What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp...

80

Transcript of What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp...

Page 1: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98
Page 2: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

;LEX�HS�MQTIVEXMZIW�QIER#

Page 3: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

-QTIVMS�

�� 6IEH�XLMW�FSSO�

�� 0MIW�IW�

�� HLMEZEWI�XS�

Page 4: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

-QTIVEXMZI�!�'SQQERH#

� 6SQERGI�³MQTIVEXMZI´�JVSQ�0EXMR�³MQTIVEVI´� ±XS�GSQQERH²

� +VIIO�³TVSWXEOXMOM´�JVSQ�³TVSWXE^S´� ±XS�GSQQERH²

� 8YVOMWL�³IQMV�OMTM´� ±GSQQERH²��RSYR

� 7PSZIRMER�³ZIPIPRMO´�JVSQ�³ZIPIXM´� ±XS�GSQQERH²

� ,IFVI[�³GMZY]´� ±XS�GSQQERH²

� %PFERMER�³YVHLIVSVI´�JVSQ�³QI�YVHLIVY´� ±XS�GSQQERH²

� %VEFMG�³½´P�#EQV´� ±XS�GSQQERH²

Page 5: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

9TWLSX

8LI�QIERMRK�SJ�MQTIVEXMZIW�

&VMRK�MRXS�I\MWXIRGI�ER�SFPMKEXMSR�SR�XLI�TEVX�SJ�XLI�EHHVIWWII�XS�GEVV]SYX�XLI�EGXMSR�TMGOIH�SYX�F]�XLI�TVINEGIRX

Page 6: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

1SHIP

8LI�QIERMRK�SJ�MQTIVEXMZIW�

� E�GSRXI\X�GLERKI�TSXIRXMEP! E�JYRGXMSR�JVSQ�MRTYX�GSRXI\XW�XS�SYXTYX�GSRXI\XW

QSHIP�SJ�XLI�GSRXI\X�

� XS�HS�PMWX

� TIVQMWWMFMPMX]�WTLIVI

Page 7: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

6IEH�XLMW�FSSO�

8LI�QIERMRK�SJ�±6IEH�XLMW�FSSO�² !

E�JYRGXMSR�XLEX�QETW�ER]�MRTYX�GSRXI\X�MRXS�SRI�[LIVI�XLI�XS�HS�PMWX�SJXLI�EHHVIWWII�GSRXEMRW�XLI�EGXMSR VIEH XLMW FSSO

Page 8: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

%VI�[I�XLIVI�]IX#

;LEX�IPWI�MW�XLIVI�XS�HS#

51 ;LEX�EVI�XLI�QSVTLSW]RXEGXMG�TEVXW�SJ�MQTIVEXMZIW#

52 ,S[�HSIW�XLI�QIERMRK�SJ�MQTIVEXMZIW�EVMWI�GSQTSWMXMSREPP]#

53 ;LEX�MW�XLI�HMZMWMSR�SJ�PEFSV�FIX[IIR�WIQERXMGW�ERH�TVEKQEXMGW#

Page 9: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

7SQI�STXMSRW

*VSQ�WIQERXMG�QMRMQEPMWQ�XS�JYPP�FPS[R�H]REQMG�WIQERXMGW�

� WMQTPI�TVSTIVX]��VIEH XLI FSSO

� EHHVIWWII�VIWXVMGXIH�TVSTIVX]��]SY VIEH XLI FSSO 4SVXRIV

� WTIEOIV�EXXMXYHI��MX W Q] TVIJIVIRGI XLEX ]SY VIEH XLI FSSO 1EKHE�/EYJQERR� 'SRHSVEZHM��0EYIV

� ''4 �EHH VIEH XLI FSSO XS�EHHVIWWII W�XS�HS�PMWX :IPXQER�IXG�

Page 10: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

,S[�XS�GLSSWI

%GGSYRXW

� MR�XLI�IRH�HIPMZIV�E�GSQQERH�JSVGI�''4 EW�XLI�QIERMRK�SJMQTIVEXMZIW

� HMJJIV�MR�LS[�QYGL�SJ�XLEX�MW�IRGSHIH�MR�XLI�WIQERXMGW�SJ�XLIMQTIVEXMZI�ZW� XLI�TVEKQEXMGW

%VI�XLIVI�[E]W�XS�GLSSWI# ! PSSO�EX RSR�GSQQERH YWIW�SJ�MQTIVEXMZIW

Page 11: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

4IVQMWWMSR

�� %� 1E]�- STIR�XLI�HSSV#&� 7YVI� KS�ELIEH� STIR�XLI�HSSV� 4)61-77-32

! 8LI�4VSFPIQ�SJ�*YRGXMSREP�,IXIVSKIRIMX]��7GLQIVPMRK�����

Page 12: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

%PP�OMRHW�SJ�RSR�GSQQERH�YWIW

�� %� )\GYWI�QI� - [ERX�XS�KIX�XS�XLI�WXEXMSR�&� 8EOI�E�RYQFIV���FYW� %(:-')

�� +S�SR� 8LVS[�MX� .YWX�]SY�HEVI� (%6)

�� +IX�[IPP�WSSR� ;-7,)7

�� E� 4PIEWI�HSR´X�VEMR�F� 7XEVX� HEQR�]SY� %9(-)2')0)77

�� E� 4PIEWI�FI�SYX�F� 4PIEWI�HSR´X�LEZI�QEHI�XLMRKW�[SVWI� 46)()8)61-2)(

Page 13: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

-E(W

��� 7XYH]�LEVH ERH�]SY�[MPP�TEWW�XLI�GPEWW�

��� -KRSVI�]SYV�LSQI[SVO ERH�]SY�[MPP�JEMP�XLI�GPEWW�

-QTIVEXMZI ERH (IGPEVEXMZI

Page 14: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

8SHE] W�UYIWXMSR

;LEX�GER�[I�PIEVR�EFSYX�XLI�QIERMRK�SJ�MQTIVEXMZIW�JVSQ

� TIVQMWWMSR�YWIW�ERH

� XLIMV�SGGYVVIRGI�MR�-E(W#

Page 15: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

'VSWW�PMRKYMWXMG�GSRRIGXMSR

-J�ER�MQTIVEXMZI�PMOI�ZIVF�JSVQ�GER�FI�YWIH�MR�-E(W�"# MX�GER�EPWS�FI�YWIH�EW�E�TIVQMWWMSR�MQTIVEXMZI�

RSX�UYMXI�E�FMGSRHMXMSREP

;,=#

Page 16: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

7IGXMSR �

4IVQMWWMSR

Page 17: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

8LVII�[E]W�SJ�KMZMRK�TIVQMWWMSR

��� - LIVIF]�EPPS[�]SY�XS�WXE]�SYX�[MXL�]SYV�JVMIRHW�YRXMP���TQXSRMKLX�

��� =SY�QE]�WXE]�SYX�[MXL�]SYV�JVMIRHW�YRXMP���TQ�XSRMKLX�

��� 7XE]�SYX�[MXL�]SYV�JVMIRHW�YRXMP���TQ�XSRMKLX�

Page 18: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

8LI�TIVQMWWMSR�TY^^PI

,S[�GER�MX�FI�XLEX�ER�I\TVIWWMSR�XLEX�MW�YWIH�XS�MQTSWI�ER�SFPMKEXMSRGER�EPWS�FI�YWIH�XS�QIVIP]�TIVQMX�WSQIXLMRK#

Page 19: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

7XVSRK�QIERMRK[IEOIRIH�MR�GSRXI\X#

� )\TVIWWMRK�[LEX�XLI�LIEVIV�[ERXW ;MPWSR��7TIVFIV� /EYJQERR

� 'SQQERHMRK�[LEX�XLI�LIEVIV�[ERXW 'SRHSVEZHM��0EYIV

� 'SR¾MGXMRK�GSQQERHW! TIVQMWWMSR 4SVXRIV

8LIVI�EVI�SXLIV�TVSTSWEPW� WYGL�EW�'LEVPS[ W�MRHMVIGX�WTIIGL�EGXEREP]WMW�©

Page 20: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

;MPWSR��7TIVFIV

-14 ! !�< GSRWMHIVW ! XS�FI�HIWMVEFPI�XS�= ERH XS�FI�E�ZEPMH�STXMSR

'SQQERH�YWI� < !�= !�7TIEOIV

4IVQMWWMSR�YWI� < !�7TIEOIV� = !�,IEVIV

Page 21: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

/EYJQERR

-14

� MW�E�RIGIWWMX]�QSHEP�[MXL�TVIWYTTSWMXMSRW�XLEX�JSVGI�MX�XS�FI�YWIHTIVJSVQEXMZIP]

� I\TVIWWIW�XLEX ! MW�E�RIGIWWMX]�[MXL�VIWTIGX�XS�E�HISRXMG�SVHIVMRKWSYVGI�K�ERH�E�QSHEP�FEWI�J

� LEW�ER�YRHIVWTIGM½IH�SVHIVMRK�WSYVGI� ±[LEX�XLI�WTIEOIVGSQQERHW²�SV�±[LEX�XLI�LIEVIV�[ERXW²

Page 22: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

'SRHSVEZHM��0EYIV

-14 ! I\TVIWWIW

� XLEX�XLI�WTIEOIV�[ERXW !

� ERH�XLEX�XLI�I\TVIWWMSR�SJ�XLMW�[ERX�I\LEYWX�XLI�WTIEOIV W�TPER�XSVIEPM^I ! �HIVMZMRK�TIVJSVQEXMZMX]� [I�XLMRO

?2&��XLIMV�EREP]WMW�MW�WS�JEV�SRP]�EZEMPEFPI�SR�LERHSYXWA

Page 23: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

8LI�QEMR�TVSFPIQ

8LI�VIPIZERX�[IEOIRMRK�SJ�WXVSRK�QIERMRKW�MR�GSRXI\X�HSIWR´X�LETTIR[MXL�SXLIV�I\TVIWWMSRW�MR�XLI�WEQI�WIQERXMG�½IPH�

� TIVJSVQEXMZI�RIGIWWMX]�QSHEPW

� HIWMHIVEXMZIW��±- [ERX�]SY�XS²

� ±WXVSRK²�MQTIVEXMZI�PMOI�I\TVIWWMSRW

Page 24: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

4IVJSVQEXMZI�RIGIWWMX]�QSHEPW

4IVJSVQEXMZI�RIGIWWMX]�QSHEPW�GERRSX�FI�YWIH�XS�KVERX�TIVQMWWMSR�

��� %� 1E]�- STIR�XLI�HSSV#

&� 7YVI� KS�ELIEH� STIR�MX�&´� 7YVI� KS�ELIEH� �]SY�QYWX�STIR�MX�&²� =IW� MR�JEGX� ]SY�QYWX�STIR�MX�

'� 7YVI� KS�ELIEH� ]SY WLSYPH STIR�MX�

��� =SY

!QYWXWLSYPH

"WXE]�SYX�YRXMP���TQ�XSRMKLX�

Page 25: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

(IWMHIVEXMZIW

��� %� 'ER�- KS�SYX�ERH�TPE]#

&� 3OE]� KS�SYX�&´� 3OE]� - [ERX�]SY�XS�KS�SYX�

Page 26: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

7XVSRK�GSQQERH�I\TVIWWMSRW

+IVQER�

��� +IL�VEYW� MQTIVEXMZI

��� 6EYWKILIR� MR½RMXMZI� I\TVIWWIW�GSQQERH

4IVQMWWMSR#

��� %� /ERR�MGL�VEYWKILIR�YRH�WTMIPIR#&� 2E�OPEV� KIL�VEYW� TIVQMWWMSR�VIEHMRK&´� 2E�OPEV� VEYWKILIR� RS�TIVQMWWMSR�VIEHMRK

Page 27: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

-RHMJJIVIRGI

��� +S�PIJX� +S�VMKLX� )MXLIV�[E]�MW�½RI�[MXL�QI�

��� �=SY�QYWX�KS�PIJX� =SY�QYWX�KS�VMKLX� )MXLIV�[E]�MW�½RI�[MXL�QI�

��� �- [ERX�]SY�XS�KS�PIJX� - [ERX�]SY�XS�KS�VMKLX� - HSR´X�GEVI�

��� 7YVI� STIR�XLI�[MRHS[� - HSR´X�GEVI�

��� �7YVI� ]SY�WLSYPH�STIR�XLI�[MRHS[� - HSR´X�GEVI�

Page 28: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

'SRGIWWMZI�MQTIVEXMZIW

��� 7E]�[LEX�]SY�[ERX� -´PP�ZSXI�JSV�3FEQE�

��� =SY�GER�WE]�[LEX�]SY�[ERX� -´PP�ZSXI�JSV�3FEQE�

��� �� =SY�WLSYPH�WE]�[LEX�]SY�[ERX� -´PP�ZSXI�JSV�3FEQE�

Page 29: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

'SRRIGXMSR�XS�LIEVIV W�[ERXW#

8LI�LIEVIV�[ERXMRK�XLI�TVINEGIRX�XS�FI�XVYI�MW�RIMXLIV�RIGIWWEV]�RSVWYJ½GMIRX�JSV�TIVQMWWMSR�VIEHMRKW�XS�EVMWI�

��� 7XE]�SYX�[MXL�]SYV�JVMIRHW�YRXMP���TQ�XSRMKLX�

��� 3VHIV�YT�XS�XLVII�EGGSQTERMQIRXW�JSV�JVII�[MXL�ER]�IRXVII�

��� %� - [ERX�XS�[VMXI�E�RSZIP�&� 7S� [VMXI�E�JVEGOMRK�RSZIP� �I\EWTIVEXIH�PMJI�GSEGL

Page 30: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

4SVXRIV

� YWI�SJ�MQTIVEXMZI�EHHW�E�TVSTIVX]�XS�LIEVIV W�XS�HS�PMWX��8(0

� XLI�LIEVIV�WLSYPH�EGX�WS�EW�XS�QEOI�EW�QER]�MXIQW�SR�XLI�8(0XVYI�EW�JIEWMFPI

� ER]�GSRXVEHMGXSV]�MXIQW�SR�XLI�8(0! GLSMGI

� WS� MJ ! [EW�TVIZMSYWP]�JSVFMHHIR��¬! SR�XLI�8(0 ��-14 ! KIXXMRKEHHIH�XS�8(0 EQSYRXW�XS�KMZMRK�E�GLSMGI�FIX[IIR ! ERH ¬!

Page 31: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

4VSFPIQ�JSV�4SVXRIV

-QTIVEXMZIW�XLEX�GSR¾MGX�[MXL�TVIZMSYWP]�MQTSWIH�SFPMKEXMSRW�GVIEXIGSR¾MGX�VEXLIV�XLER�GLSMGI�

��� % XS�&� �EX��TQ &VMRK�FIIV�XS�XLI�TEVX]�XSQSVVS[�% XS�&� �EX��TQ &VMRK�[MRI�XS�XLI�TEVX]�XSQSVVS[�& XS�%� 'SYPH�]SY�QEOI�YT�]SYV�QMRH� TPIEWI#

4SVXRIV W�WSPYXMSR� QEVOMRK�MQTIVEXMZIW�JSV�[LIXLIV�XLI]�GVIEXI�ERSFPMKEXMSR�SV�E�TIVQMWWMSR�

Page 32: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

VYLMK�ZW� FPSWW

4EXVMGO�+VSW^�

��� E� -WWIEX

�FPSWW�VYLMKFPSWW�VYLMK

HIRXLI

7TMREX�WTMREGL

(EWXLEX

WX}VXHMWXYVFW

QMGLQI

RMGLX�RSX

³)EX�FPSWW�VYLMK�XLI�WTMREGL� 8LEX�HSIWR´X�HMWXYVF�QI�F� -WW

IEXFPSWW��VYLMKFPSWW�VYLMK

HIRXLI

7TMREX�WTMREGL

7SRWXSV�IPWI

[MVWX[MPP�FI

HY]SY

FIWXVEJX�TYRMWLIH

³)EX�FPSWW�VYLMK�XLI�WTMREGL� 3V�IPWI�]SY´PP�FI�TYRMWLIH�

Page 33: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

0IWWSRW�JVSQ�TIVQMWWMSR�YWI� 2SRI�SJ�XLI�±WXVSRK�KIXW�[IEO�MR�GSRXI\X²�ETTVSEGLIW�WIIQ�XS[SVO�

� 3TIR�STXMSRW�

� RIGIWWMX]�TSWWMFMPMX]�EQFMKYMX]��+VSW^ � ±[IEO�KIXW�WXVSRK�MR�GSRXI\X²

GER�TIVQMWWMSRW�FIGSQI�GSQQERHW�MR�GSRXI\X#� YRHIVWTIGM½IH�QIERMRK

k�PE�4SVXRIV� FYX�[MXLSYX�XLI�XMKLX�GSRRIGXMSR�XS�WXVSRK�H]REQMGW

Page 34: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

0IWWSRW�JVSQ�TIVQMWWMSR�YWI� 2SRI�SJ�XLI�±WXVSRK�KIXW�[IEO�MR�GSRXI\X²�ETTVSEGLIW�WIIQ�XS[SVO�

� 3TIR�STXMSRW�

� RIGIWWMX]�TSWWMFMPMX]�EQFMKYMX]��+VSW^ � ±[IEO�KIXW�WXVSRK�MR�GSRXI\X²

GER�TIVQMWWMSRW�FIGSQI�GSQQERHW�MR�GSRXI\X#� YRHIVWTIGM½IH�QIERMRK

k�PE�4SVXRIV� FYX�[MXLSYX�XLI�XMKLX�GSRRIGXMSR�XS�WXVSRK�H]REQMGW

��� =SY�QE]�GPIEV�XLI�XEFPI�RS[�

Kai von Fintel
Page 35: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

$/%

� FEVI�TPYVEPW

� QSHEPW�MR�7EPMWL��6YPPQERR�IX�EP� � 2I^�4IVGI��(IEP

� MR½RMXMZEP�VIPEXMZIW�

!XLIE

"QER�XS�GSRWYPX �,EGOP��2MWWIRFEYQ

&98��-E(W��#

Page 36: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

7IGXMSR �

-E(W

Page 37: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

-E(W

8]TI�-��HIWMVEFPI�½VWX�GSRNYRGX

��� 7XYH]�LEVH�ERH�]SY�[MPP�TEWW�XLI�GPEWW�

8]TI�--��YRHIWMVEFPI�SV�RIYXVEP�½VWX�GSRNYRGX

��� -KRSVI�]SYV�LSQI[SVO�ERH�]SY�[MPP�JEMP�XLI�GPEWW�

��� 3TIR�XLI�TETIV�ERH�]SY�[MPP�½RH���QMWXEOIW�SR�IZIV]�TEKI�

Page 38: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

7TPMXXIVW

8]TI�-� XVYI�MQTIVEXMZI�TPYW�QSHEPP]�WYFSVHMREXIH [MPP

8]TI�--� RSR�MQTIVEXMZI�FEVI�ZIVF�JSVQ�JIIHMRK�E�VIWXVMGXMSR�XS�E�QSHEP

! -J�XLMW�[SVOW� XLIR�-E(W�EVI�RSX�E�TVSFPIQ�JSV�WXVSRK�QIERMRKW

Page 39: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

�%PQSWX �GSRWIRWYW�SR�8]TI�-

%GGSVHMRK�XS�/EYJQERR� 6YWWIPP� ERH�SXLIVW� 8]TI�- -E(W�[SVO�PMOI�XLMW�

� XLI]�EVI�GSRNYRGXMSRW�SJ�WTIIGL�EGXW��k�PE�/VMJOE

� XLIMV�½VWX�GSRNYRGX�MW�E�XVYI�MQTIVEXMZI

� XLIMV�WIGSRH�GSRNYRGX�MW�MRXIVTVIXIH�ZME�QSHEP�WYFSVHMREXMSR��k�PE6SFIVXW

Page 40: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

7IUYIRGMRK� -�( ERH�1�(

��� E� -RZIWX�MR�XLMW�GSQTER]� =SY�[MPP�FIGSQI�VMGL� !

F� =SY

#$

%

QYWXLEZI�XSWLSYPH

&'

( MRZIWX�MR�XLMW�GSQTER]�

=SY�[MPP�FIGSQI�VMGL�

Page 41: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

��� E� 7TIEO�XS�XLIQ�MR�*VIRGL� 8LI]�[MPP�LMVI�]SY� !F� =SY�QYWX�WTIEO�XS�XLIQ�MR�*VIRGL� 8LI]�[MPP�LMVI�]SY�

Page 42: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

1SHEP�7YFSVHMREXMSR

[MPP MR�XLI�WIGSRH�GSRNYRGX�MW�VIWXVMGXIH�XS�[SVPHW�[LIVI�XLI�TVINEGIRXSJ�XLI�MQTIVEXMZI�SV�RIGIWWMX]�QSHEP�MW�WEXMW½IH�

��� E� =SY�[MPP�FIGSQI�VMGL�! MJ�]SY�MRZIWX�MR�XLMW�GSQTER]� ]SY�[MPP�FIGSQI�VMGL�

F� 8LI]�[MPP�LMVI�]SY�! MJ�]SY�WTIEO�XS�XLIQ�MR�*VIRGL� XLI]�[MPP�LMVI�]SY�

Page 43: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

8LI�GPEMQ

��� -RZIWX�MR�XLMW�GSQTER]�ERH�]SY�[MPP�FIGSQI�VMGL� !

��� -RZIWX�MR�XLMW�GSQTER]� �ERH MJ�]SY�MRZIWX�MR�XLMW�GSQTER]� ]SY�[MPP�FIGSQI�VMGL�

Page 44: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

4VSFPIQ��

1SHEP�WYFSVHMREXMSR�MW�EGXYEPP]�RSX�TSWWMFPI�EGVSWW ERH�

��� ��##=SY

#$

%

LEZI�XSQYWXWLSYPH

&'

( MRZIWX�MR�XLMW�GSQTER]

ERH�]SY�[MPP�FIGSQI�VMGL�

&YX�XLIR�[L]�MW�XLIVI�TYXEXMZI�QSHEP�WYFSVHMREXMSR�MR�8]TI�- -E(WEGVSWW ERH#

��� -RZIWX�MR�XLMW�GSQTER] ERH ]SY�[MPP�FIGSQI�VMGL�

Page 45: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

��� ��##=SY

#$

%

LEZI�XSQYWXWLSYPH

&'

( WTIEO�XS�XLIQ�MR�*VIRGL

ERH�XLI]�[MPP�LMVI�]SY�MQQIHMEXIP]�

ZW�

��� 7TIEO�XS�XLIQ�MR�*VIRGL ERH XLI]�[MPP�LMVI�]SY�MQQIHMEXIP]�

Page 46: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

4VSFPIQ��

1SHEP�WYFSVHMREXMSR�MRZSPZIW�E�TVEKQEXMG�VIWSPYXMSR�SJ�XLI�YRHIVWXSSHVIWXVMGXMSR�SJ�E�QSHEP� 8LMW�MRHMVIGXRIWW�MW�QSWX�ZMZMH�MR�±TSPEVMX]W[MXGL²�

��� (SR´X�TEVO�XLIVI� =SY�[MPP�FI�XS[IH� !(SR´X�TEVO�XLIVI� MJ�]SY�HS� ]SY�[MPP�FI�XS[IH�

2S�TSPEVMX]�W[MXGL�MR�-E(W�

��� (SR´X�TEVO�XLIVI�ERH�]SY�[MPP�FI�XS[IH� &=(SR´X�TEVO�XLIVI� MJ�]SY�HS� ]SY�[MPP�FI�XS[IH�

Page 47: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

��� 'SRWIVZI�]SYV�IRIVK]� =SY�[MPP�VYR�SYX�SJ�FVIEXL� !'SRWIVZI�]SYV�IRIVK]� -J�]SY�HSR´X� ]SY�[MPP�VYR�SYX�SJ�FVIEXL�

��� 'SRWIVZI�]SYV�IRIVK]�ERH�]SY�[MPP�VYR�SYX�SJ�FVIEXL� &='SRWIVZI�]SYV�IRIVK]� -J�]SY�HSR´X� ]SY�[MPP�VYR�SYX�SJ�FVIEXL

Page 48: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

4VSFPIQ��1SHEP�WYFSVHMREXMSR��EKEMR�F�G�SJ�MXW�MRHMVIGXRIWW �EPPS[W�QSSH�GLSMGI�

��� 6IEH�XLEX�FSSO�F]�1E\�

!-J�]SY�HS-J�]SY�HMH

"� ]SY

![MPP[SYPH

"PMOI�MX�

��� =SY

#$

%

LEZI�XSQYWXWLSYPH

&'

( VIEH�XLEX�FSSO�F]�1E\�

!-J�]SY�HS-J�]SY�HMH

"� ]SY

![MPP[SYPH

"PMOI�MX�

-E(W�HS�RSX�EPPS[�QSSH�GLSMGI�

��� 7XYH]�LEVH�ERH�]SY

![MPP�[SYPH

"TEWW�XLI�GPEWW�

Page 49: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

8]TI�- -E(W�HS RSX MRZSPZI�E�XVYI�MQTIVEXMZI���QSHEP�WYFSVHMREXMSR�

Page 50: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

9RM½IH�EGGSYRX#

7S� QE]FI�[I�WLSYPH�I\TPSVI�LS[�8]TI�-- -E(W�[SVO�ERH�XV]�XSWYFWYQI�8]TI�- -E(W�YRHIV�XLIQ�

Page 51: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

&SPMRKIV����� # 6YWWIPP�����

&SPMRKIV�

��� �?-JA�]SY �XIPP�LMQ�ER]XLMRK� �ERH �LI�NYWX�PSSOW�EX�]SY�FPEROP]�

±XLIVI�LEW�FIIR�ER�ETLIWMW�SJ�XLI�MRMXMEP MJ SV MJ ]SY� [LMGL�TVSHYGIWWSQIXLMRK�[MXL�EPP�XLI�ETTIEVERGI�SJ�ER�MQTIVEXMZI�ERH EGGSYRXW�JSVXLSWI�WYTTSWIH�GSRHMXMSREP�MQTIVEXMZIW�XLEX�PIEWX�VIWIQFPI�GSQQERHW²

6YWWIPP� ±XLI�:4W�MR�?-E(WA�EVI�STXMSREPP]�RSR�MQTIVEXMZI�WIGSRH�TIVWSRWIRXIRGIW²

Page 52: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

.IWTIVWIR�����

±%W�XLI�MQTIVEXMZI�LEW�RS�TEVXMGYPEV�IRHMRK�MR�)RKPMWL� SRI�QMKLXTIVLETW�JIIP�MRGPMRIH�XS�XLMRO�XLEX�XLIWI�WIRXIRGIW�GSRXEMRIH�MR½RMXMZIW�XLSYKL�LS[�YWIH# � 4EVEPPIP�YWIW�MR�SXLIV�PERKYEKIW�WLS[�YW� LS[IZIV�GPIEVP]�XLEX�XLI]�GSRXEMR�MQTIVEXMZIW�²

��� 7EKIWE]�-14

HEW�XLEX

YRHERH

HY]SY

[MVWX[MPP�FI

ZIVL}LRX�LIGOPIH

³7E]�XLEX�ERH�]SY´PP�FI�LIGOPIH�

Page 53: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

+VIIO�-E(W

��� /ERIHS�-14

XEXLI

QEXLMQEXEPIWWSRW

WY]SYV

OIERH

SPEEPP

XLE*98

TERIKS

OEPI[IPP

��� *EI)EX�-14

IRESRI

ETSJVSQ

EJXEXLIWI

OIERH

XLE*98

TIXLERMWHMI

QIWE�WI[MXLMR

����

SVIWLSYVW

³)EX�SRI�SJ�XLIWI�ERH�]SY�[MPP�HMI�[MXLMR����LSYVW´

��� %RMOWI3TIR�-14

XMRXLI

I½QIVMHLETETIV

OIERH

XLE*98

ZVMW½RH

��PEXLMQMWXEOIW

WISR

OEXLIIZIV]

WIPMHLETEKI

Page 54: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

9RM½IH�EGGSYRX#

,ER�

� MQTIVEXMZI�MW�WXVMTTIH�SJ�?HMVIGXMZIA�JIEXYVI�MR�FSXL�X]TIW

� WMQTP]�WIVZIW�EW�E�GSRHMXMSREP�ERXIGIHIRX�JSV�XLI�WIGSRH�GSRNYRGX

� TVEKQEXMGW�TVIHMGXW�[LIXLIV�½VWX�GSRNYRGX�MW�TIVGIMZIH�EWHIWMVIH�GSQQERHIH�SV�GSRXVE�MRHMGEXIH�SV�RIYXVEP

Page 55: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

(IHYGMRK�JSVGI

��� -J�]SY�WXYH]�LEVH� ]SY�[MPP�WYGGIIH�

��� -J�]SY�KSSJ�SJJ� ]SY�[MPP�JEMP�

Page 56: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

1EVOMRK�TSWMXMZI�JSVGI

��� 7XYHMIVIWXYH]�-14

FPSWWFPSWW

¾IMWWMKFYWMP]

YRHERH

HIVXLI

8IWXXIWX

[MVHFIGSQIW

KER^XSXEPP]

IMRJEGL�IEW]

Page 57: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

% GSYTPI�SJ�Q]WXIVMSYWQEVOIVW�MR�)RKPMWL

8]TI�- -E(W��FYX�RSX�8]TI�-- EPPS[ HS�IQTLEWMW�ERH�UYERXM½IH�WYFNIGXW�6YWWIPP� 7GSRXVEW��+MFWSR �

��� E� (S�WXYH]�LEVH�ERH�]SY�[MPP�WYGGIIH�F� �(S�MKRSVI�]SYV�LSQI[SVO�ERH�]SY�[MPP�JEMP�

��� E� 2SFSH]�KSSJ�SJJ�ERH�EPP�[MPP�KS�[IPP�F� �2SFSH]�[SVO�LEVH�ERH�EPP�[MPP�FI�PSWX�

Page 58: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

2SX�GSQQERH�QEVOIVW

2&� HS�IQTLEWMW�ERH�UYERXM½IH�WYFNIGXW�QMKLX�FI�QEVOIVW�SJ�HIWMVEFMPMX]�ERH�XLYW�MRJIPMGMXSYW�MR�8]TI�-- -E(W�[MXL�YRHIWMVEFPI�GSRWIUYIRXW �FYXXLI]�EVI�RSX�GSQQERH�QEVOIVW� 8LI]�WIIQ�½RI�MR�TIVQMWWMSR�YWIW��# �

��� %� 'ER�- STIR�XLI�[MRHS[#&� 7YVI� KS�ELIEH� HS�STIR�MX�

��� %� 'ER�[I�WMX�HS[R#&� 7YVI� KS�ELIEH� IZIV]SRI�WMX�HS[R�

Page 59: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

(MWXMRKYMWL�HIWMVEFMPMX]�QEVOIVW

� WXVSRK�MQTIVEXMZI�QIERMRK

� YRHIVWTIGM½IH�EX�MWWYI�QIERMRK���WIGSRH�HMQIRWMSR�QEVOIV�SJHIWMVEFMPMX]

Page 60: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

7XVSRK�MQTIVEXMZIW

3YV�PERKYEKI�WEQTPI�GSRXEMRW�MQTIVEXMZI�PMOI�GSRWXVYGXMSRW�XLEX�WIIQXS�I\TVIWW�WXVSRK�QIERMRKW��GSQQERH�SRP]# � *SV�I\EQTPI� ,IFVI[GER�YWI�XLI�JYXYVI�SV�XLI�MR½RMXMZI�XS�GSRZI]�GSQQERHW�

��� PE�WLIZIX�-2*�WMX³7MX�´

��� XI�\EFIO*98���LYK�WK�1

SX�S�%''��WK�1

³,YK�LMQ�´

3RP]�XLI�JYXYVI�GER�LEZI�TIVQMWWMSR�VIEHMRKW� 3RP]�XLI�JYXYVI�SGGYVW�MRER]�X]TI�SJ�-E(W�

Page 61: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

-RXIVMQ�WYQQEV]�SJ�SYV�WYVZI]

� 7SQI�MQTIVEXMZI�PMOI�GSRWXVYGXMSRW��,IFVI[�ERH�'EXEPERMR½RMXMZIW� 7PSZIRMER�WYFNYRGXMZIW �GER�SRP]�FI�YWIH�MR�GSQQERHW�RSX�MR�TIVQMWWMSR� RSX�MR�-E(W �

� 1SWXP]� ER]XLMRK�XLEX�GER�FI�YWIH�MR�TIVQMWWMSR�GER�EPWS�FI�YWIH�MR-E(W� ERH�ZMGI�ZIVWE�

� 3RI�GEWI�SJ�E�GSRWXVYGXMSR�XLEX�GER�I\TVIWW�TIVQMWWMSR�FYX�GERRSXFI�YWIH�MR�-E(W� 4EPIWXMRMER�%VEFMG�RIKEXIH�TVIWIRX�MQTIVJIGXMZIW�

� -R�QSWX�GEWIW� MQTIVEXMZI�PMOI�GSRWXVYGXMSRW�XLEX�GER�ETTIEV�MR-E(W�GER�FI�YWIH�MR�FSXL�8]TI�- ERH�8]TI�-- -E(W� FSPWXIVMRK�XLIGEWI�JSV�E�YRM½IH�EGGSYRX�

Page 62: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

'EXEPER�RIKEXIH�WYFNYRGXMZIW

��� 2S2SX

HSVQMW�WPIIT�WYFN

³(SR´X�WPIIT´

8LMW�GER�I\TVIWW�TIVQMWWMSR��±1EQE� - HSR´X�[ERX�XS�WPIIT�]IX� MW�XLEX3/#² � 3/ MR�8]TI�- -E(W�FYX�RSX�MR�8]TI�--�

��� 2SHSR´X

ZEKMWKS

EXS

½WMSXIVkTMETL]WMSXLIVET]

MERH

X´IWXEPZMEVkW]SY�[MPP�WEZI

HMRIVWQSRI]

��� ##��2SHSR´X

ZEKMWKS

EXS

½WMSXIVkTMETL]WMSXLIVET]

MERH

UYIHEVkW]SY�[MPP�WXE]

GSM\GVMTTPIH

7S� XLMW�MW�E�GEWI�SJ�E�QSVTLSPSKMGEP�ZIVF�JSVQ�XLEX�WIIQW�XS�GEVV]�QMPH �HIWMVEFMPMX]��FYX�RSX�GSQQERH �MR�MXW�QIERMRK��GJ� )RKPMWL HS �

Page 63: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

'SRGPYWMSR

� -QTIVEXMZIW�LEZI�YWIW�[MXL�RS�XVEGI�SJ�E�GSQQERH�QIERMRK

� 8LMW�JEZSVW�WIQERXMG�QMRMQEPMWQ��k�PE�4SVXRIV

Page 64: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

8(0

� )\TPEMR�GSRXI\X�H]REQMGW�SJ�WXERH�EPSRI�MQTIVEXMZIW��GSQQERH ZW�TIVQMWWMSR� IXG�

� )\TPEMR�XLI�GSQTSWMXMSR�SJ�-E(W

� )\TPEMR�XLI�WIQERXMGW�SJ��YR HIWMVEFMPMX]�QEVOIVW

Page 65: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

-QTIVEXMZI 4Y^^PIW

/EM�ZSR�*MRXIP�[SVO�MR�TVSKVIWW [MXL�7EFMRI�-EXVMHSY

91EWW�0MRKYMWXMGW�'SPPSUYMYQ1EVGL��� ����

Page 66: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

7IGXMSR �

&SRYW� 8LI�GSQTSWMXMSR�SJ�-E(W

Page 67: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

,S[ HS -E(W�[SVO#

� ,S[ HSIW�XLI�½VWX�GSRNYRGX�FIGSQI�XLI�ERXIGIHIRX�SJ�EGSRHMXMSREP�GPEMQ#

� ;LIVI HSIW�XLI�VIWX�SJ�XLI�GSRHMXMSREP�QIERMRK�GSQI�JVSQ�IWTIGMEPP]�XLI�QEMR�STIVEXSV#

Page 68: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

07ERH

'YPMGSZIV��.EGOIRHSJJ������ �

� WXERHEVH�GSSVHMREXMRK ERH

� PIJX�WYF�SVHMREXMRK ERH� E�O�E� 07ERH�

��� 3RI�QSVI�GER�SJ�FIIV�ERH�-´Q�PIEZMRK�

��� =SY�HVMRO�ERSXLIV�GER�SJ�FIIV�ERH�-´Q�PIEZMRK�

��� &MK�0SYMI�WIIW�]SY�[MXL�XLI�PSSX�ERH�LI�TYXW�SYX�E�GSRXVEGX�SR]SY�

Page 69: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

4VSTIVXMIW�SJ 07ERH

��� %RSXLIV�TMGXYVI�SJ�LMQWIPJ��ETTIEVW �MR�XLI�TETIV 07ERH 7YWERXLMROW�XLEX�.SLR�[MPP�HI½RMXIP]�KS�SYX�ERH�KIX�E�PE[]IV�

��� =SY�KMZI�LMQ�IRSYKL�STTSVXYRMX] 07ERH IZIV]�WIREXSV� RSQEXXIV�LS[�LSRIWX� [MPP�WYGGYQF�XS�GSVVYTXMSR�

��� E� =SY�ORS[� SJ�GSYVWI� XLEX�]SY�HVMRO�SRI�QSVI�FIIV�ERH]SY�KIX�OMGOIH�SYX� &=

F� =SY�ORS[� SJ�GSYVWI� XLEX�]SY�HVMRO�SRI�QSVI�FIIV�ERHXLEX�]SY�KIX�OMGOIH�SYX�

��� ��&MK�0SYMI�WIIW�]SY�[MXL�XLI�PSSX�ERH�TYXW�SYX�E�GSRXVEGX�SR]SY�

Page 70: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

8YVOMWL-R�SYV�MRMXMEP�WEQTPI�SJ�PERKYEKIW�����QIHMXIVVERIER�PERKYEKIW���)RKPMWL�+IVQER � SRP]�8YVOMWL�HSIW�RSX�LEZI 07ERH�GSRWXVYGXMSRW�

��� ##��&MVSRI

LEXEQMWXEOI

HELEQSVI

ZIERH

WIR��M]SY��WK� �EGG

M7 �MR��HIR[SVO���WK�TSWW��EFP�

EX��EV��-QXLVS[�ESV����WK³SRI�QSVI�QMWXEOI�ERH�-´PP�½VI�]SY�JVSQ�]SYV�NSF´

��� �OEH-R�PEV�E[SQER�TP�HEX

K�P�QWI�QI��WMWQMPI�³MRK´���WK�TSWW

]IXIVWYJ½GMIRX

ZIERH

LIQIRMQQIHMEXIP]

OIRHMWMR��I��WK�HEX

XYX��YP��YV�PEVGETXYVI��MQTIVW� TEWW��ESV����TP�

MRX�� ³-X W�IRSYKL�JSV�LMQ�XS�WQMPI�EX�[SQIR�ERH�XLI]MQQIHMEXIP]�JEPP�JSV�LMQ´

%RH�SRP]�8YVOMWL�HSIW�RSX�LEZI�-E(W��SJ�IMXLIV�X]TI �

Page 71: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

8YVOMWL�8]TI�--

8YVOMWL�HSIW�LEZI�GSRHMXMSREP�MQTIVEXMZIW�FYX�XLI]�LEZI�XS�FI�EW]RHIXMG�RS ERH �

��� &MVSRI

HEOMOEQMRYXI

KIpPEXI

OEP�WXE]�-14�

��ZI �ERH

OMQWIRSFSH]

FIOPI�QI^�[EMX�2)+�-14*��7+

³-J�]SY�EVI�SRI�QMRYXI�PEXI� RSFSH]�[MPP�[EMX�JSV�]SY´

Page 72: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

9RHIVWXERHMRK 07ERH

-R 07ERH�GSRWXVYGXMSRW� E�GSRHMXMSREP�QIERMRK�GSQIW�EFSYX� &YX�LS[#

� /EYJQERR� MR�-E(W� XLI�MQTIVEXMZI�QSHEP�MR�XLI ½VWX GSRNYRGXXEOIW�WGSTI�SZIV�XLI�IRXMVI�GSRWXVYGXMSR�ERH�MW�VIWXVMGXIH�F]�XLIVIQEMRMRK�QEXIVMEP�MR�XLI�½VWX�GSRNYRGX

� /IWLIX� MR 07ERH�GSRWXVYGXMSRW� XLI�QSHEP�MR�XLI WIGSRH GSRNYRGXXEOIW�WGSTI�SZIV�XLI�IRXMVI�GSRWXVYGXMSR�ERH�MW�VIWXVMGXIH�F]�XLIQEXIVMEP�MR�XLI�½VWX�GSRNYRGX

Page 73: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

4VSFPIQ�JSV�/EYJQERR

��� ��##=SY

#$

%

LEZI�XSQYWXWLSYPH

&'

( MRZIWX�MR�XLMW�GSQTER]

ERH�]SY�[MPP�FIGSQI�VMGL�

��� ��##=SY

#$

%

LEZI�XSQYWXWLSYPH

&'

( MKRSVI�]SYV�LSQI[SVO

ERH�]SY�[MPP�JEMP�XLI�GPEWW�

8LIVI�EVI�SXLIV�TVSFPIQW�©

Page 74: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

% WIZIVI�GLEPPIRKI�JSV

07ERH�EREP]WIW

ZSR�*MRXIP��-EXVMHSY������

��� =SY�SRP]�LEZI�XS�KS�XS�XLI�2SVXL�)RH�ERH�]SY�[MPP�KIX�KSSHGLIIWI�

Page 75: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

%RSXLIV�HIWMHIVEXYQ

��� =SY�SRP]�LEZI�XS�KS�XS�XLI�7XEXE�'IRXIV�ERH�]SY�[MPP�½RH�SYX[LEX�1SVVMW�MW�[SVOMRK�SR�

&SPMRKIV� ±MRXVMRWMG�GSRWIUYIRGI²

��� E� 0MOI�LIV�ERH�LIV�JVMIRHW�[MPP�PSZI�]SY�F� �0MOI�LIV�ERH�-´PP�MRXVSHYGI�LIV�XS�]SY�

��� E� 3[R�E�TMIGI�SJ�TVSTIVX]�ERH�]SY�KIX�XE\IH�QIVGMPIWWP]�F� �3[R�XLMW�TVSTIVX]�ERH�-´PP�FY]�MX�JVSQ�]SY

Page 76: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

8S�HS�PMWX

� 2IIH�E�YRM½IH�EREP]WMW�SJ�EPP�-E(W��WMRGI�XLI�SFZMSYW�WTIGMEPEREP]WMW�SJ�8]TI�- -E(W�MW�MRGSVVIGX

� %WWMQMPEXI�-E(W�XS 07ERH�GSRWXVYGXMSRW�MR�KIRIVEP

� +MZI�E�GSQTSWMXMSREP�EREP]WMW�SJ 07ERH ERH�EPP�MXW�HMWXMRGXMZITVSTIVXMIW

� 2IGIWWEV]�MRKVIHMIRX��MX�WIIQW � E�QIERMRK�JSV�MQTIVEXMZIWWXVMTTIH�SJ�HMVIGXMZMX]

Page 77: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

-QTIVEXMZI 4Y^^PIW

/EM�ZSR�*MRXIP�[SVO�MR�TVSKVIWW [MXL�7EFMRI�-EXVMHSY

91EWW�0MRKYMWXMGW�'SPPSUYMYQ1EVGL��� ����

Page 78: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

)\GYVWYW�%HZIVXMWMRK�-QTIVEXMZIW

(EZMIW������ T����

��� ;MR�YT�XS�������MR�XLMW�[IIO W�GSQTIXMXMSR�

��� 4EWW�+�'�)��MR�ER]�WYFNIGX�]SY�PMOI�

��� 7TIEO�E�RI[�PERKYEKI�EJXIV�EW�PMXXPI�EW�IMKLX�[IIOW�

±?8ALI�TIVPSGYXMSREV]�MRXIRX�SJ�XLI�EYXLSVW�SJ�WYGL�MQTIVEXMZIW�MWYWYEPP]�XS�KIX�XLI�TYFPMG�XS�YWI�XLIMV�TVSHYGXW�SV�WIVZMGIW�MR�SVHIV�XSVIEPMWI�XLI�TSWWMFMPMX]�VIJIVVIH�XS� FYX�XLI�YXXIVERGIW�XLIQWIPZIW�HS�RSXWIIQ�XS�LEZI�XLI�JSVGI�SJ�ER]�OMRH�SJ�HMVIGXMZI� 6EXLIV�XLER�GSRWXMXYXMRKI\TVIWWMSRW�SJ�ER�MRXIRXMSR�XLEX�TISTPI�WLSYPH�HS�WSQIXLMRK� XLI]�GSYPHFI�WEMH�XS�LEZI�ER�MRJSVQEXMZI�JYRGXMSR� QIVIP]�MRHMGEXMRK�XLEX�WSQIXLMRKGER�FI�HSRI�²

Page 79: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

+VIIO�EHZIVXMWMRK�MQTIVEXMZIW

��� TEVMKMPISVHIV�-14

ISWYT�XS

XVME�

TIVMSHMOEQEKE^MRIW

HSVIERJSV�JVII

³3VHIV�YT�XS���QEKE^MRIW�JSV�JVII�´

��� SHMKMWIHVMZI�-14

TERSEFSZI

ETSJVSQ

����

QMPMEQMPIW

XMRXLI

SVELSYV

WISR

QIVMOYWWSQI

HVSQYWWXVIIXW

³(VMZI�SZIV����QMPIW�TIV�LSYV�SR�WSQI�WXVIIXW�´

��� OIVHMWI[MR�-14

TERSSZIV

ETSJVSQ

IOEXS���

IOEXSQMVMEQMPPMSR

HSPEVMEHSPPEVW

³;MR�SZIV�����QMPPMSR�HSPPEVW�´

Page 80: What do imperatives mean? - MIT+viio -e(w /eri hs -14 xe xli qexlmqexe piwwsrw wy]syv oi erh spe epp xle *98 teri ks oepi [ipp *ei)ex -14 ire sri ets jvsq ejxe xliwi oi erh xle *98

-QTIVEXMZI 4Y^^PIW

/EM�ZSR�*MRXIP�[SVO�MR�TVSKVIWW [MXL�7EFMRI�-EXVMHSY

91EWW�0MRKYMWXMGW�'SPPSUYMYQ1EVGL��� ����