159. a - b - Ostwald. : 23a a[H O][A] xK K[HA] c x+ = = a/c 102, c x c Ostwald: a = x2/c : ax = c [3+] = a c . , Ka . [3+] = a c , Ka , pH . , c . [3+] = a c , c , pH . Ostwald:O Ostwald :. .. .. . a b : . : + 2 + 3+ : + -3a[HO][A]K =[HA] (1) : + 2 + : b[HA][OH]K =[](2) (1) (2) :a Kb = [H3O+][OH] a Kb = Kw160. - 7 . a Kb = Kw: Ka Kb , a , b .: , . : + + ., a, Kb.:. a 1014 ... (CH3OH), a = 3,2 1016, 25 C, .. b 1014 ... To (NO3), b = 3 1016, 25 C, . . : , . pH , ., , . , :. : . pH = 7 25 oC, pH ... Cl pH = 7 25 oC, + Cl , KOH Cl - .161. a - b - Ostwald. : , , (NaCN, KF, RCOONa) - . , pH , Brnsted - Lowry... CH3COONa pH > 7 25 oC. CH3COO, a+.CH3COONaCH3COO+Na+ a+ , NaOH, CH3COO CH3COOH .CH3COO+2CH3COO+ , .. : (43, RNH3Cl). , pH , Brnsted - Lowry... NH4Cl, pH < 7 25 oC. 4+, Cl.NH4ClNH4++Cl Cl , HCl, NH4+ 3 3+.NH4++23+3+ 3+ -, .. : - (RCOONH4, NH4CN, NH4F). , , a b, :. a > Kb [3+] > [], pH < 7, 25 C.. a = Kb [3+] = [], pH = 7, 25 C.. a < Kb [3+] < [], pH > 7, 25 C.162. - 7 1 : , 5. , . , x cM , . a b . -, Ostwald. , a/c < 102, . a/c > 102, - Ostwald, . a b , . pH pOH, :pH = log[H3O+] pOH = log[OH] pH + pOH = pKw. 1: 0,1 . :. .. pH pOH .: a = 105, w = 1014.: , :54 2 aK 1010 10c 0,1 = = < stwald, : 1 1, : a = 2c163. a - b - Ostwald. : 54 aK 1010c 0,1= =-2= = 10. [3+] = 0,1 = 102 0,1 = 103 pH = log[3+] = log103 = 3pH + pOH = pKw pH + pOH = 14 3 + pOH = 14 pOH = 11 2 , : , 6. , 1 . , Ka Kb - . , Ka Kb , :. - .. - .. c1 >c2, 1 < 2, - cT : c1 > cT >c2 1 < < 2. , , = 1. 2: 1 0,1 mol 100 mL. , 103 .. , 1.. pH 1.. 1 900 mL , 2 , pH. .: x M, :164. - 7 : , pH .. 1:HA11n 0,1molc 1M100VL1000= = = 1: [] = 103 , x = 103 O :3.. 1c x 10c c 1= = =31 = 10 1 = 103 < 101, c1 - x c1, :2 3 21x (10 )c 1= =6aK = 10. x = 103 M, [H3O+] = 103 M, : pH1 = log[3+] = log103 = 3. 2 V2 = V1 + V = 100mL + 900mL = 1000 mL = 1 L. 2 mol 1, :HA22n 0,1molc 0,1MV 1L= = = , a , 2: a = 106.65 2 a2K 1010 10c 0,1 = = < stwald, - : 1 2 1, : a = 22c2 : 65 a2K 1010c 0,1= =-2,52 = = 10H [3+] 2 : [3+] = 2 c2 = 102,5 0,1 M = 103,5 M, pH2 = log[3+] = log103,5 = 3,5 pH : pH = pH2 pH1 = 3,5 3 = 0,5165. a - b - Ostwald 3 , - : , 5. , - . 1 . , , . , :. : , , Brnsted - Lowry. , , , , .. CN, NaF, RCOONa.. : , , Brnsted - Lowry. , .. NH4NO3, RNH3Cl. , , . , : a Kb = Kw 3: 100 mL 0,68 g HCOONa.. pH .. . = 1, C = 12, O = 16, Na = 23, HCOOH Ka = 104 w = 1014.:rHCOONa = ArH + ArC + 2ArO + ArNa = 1 + 12 + 2 16 + 23 = 68HCOONaHCOONam 0, 68g,Mr 68g / mol= =HCOONan = 0 01molH :166. - 7 HCOONan 0, 01mol100VL1000= = c = 0,1M COONa : a+ , aOH. A, COO COOH.A x HCOO , COO :. Ka COOH, Kb COO : a Kb = Kw 104 b = 1014 Kb = 1014/ 104 Kb = 1010109 2 bK 1010 10c 0,1 = = < 0,1 x 0,1 :[HCOOH][OH] xxc x[HCOO]= =2bxK =c b = x2/c x, : 10 11bK c 10 0,1 10 = = =-5,5x = 10, [] = xM, : [] = 105,5 pOH = log[] = log105,5 = 5,5pH + pOH = pKw pH + 5,5 = 14 pH = 8,5. : a+ COONa, [a+] = 0,1 M OH COO, [] = 105,5 M COO , :[HCOO] = (0,1 105,5) M 0,1 3+ 2 [3+] = 10pH = 108,5 M .167. a - b - Ostwald 4 , - : - . .. RCOONH4, NH4CN, NH4F. , 5. , - . . , pH , . , a b. , :. a > Kb [3+] > [], pH < 7, 25 C.. a = Kb [3+] = [], pH = 7, 25 C.. a < Kb [3+] < [], pH > 7, 25 C. 4:. :CH3COOH(aq) + NH3(aq)CH3COO(aq) + NH4+(aq) .. CH3COONH4 , -, . . a(CH3COOH) = 105,Kb(NH3) = 105Kw = 1014.( 2003):. - . a 4+:: a(H4+) Kb(NH3) = w a(H4+) 105 = 1014 a(H4+) = 1014/105 a(H4+) = 109 a(H4+) < a(CH3COOH) , 4+ CH3COOH. b CH3COO:: a(CH3COOH) Kb(CH3COO) = w 105 Kb(CH3COO) = 1014 168. - 7 Kb(CH3COO) = 1014/105 Kb(CH3COO) = 109 Kb(CH3COO) < b(NH3) , CH3COO H3. .. : CH3COONH4: CH3COO:CH3COO + H2OCH3COOH + OH NH4+:NH4+ + H2ONH3 + H3O+ a(H4+) = Kb(CH3COO) = 109 [NH4+] = [CH3COO], [3+] = [], .: , pH , - pH = 7, 25 oC.169. a - b - Ostwald. 1. To pH CH3NH2 12.. % w/v ;. CH3NH2 ;. 10 mL 990 mL , pH ; C = 12, H = 1, N =14, CH3NH2 b = 104 Kw = 1014.:. c1M . CH3NH2 : pH 12 pH + pOH = pKw. : 12 + pOH = 14 pOH = 2pOH = log[OH] [OH] = 10pOH = 102 M [OH] = x M, : x = 1023 33 2[CHNH ][OH][CHNH]+ =2b1xK =c - x c1 - x c1 :2 2 2 2b41 bx x (10 )K = c K10 = =1c = 1M c1 : c1 - x c144 2 b1K 1010 10c 1 = = < , .: b/c1 102, : b = x2/(c1 x).H 1, : 1000 mL (1 L) 1mol CH3NH2.MrCH3NH2 = ArC + 5ArH + ArN = 12 + 5 1 + 14 = 31, 1mol CH3NH2 31 g.: 1000 mL 31 g CH3NH2. 100 mL ; g CH3NH2. = 100 31 / 1000 = 3,1 g 3,1% w/v.170. - 7 . O CH3NH2 :2.. 1c x 10c c 1= = =-2 = 10. V2 = V1 + V = 10mL + 990mL= 1000 mL = 1 L :1 11 1 2 22c V 1M0, 01Lc V cVV 1L= = =-22c = 10 M x CH3NH2 , CH3NH2 :42 b22K 1010c10= = c2 x c2 : 2=2bxKc x :4 2 6 3b 2x c 10 10 10 10 = = = =, [] = x: [] = 103pOH = log[] = log103 = 3pH + pOH = pKw pH + 3 = 14 pH = 112. < 0,1. , , 25 C.. , , : = 2. pH . w = 1014 < 101.:. < 101, : b = 2c (1)A c, V = 2V, , :cV = cV cV = c2V c = c/2H , . , < 101, : b = 2c b = 2(c/2) (2) (1) (2) : 2(c/2) = 2c 2 = 22 = 2171. a - b - Ostwald. : < 101, c - x c, :22b b b b b[BH][OH] x x x x c x c[B] c x c+ = = = = = [] = xM, : [] =b c(3), : [] = b c b[ ] = (c/2)(4) (3) (4) :bb (c / 2)[OH] [OH] 1 [OH] 12[OH] c [OH] [OH] 2 = = = - -[OH] 2= [OH] :( ) log[OH] 2 log[OH ] log[OH ]log 2 log[OH ] = =pOH (1/2)log2 = pOH. , pH + pOH = 14 pOH = 14 pH.: 14 pH (1/2)log2 = 14 pH pH pH = (1/2)log2 pH = (1/2)log23. 0,1 , V = 2 L pH = 3.. Ka ;. pH ;. pH 0,5 ;. 0,8 mol , ;: c xM , :. pH 3, : log[H3O+] = 3 [H3O+] = 103 M.: x = 103 M172. - 7 c = 101 M, :32 1 .1.c x 10 M 10 10c c10 M = = = = 2 . 76. Ka HCl:. 1 . . . 10147. NH4Cl 102 , 25 C, pH :. 4 . 2 . 8 . 108. , :. . . . 177. a - b - Ostwald9. , :. Ka .. Ka .. Ka .. Ka .10. RCOONH4 pH = 6,5 25 C. a, Kb 4+ RCOO , :. a > Kb.a < Kb.a = Kb.a Kb = 101411. - 25 C, pH; :. HCOOH, Ka = 2 104.CH3COOH, Ka = 2 105. ClCH2COOH, Ka = 1,5 103.Cl2CHCOOH, Ka = 5 102( 2002)1. 25 C, pH : 1. CH3COOH2. NaOH3. KNO34. NH35. HBr . pH = 1. pH = 4. pH = 7. pH = 9. pH = 122. 25 C, pH : 1. KCN2. NH4NO33. HCl4. KClO45. Ca(OH)2 . pH = 2. pH = 5. pH = 7. pH = 8. pH = 13:178. - 7 - 1. N pH 6 g CH3COOH 100 mL . C = 12, H = 1, O = 16 CH3COOH, a = 105.(. pH = 2,5)2. pH = 3 0,1 . .(. a = 105, = 0,01)3. 101 , 104 .. ; .. , .(. . . b = 107, = 103)4. 200 mL 4,48 L 3, S.T.P. 200mL 3 0,01.. 3.. pH . w = 1014.(. . b = 104 . pH = 12)5. 500 mL x L 3 S.T.P. 500 mL pH = 11, 25 oC. x. NH3, Kb = 105 Kw = 1014.(. 1,12 L)6. 200 mL x g CH3COOH 200 mL CH3COOH 0,01. x. C = 12, H = 1, O = 16 CH3COOH, a = 105.(. 1,2 g)7. 3 3 CH3NH2 101 ; 3, b = 105 CH3NH2, b = 104.(. 102 M) 8. 100 mL - 0,2 ; : a/c < 102.(A. 1600 mL)9. A 1% 1 . , .179. a - b - Ostwald. .. 1 L, .(. . 0,01 . 99 L)10. CH3NH2 1 300 mL pH = 12, 25 C.N :. CH3NH2.. pH 2,7 L .(. . b = 104, = 0,01 . pH = 0,5)11. L 8 L 3 pH = 11 0,1 , pH ;(. 792 L)12. CH3COOH 2 L 2 mol , a = 105.. [3+] ;. , pH ;(. . = 102,5,[3+] = 102,5 . pH = 3)13. 100 mL , 0,1 , 3 104. , :. 0,1 mol . . 100 mL . . 400 mL , 0,5 .(. . 9,04 105 . 4,24 104 . 3,87 104)14. 2 , , 103 104 , - , ; : b/c 102.(A. 1/6)15. 0,001 0,004 . - . : a/c 102.(A. 1,37 103)16. H (C6H5COOH) 105 25 C.. N pH (C6H5COONa) 102 25 C.. .(. . pH = 8,5 . [H3O+] = 108,5 M, [OH] = 105,5 M, [CH3COO] = 102 M, [Na+] = 102 M)180. - 7 . 1 0,1 , pH = 2.. . , .. 300 mL 0,03 mol KOH, 2. pH 2.. ml 1 100 mL 2, -; [3+] . w = 1014.(A. . , a =103 . pH = 13 . 100 mL,7,5510 / 5M)17. a 0,1 , pH = 11. N . w = 1014.(.109)18. g NH4Cl 200 mL pH = 5, 25 oC; = 14, = 1, Cl = 35,5 3 25 C: Kb = 105.(.1,07 g)19. CH3COONa 25 C 1 [OH] = 103 M.. a CH3COOH 25 C;. pH 10. .(. . 108 . 1/100)20. 4Cl 5,35% w/v.. pH .. 1 L , 9 L . pH ; = 14, = 1, Cl = 35,5, 3: b = 105 w = 1014.(. . 4,5 . 5)21. 4CN 25 C, cM. , , , :. aHCN = 105, KbNH3 = 106.. aHCN = 106, KbNH3 = 105.. aHCN = 105, KbNH3 = 105.(. . . . )181. 8o oo oo. : , () , (. . ) :. , Le Chatellier, .. , , . : : a b , . , , , . pH . :1. pH2. pH.: , . , . : - - - - 182. - 8 : :. . Cl pH - ;:. : + 2 + 3+ + + , . , . : . 3+ , pH .. Cl: + 2 + 3+Cl + H2OCl + H3O+ , 3+ Cl. , 3+. : . 3+ , pH .:. c , .. pH . , pH , , Brnsted - Lowry, Cl pH , HCl Brnsted - Lowry.: 3 :. 4Cl . 3 pH - ;:. 3 :3 + 24+ + 4Cl4+ + Cl183. , NH4+ NH4Cl. 3 , 4+. : 3 . , pH pH .. 3 :3 + 24+ + + + , . 3 -, . : 3 . , pH pH .:. b 3 , .. pH . 4Cl, pH , 4+, Brnsted - Lowry, pH , Brnsted - Lowry. - . , , :. .. . Io : , 1, 2, ... : 1 > 2 > ... + . . , 3+ , - .184. - 8 +3 ac[HO] = Kc: cM cM, 3+ : 3 a c[HO] Kc+= [3+] ), : 4Cl N3. - NH4Cl aOH 4+/3.: , NaCl pH , a+ Cl , . : : /. - , - .: pH NH3 4Cl, :. Cl . KOH.:To 3/4+.. Cl 3: NH3 + HCl NH4Cl Cl , - 3 , 3 4+ -, co (4+)/c (3), , :bcpOH pK logc= + pOH pH .209. pH - , . , pH .:. mol HCl mol NH3, . , p enderson - Hasselbalch.. pH 3+ HCl, NH3: 3+ + NH3 NH4+ + H2O. 4+: + NH4+ NH3 + + + 2 + 4Cl NH3 + KCl + H2O KOH , - 4+ , 3 4+ -, co (4+)/c (3), , :bcpOH pK logc= + pOH pH . pH - , . , pH .:. mol mol NH4+, . , p - -enderson - Hasselbalch.. pH , NH4+: 4+ + NH3 + H2O : , , 210. - 9 . , Henderson - Hasselbalch, pH .: / [] = x [] = . pH ;: pH : acpH pK logc= +:apH = pK+logx (1) : c V = c V. , , :[] = x/2 [] = /2 pH , : acpH pK logc= +:a/ 2pH pK logx / 2= + apH = pK + logx(2) (1) (2) , . :pH = pH: , - Henderson - Hasselbalch .. : pH , . -, 2 . :. : pH , .. : pH (- ,...). , : - pH, p - , .. pH 7,4 2CO3 / HCO3.211. 1 : , -(8). Henderson - Hasselbalch: /:acpH = pK+logc : cHA [] cA [ ] /+:bcpOH = pK +logc : c [] c+ [+] , :. , .. , .. 1: 4 L CH3NH2 0,25 M 16 L CH3NH3Cl 0,0625 M. N pH . CH3NH2: b = 104, 25 C.: , . : n = c V, mol :CH3NH2: n1 = c1V1 = 0,025M 4L = 1 molCH3NH3Cl: n2 = c2V2 = 0,0625M 16L = 1 mol : VT = V1 + V2 = 4L + 16L = 20 L : c = n/V, :CH3NH2: c1 = n1/VT = 1mol/20L = 0,05 MCH3NH3Cl: c2 = n2/VT = 1mol/20L = 0,05 M212. - 9 :Henderson - Hasselbalch: pH = pKa + log(c/c), pH. 2 - - : , , pH . , , pH . 2: 100 mL 1 1 . pH:. .. , 0,0224 L HCl, : CH3H3Cl: CH3H3Cl CH3H3+ + Cl CH3NH2: CH3NH2 + H2OCH3NH3+ + OHTo , CH3NH2 c = c1 = 0,05 M CH3H3+ c = c2 = 0,05 M. Ka CH3H3+ : a Kb = Kw a = Kw/Kb = 1014/104 = 1010 : b/c = 104/0,05 < 102 a/c = 1010/0,05 < 102 ([CH3NH3+],[CH3NH2]) :[CH3NH3+] c [CH3NH2] c, Henderson -Hasselbalch:4bc0, 05pK log log10 log 4 log1c 0, 05+ = + = + pOH = = 4pH + pOH = pKw pH + 4 = 14 pH = 10213. S.T.P. .. , 0,056 g , .. , 10 mL 100 mL. : a = 105, = 25 C : 39, : 1, : 16.:. : : + + : + H2O3+ + To , c = 1 M c = 1 M. Kb : a Kb = Kw b = Kw/Ka = 1014/105 = 109 : b/c = 109/1 = 109 < 102 a/c = 105/1 = 105 < 102 ([HA],[A]) :[HA] c [A] c, Henderson -Hasselbalch:5ac1pK log log10 log 5 log1c 1+ = + = + pH = = 5. mol , : nHA = nKA = cV = 1M (100/1000)L = 0,1 mol mol HCl : HClmV 0, 024LV 22, 4L/ mol= =HCln = 0, 001mol Cl , - :o KCl pH . , :: co = nHA/V = (0,1 + 0,001)mol/0,1L = (1 + 102) M 1 M = co214. - 9 : c = n/V = (0,1 0,001)mol/0,1L = (1 102) M 1 M = cKA, 1 102 1, , :c = 1 ()c = 1 ( ) , Henderson -Hasselbalch:5ac1pK log log10 log 5 log1c 1+ = + = + pH = = 5:A : 1 102 1, pH pH = 4,9914 5.. rKOH = ArK + ArO + ArH = 39 + 16 + 1 = 56 mol KOH : KOHKOHm 0, 056gMr 56g / mol= =KOHn = 0, 001mol KOH , - : , :: co = nHA/V = (0,1 0,001)mol/0,1L = (1 102) M 1 M = co: c = n/V = (0,1 + 0,001)mol/0,1L = (1 + 102) M 1 M = cKA, 1 102 1, , :c = 1 ()c = 1 ( ) , Henderson -Hasselbalch:5ac1pK log log10 log 5 log1c 1+ = + = + pH = = 5:A : 1 102 1, pH pH = 5,0086 5.215. . , : : c1V1 = c2V2, :HA: cHA V1 = c V2 1 (10/1000)L = c (100/1000)L c = 0,1 MKA: cKA V1 = cK V2 1 (10/1000)L = cK (100/1000)L cK = 0,1 MTo , c = 0,1 M , , c = 0,1 M. : b/c = 109/0,1 = 108 < 102 a/c = 105/0,1 = 104 < 102 ([HA],[A]) :[HA] c [A] c, Henderson -Hasselbalch:5ac0,1pK log log10 log 5 log1c 0,1+ = + = + pH = = 5: pH .216. - 9 . 1. 400 mL CH3COOH 0,25 600 mL CH3COOK 0,3 M.. N pH .. CH3COOH .. 500 mL , pH . CH3COOH: a = 1,8 105 Kw = 1014.:. , . : n = c V, mol :CH3COOH: n1 = c1V1 = 0,25M 0,4L = 0,1 molCH3COOK: n2 = c2V2 = 0,3M 0,6L = 0,18 mol : VT = V1 + V2 = 0,4L + 0,6L = 1 L : c = n/V, :CH3COOH: c1 = n1/VT = 0,1mol/1L = 0,1 MCH3COOK: c2 = n2/VT = 0,18mol/1L = 0,18 M : CH3COOK: CH3COOK CH3COO + K+ CH3COOH: CH3COOH + H2OCH3COO + H3O+To , o CH3COOH co = c1 = 0,1M CH3COO c = c2 = 0,18 M. Kb CH3COO :a Kb = Kw b = Kw/Ka = 1014/1,8 105 = 0,55 109 : b/c = 0,55 109/0,18 < 102 a/c = 1,8 105/0,1 < 102([CH3COOH], [CH3COO]) :[CH3COOH] c [CH3COO] c, Henderson- Hasselbalch:5 5ac0,18pK log log(1, 8 10 ) log log1,8 log10 log1, 8c 0,1 + = + = + pH = = 5217. . CH3COOH :pH = 5 log[H3O+] = 5 [H3O+] = 105 M, : x = 105.O CH3COOH :5.. 1c x 10 c c 0,1= = =-4 = 10. : V = VT + V = 1L + 0,5L = 1,5 L CH3COOH CH3COOK :CH3COOH: c1 = n1/VT = 0,1mol/1,5L = 1/15 MCH3COOK: c2 = n2/VT = 0,18mol/1,5L = 1,8/15 MTo , CH3COOH c = 1/15 M CH3COO , CH3COOK, c =1,8/15 M. : b/c < 102a/c < 102([CH3COOH], [CH3COO]) :[CH3COOH] c [CH3COO] c, Henderson -Hasselbalch:5 5ac1, 8/15pK log log(1, 8 10 ) log log1, 8 log10 log1, 8c 1/15 + = + = + pH = = 5 500 mL pH 5. , ( Henderson - Hasselbalch), pH - 7 7.2. 1 100 mL 3 0,1 2 50mL, Cl pH = 1.. 3 1 2.. 1 2 . pH 3 . 3 b = 105 w = 1014.218. - 9 :. 1 : 3, : Kb/c1 = 105/0,1 = 104 < 102 : 1 1 :b = 2c1 = 4b 1K / c 10= =-210 2 : HCl , :pH = 1 log[H3O+] = 1 logc2 = 1 c2 = 101 . 3 HCl . mol , : n = cV.NH3: n1 = c1V1 = 0,1M(100/1000)L = 0,01 molHCl: n2 = c2V2 = 0,1M(50/1000)L = 0,005 molA 3 Cl . : : VT = V1 + V2 = 0,1L + 0,05L = 0,15 L : c = n/V, :NH3: cNH3 = nNH3/VT = 0,005mol/0,15L = 1/30 MNH4Cl: cNH4Cl = nNH4Cl/VT = 0,005mol/0,15L = 1/30 M : NH4Cl: NH4Cl NH4+ + Cl219. NH3: NH3 + H2ONH4+ + OHTo , 3 c = cNH3 = 1/30 M NH4+ c = cNH4Cl = 1/30 M. Ka NH4+ :a Kb = Kw a = Kw/Kb = 1014/105 = 109 : b/c = 109/(1/30) < 102a/c = 109/(1/30) < 102 ([NH4+],[NH3]) :[NH4+] c [NH3] c, Henderson- Hasselbalch:5bc1/ 30pK log log10 log 5 log1c 1/ 30+ = + = + pOH = = 5pH + pOH = pKw pH + 5 = 14 pH = 93. L HBr 0,1 0,5 L RNH2 0,3 M pH = 9; R2 b = 105 w = 1014. Henderson - Hasselbalch.: V1 r. R2 HBr . mol , : n = cV.HBr: n1 = c1V1 = 0,1M V1L = 0,1 V1 molRNH2: n2 = c2V2 = 0,3M 0,5L = 0,15 mol , , R2, r . ( pH = 9, , , HBr .) : : VT = V1 + V2 = V1L + 0,5L =(0,5 + V1) L220. - 9 : c = n/V, :RNH2: cRNH2 = nRNH2/VT = (0,15 0,1V1)/(0,5 + V1) MRNH3Br: cRNH3Br = nRNH3Br/VT = 0,1V1/(0,5 + V1) M : RNH3Br: RNH3Br RNH3+ + Br RNH2: RNH2 + H2ORNH3+ + OHTo , RNH2 c = cRNH2 RNH3+ c = cRNH3BrpH + pOH = pKw 9 + pOH = 14 pOH = 5 Henderson - Hasselbalch:15 1 1b1 110,1Vc0, 5 V 0,1VpK log 5 log10 log 5 5 log0,15 0,1Vc 0,15 0,1V0, 5 V++ = + = + +pOH =1 1 11 1 10,1V 0,1V 0,1Vlog 0 log log1 10,15 0,1V 0,15 0,1V 0,15 0,1V= = = V1 = 0,75 L4. 3 101 4Cl 101 , 1 L. N pH , , :. 103 mol KOH . 2 102 mol KOH . 101 mol KOH . 1,1 mol KOH NH3 b = 106, Kw = 1014, log1,5 = 0,176, log4,47 = 0,651.: c = nV mol 3 4Cl :NH3: n1 = c1V = 101M 1L = 101 molNH4Cl: n2 = c2V = 101M 1L = 101 mol. NH4Cl : Cl, NH4Cl NH3. KCl pH . NH4Cl NH3 :cNH4Cl =nNH4Cl/V = (101 103)mol/1L = (101 103) M 101 M221. cNH3 =nNH3/V = (101 + 103)mol/1L = (101 + 103) M 101 M : 101 103 101 , NH3 c = cNH3 = 101 M NH4+ NH4Cl, c = cNH4Cl = 101 M Ka NH4+ : a Kb = Kw a = Kw/Kb = 1014/106 = 108 : b/c = 106/101 < 102a/c = 108/101 < 102 ([NH4+],[NH3]) :[NH4+] c [NH3] c, Henderson- Hasselbalch:16b1c10pK log log10 log 6 log1c10+ = + = + pOH = = 6pH + pOH = pKw pH + 6 = 14 pH = 8. NH4Cl : Cl, NH4Cl NH3. KCl pH . NH4Cl NH3 :cNH4Cl =nNH4Cl/V = (101 2102)mol/1L = (101 2102) McNH3 =nNH3/V = (101 + 2102)mol/1L = (101 + 2102) M : 101 2102 101 , NH3 :c = cNH3 = (101 + 2102) M NH4+ NH4Cl, :c = cNH4Cl = (101 2102) M : b/c < 102a/c < 102 ([NH4+],[NH3]) :222. - 9 [NH4+] c [NH3] c, Henderson- Hasselbalch:1 26b1 2c10 2 10 1pK log log10 log 6 logc 1, 510 2 10 + = + = + =+ pOH == 6 + log1 log1,5 = 5,824pH + pOH = pKw pH + 5,824 = 14 pH = 8,176. NH4Cl : Cl, NH3 . KCl pH . NH3 :cNH3 =nNH3/V = 2 101 mol/1L = 2 101 M 3 : 3 : 6 4b13[NH ][OH] xxK 10[NH]2 10 x+ = = b/cNH3 = 106/2 101 = 0,5 105 < 102 : 2 101 x 2 101 :6 2 7 81x x10 x 2 10 x 20 102 10 = = = 4x = 4, 4710 [] = 4,47 104 pOH = log[OH] = log(4,47 104) = log4,47 + 4 = 3,349pH + pOH = pKw pH + 3,349 = 14 pH = 10,65223. . 4Cl : Cl, 3 , -, . KCl pH . 3 :cOH =nOH/V =1mol/1L = 1 McNH3 =nNH3/V = 2 101 mol/1L = 2 101 M : 3 : 3 : 6 4b13[NH ][OH] x(1 x)K 10[NH]2 10 x+ += = b/cNH3 = 106/2 101 = 0,5 105 < 102 , : 2 101 x 2 101, 1 + x 1 :61x102 10 = 7x = 210 [] = (1 + x) M = (1 + 2 107) M 1 MpOH = log[OH] = log1 = 0pH + pOH = pKw pH + 0 = 14 pH = 14224. - 9 . :1. ; .2. . Henderson - Hasselbalch - - .. Henderson - Hasselbalch.3. N , pH pKa .4. .5. , , 3 NH4Cl, Cl , pH .6. - , pH .7. ;8. ; :1. ............................... ............................... . , pH ............................... ............................... ............................... ............................... ............................... .2. . , .............................................................. . .. ............................... ..............................., - , ...............................3. CH3COOH CH3COONa HCl, pH ............................... ............................... HCl ............................... : ...............................+............................... ............................... + ...............................4. 3 4Cl - NaOH, pH ............................... ............................... NaOH - ............................... :225. ...............................+............................... ............................... + ...............................5. - c - c , , pH ............................... ............................... . ............................... - ..............................., pH , ..... - : () ();1. . ()2. ClO2 aClO2, . ()3. 3 aOH . ()4. CH3COOH , . ()5. NaOH pH, - . ()6. 3 HCl - 3, . ()7. , pH . ()8. 2 L aOH 0,1 1 L CH3COOH 0,1 M . ()9. 3 0,1 NH4Cl 0,1 , pH 3 0,2 NH4Cl 0,2 . ()10. HF a = 104. A - F aF pH = 4, cHF/cNaF 1. ()11. pH . ()12. , . ()13. pH , :pH = pKa + log(c/c). ()14. 3, NH4Cl KCl . ()226. - 9 :1. :. CH3COOH - HBr . HF - NaF. NH3 - KOH . NH3 - RNH22. H - a, :. [3+] = a(c/c) . [3+] = a(cc). [3+] = a(c/c) . [3+] = a(c+ c)3. 0,5 mol CH3COOH, :. 0,8 mol NaOH . 0,3 mol KOH . 0,5 mol HCl . 1 mol HCl4. A 3 b = 105, 30,2 NH4Cl 0,2 pH :. 2 . 5 . 9 . 75. CH3COOH 1 CH3COONa 0,1 M. a CH3COOH 105, pH :. 4 . 5 . 6 . 76. 0,1 0,1 pH = 4. - :. 101. 105. 104. 10107. F 1 M NaF 0,1 pH = 3. H b F :. 103. 104. 1011. 10101. aHA = 105, KbNH3 = 104 w = 1014. N - , pH - : 1. 0,1 2. 0,2 - 0,2 3. 0,1 - Cl 1 M4. NH3 0,01 M5. NH3 0,01 M - NH4Cl 0,1 M6. NH3 0,01 M - KOH 0,1 M . 0. 2. 3. 5. 9. 10. 11. 13:227. - 1. :. 25 mL 3 0,1 25 mL 3 0,1 . 25 mL a2 0,1 (a = 104). 25 mL CH3COOH0,1 M 25 mL 0,15 (a= 105). 25 mL CH3COOH 0,1 25 mL 0,05 (a= 105)(. , )2. a = 105. 0,1 0,1 a. :. pH .. pH 0,01 mol Cl 1L .. pH 0,01 mol a 1 L . .: log1,22 = 0,086, log0,81 = 0,09.(. . 5 . 4,91 . 5,09)3. pH = 4 pH = 5 - a. 0,1 . pH . a = 105, = 25 C, log2 = 0,3.(A. 4,7)4. g 4Cl 500 mL 3 0,1 pH 2 . b = 1,8 105, = 25 C r = 14, rCl = 35,5, r = 1.(. 3,59g)5. 50mL 4Cl 0,2 75 mL a 0,1 . pH . b 3 = 1,8 105 , log5,4 = 0,73.(. 0,73)6. pH CH3COOH CH3COONa 5. 2,24 . CH3COOH CH3COONa ; CH3COOH, a = 1,8 105.(. 0,5 , 1,44 )7.36mL a. , 6 mL - a, pH = 5. a .(. 2106)228. - 9 8. 3