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Srisurang Poolthupya269

The Influence of theRamayana on Thai Culture:Kingship, Literature, FineArts and Performing Arts*

Srisurang Poolthupya**Fellow of the Academy of Art,

The Royal Institute,Thailand

Abstract

The epic Ramayana of India gave birth to the Ramakien of Thailand. The story of

the Ramayana or the Rama story has been known in Thailand since the 13th century if not

earlier. References to the Rama story have been made in inscriptions and literary works. There

are also Thai folklores and place names based on the Rama story. The origin of Khon (masked

dance drama) which performs exclusively the Ramakien is traced back from the Ayudhya

period to the present. The impact of the Ramakien on Thai Culture is quite great. The concept

of kingship is influenced by the Ramakien. In literature, there are many versions of the

Ramakien, the Thai story of the Ramayana. In fine arts, the Ramakien inspires painting,

sculpture, architecture, and handicrafts. In performing arts, there are Khon, Nang Yai, Nang

Talung and various kinds of puppets that perform the Ramakien. There are also arts derived

from the Ramakien performance. These are drama, dance, music, singing, recitation, choreo-

graphy, costumes, mask-making, setting, and puppet-making. The worshipping of the masters

before learning the art or performing is an elaborate ceremony and also an art in itself.

The Ramayana or Ramakien is particularly appealing to the Thai people because it

presents the image of an ideal king, Rama, who symbolizes the force of virtue or dharma while

Thotsakan (Ravana) represents the force of evil. Eventually the force of good prevails. Being

Buddhists, the Thai poets bring into the story the Buddhist philosophy of transitoriness.

Nothing is permanent except the law of cause and effect. Though an old story, the Ramakien is

still relevant to the present day. The use of force without moral back-ups is destructive as well

as futile. Only those who rely on virtue will triumph.

Key words : Ramayana and Thai Culture

* Presented at the 2nd International Ramayana Conference, University of Northern Illinois, July 2005. The spellings of non-English wordsfollow the international rule, not that of the RIT.

** Professor Emeritus

The Journal of the Royal Institute of Thailand

Vol. 31 No. 1 Jan.-Mar. 2006

The Influence of the Ramayana on Thai Culture:Kingship, Literature, Fine Arts and Performing Arts270

The Ramayana in ThailandThe Rama story which is

based on the Indian epic Ramayanais known in Thailand as theRamakien (Ramakian). The Ramastory may have been well-knownin Thailand since the 13th centuryif not earlier. In the SukhothaiKingdom, mentions were madeof Ram cave in King Ram Kam-haeng’s Stone Inscription No. 1, ofRama as the god Narayana in theStone Inscription No.2 from SriChum temple, and also the veryname of King Ram Kamhaengshows that the Rama story waswell-known at that time andpossibly before.

In various literary works ofthe Ayudhya period (A.D. 1351-1767), there are frequent referencesto the Rama story. For example,the “ten-headed” demon king(Ravana), Rama and Lakshmanare mentioned in Kloong PrakatChaeng Nam composed in thereign of King Uthong (A.D. 1351-1369) who was also called KingRamadhipati I. Similes and meta-phors referring to the Rama storyabound. The king’s power in LilitYuan Phai1 is compared to themight of Rama who subduedRavana. In the Ayudhya versionof Manohra, a drama in verse, thestory of Sita is briefly told. Un-doubtedly, the Ramakien musthave been composed and becomequite popular in the Kingdomof Ayudhya. Unfortunately, justfragments of the Ramakien duringthe Ayudhya period are found.

Only some parts starting fromthe punishment of Samanakha(Surpanakha) up to the death ofKumbhakarna in the form ofrecitation (Kham Phak) remainat present.2

There is also evidence thatentertainments related to the Ra-makien also existed in the Ayudhyaperiod. Nang Yai or the grandshadow play must have been oneof the first forms of entertainmentin Ayudhya. Nang Yai at that timepresented many stories includingthe Ramakien. It is believed thatNang Yai existed before the reignof King Narai Maharaj (A.D. 1657-1688)3. For it was King Narai’sintention to use the existing NangYai as the means to instil theBuddhist belief among Thai peo-ple through the story of Samu-draghosa Kham Chanda com-posed during his reign for NangYai performances.

It is possible that the ThaiNang Yai was adapted from theJavanese shadow play becausethe performers hold the leatherfigures in front of the screen in thesame way. The narrator (Dalangin Javanese) plays the most im-portant part in both Nang Yai andthe Javanese shadow play.

The masked dance drama orKhon might originate in theAyudhya period from Nang Yai.The footworks of Nang Yaiperformers who manipulate theleather figures are rather similarto those of the Khon performers.Yet Khon might originate in the

reign of King Ramadhipati II(A.D. 1491-1529). In IndrabhisekCeremony of that time there wasa performance of the churningof the milk ocean to obtain theAmrita (ambrosia) which givesimmortality to the drinkers.4 Itwas called “Chak Nag Duk Dam-ban” which means the ancientceremony of pulling Vasuki naga(the divine serpent) which wastied to Mount Mandara used forchurning the cosmic ocean. Thisstory demonstrates Vishnu’s powerwho reincarnated as a giant tortoisesupporting Mount Mandara. Whenthe goddess Lakshmi was bornfrom the ceremony, Vishnu tookher to be his consort. The gianttortoise is Vishnu’s second rein-carnation while Rama is Vishnu’sseventh reincarnation. Lakshmialso reincarnated as Sita.

The Khon performance inthe Ayudhya period was probablyof Khon Roong Nok type5 whichwas performed outside the buildingon a built-up stage for the purpose.It was performed with narrationsand dialogues only, with no sing-ing. It was commonly known asKhon Nang Rao for the performerssat on a bamboo bar (nang - sit,rao = bar). In the reign of KingNarai, Monsieur de La Loubère,French ambassador to Siam, wroteabout the Khon performance inwhich performers wore masks.6

So Khon was already known inKing Narai’s reign.

The Ramakien which meansthe glory of Rama must have

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become a part of Thai heritagesince the Ayudhya period. WhenAyudhya was sacked by theBurmese, the Thais tried to pre-serve the Ramakien. AlthoughKing Taksin of Thonburi (A.D.1767-1782) was busy pushingback the invading Burmese, hespared the time to compose a fewepisodes of the Ramakien.

In the Rattanakosin (Rat-nakosindra) or Bangkok period(A.D. 1782-present) many versionsof the Ramakien were composed.The most notable ones are thosecomposed by King Rama I, RamaII and Rama VI. The Rama IRamakien is most importantbecause it is the only version thattells the complete Rama story. TheRama II Ramakien is generallyused for stage because the dra-matic and exciting episodes werewritten especially for Khon per-formances. The Rama VI Ra-makien has some episodes veryclose to the Valmiki Ramayana,for example, Vibhishana in thisversion is a brave warrior whereasin Rama I and II versions he isan astrologer, medicine man anda coward. He becomes a comicfigure when he acts cowardly,being scared of his powerful bro-thers and nephew.7

The Influence of the Ramayana(Ramakien) on Thai Culture:Kingship

Before the 1932 revolution,Thailand or Siam was ruled by

absolute monarchs. Yet absolutemonarchy in Thailand was nottotally absolute. It was modifiedby the Buddhist concept ofDharmaraja who must rule bydharma or righteousness. A kingshould possess ten kingly virtuessuch as generosity, self-sacrifice,justice. In addition to Buddhistvirtues, the king should strive tomake his rule resemble Ramarajyaor the ideal reign of Rama regardedas the golden age. This explainswhy many kings has the word Ramas part of their names such as RamKhamhaeng, Ramadhipati andRamesvar. Especially the Thaikings of the present Chakri dynastyhave long names beginning withthe word “Ramadhipati”. The sixthking of the Chakri dynasty startedthe tradition of calling himselfRama. Thus posthumously the 5kings before him became KingRama I, Rama II, Rama III and soon. Our present King Bhumibol isregarded as King Rama IX. Thisis not just a mere name. The ideabehind it is that the king is divinelike Rama in the Ramayana andthe Ramakien and he must striveto be as good as Rama, the rein-carnation of the god Vishnu.Therefore, the king must use hisabsolute power only for the benefitof his people, not for his ownpersonal gain. Now the Thai Kingis a constitutional monarch andhis power derives from his de-dicated work for the benefit ofthe Thai people.

LiteratureThere are many folk tales

based on the Ramakien. Varioustowns have folk tales connectedwill the Ramakien. In Lop Burithere are many folk tales of thiskind. In one tale, Rama returnedto Ayudhya after the end of thewar. Wishing to reward Hanuman,Rama shot an arrow and toldHanuman to follow it. The placewhere the arrow fell would beHanuman’s city to rule. The arrowfell on Lop Buri where the earthturned white because of the heat ofthe arrow’s impact. This storyexplains the white earth whichLop Buri people use for makingtalcum powder.

In Chainat there is a mountaincalled Khao Sapaya where Hanu-man collected a medicinal plantcalled Sangkoranitrijava. The topof this mountain is flat and smoothbecause Hanuman enlarged hisbody and used his huge tail tosweep the mountain to obtain thewanted plant.

In Saraburi there is a moun-tain where there is a big hole rightthrough one side. The tale tellshow Thotsakan (Ravana) carriedSita in his chariot. While he wasrushing past the mountain, theaxle of the chariot wheel hit themountain and made a big hole.

Both Chonburi and Phatta-lung claim to be the place whereBali (Vali) fought with the buffalonamed Thoraphi (Dundhubi) be-cause the earth around the caves inboth places is red like the buffalo’s


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blood. All the folk tales aboveprove the popularity of the Ra-makien as well as the imaginativemind of the local people who tryto explain the outstanding phe-nomena of their town or city byreferring to the Ramakien.

There are more than 10 ver-sions of the Ramakien existing inThai literary forms, a few of whichalready referred to in the historyof the Ramakien. Most of themare written in various verse forms,rich in imageries, similes andmetaphors, a source of inspirationfor poets and writers of every ge-neration. Thai customs, traditions,philosophy, belief and all kindsof knowledge are so much inter-woven into the Ramakien that ithas become important not only inthe field of literature but also inthe fields of history, geography,sociology and anthropology. TheRamakien in regional dialects areHoraman and Brahmachakrain Northern Thailand (Lanna),Phalak Phalam and Phra RamJataka from Northeastern Thai-land and Laos. The study of thesetexts helps the understanding ofThai regional culture.

There are similes, metaphorsand expressions that derive fromthe Ramakien. For example, Ha-numan in the Ramakien servedRama faithfully and performeddifficult tasks but Hanuman of-ten incurred Rama’s displeasure.Once Rama promised to rewardHanuman whatever he was wear-ing when Hanuman brought him

the news of Sita. Hanumanhappened to arrive with the newswhile Rama was bathing in theriver, wearing just a loin clothwhich he gave to Hanuman aspromised. As Hanuman actedbeyond Rama’s order, burningLanka, Rama was displeased withhim. So there is a simile “ill-fatedlike Hanuman.” An ungrateful sonis called “Thoraphi” because thebuffalo Thoraphi killed his ownfather. The expression “amorousdemon” (Chao Chu Yak) conjuresup the image of Thotsakan whotried to use force to obtain Sita’slove.

Fine ArtThe Ramakien inspires pain-

ters, sculptors and architects toexpress their artistic expressions.The Ramakien is one of the favoritethemes because it challenges theskill and imagination with itsvarious characters and scenes.Mural paintings or frescoes oftendepict the Ramakien, especially intemples and palaces. There aremural paintings of the whole storyof Ramakien along the galleriesof the Temple of the Emerald Bud-dha. In Wat Pho (Bodhi Temple)nearby, various scenes of the Ra-makien are depicted both in pain-tings and bas-reliefs. On old Tri-pitaka cabinets, Ramakien scenesare often depicted. In modern buil-dings such as big hotels and banks,depictions of the Ramakien canalso be found in the galleries.

There are numerous sculptures

and woodcarvings of differentcharacters in the Ramakien, thefavorites are demons, monkeys,Nang Suphannamatcha (half-maiden, half fish character) and ofcourse, Rama, Sita and Lakshman.Lintels and other architectural partsof the temples and palaces oftenmade use of the Ramakien motifs.Supporting figures in stupastructures, pavilions and altars arequite often Ramakien characterssuch as demons or monkeys. Hugedemon statues such as Ravana andhis relatives and friends becomepart of the architectural designs, forthey stand guard at the temple gatesor doorways such as in the Templeof Dawn (Wat Arun), the Templeof the Emerald Buddha and WatPho.

Performing ArtsKhon and Nang Yai in the

Bangkok period perform the Ra-makien exclusively. Nang Talungperforms the Ramakien and alsoother stories. Khon is consideredthe most artistic of the performingarts and the most difficult to learn.

There are many kinds of Khonaccording to the forms of the stageand special effects used.

Khon Klang Plaeng is his-torically the oldest kind. It is anopen-air performance staged onthe lawn or any open space. It issuitable for performing battle epi-sodes. Perhaps due to a big space,it requires 2 orchestras or more.There are only recitation or re-citative voice and dialogue but no

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singing. The staging is similar to“Chak Nag Duk Damban” of theAyudhya period.8

Khon Rong Nok or KhonNang Rao is performed on araised platform with a long bigbamboo bar for the royal malecharacters to sit on while royalfemale characters sit on a largebench. There is usually a roofabove this kind of stage. Thereare two orchestras, one on theleft and one on the right of thestage. Like Khon Klang Plaeng,there are only the recitation anddialogue.

Khon Na Jaw is adaptedfrom Nang Yai or the grand sha-dow play. There is a white screenlike in Nang Yai. The performersperform in front of the screen.Formerly Khon Na Jaw was playedalternately with Nang Yai. Later,as people prefer watching Khononly, Nang Yai is not performedwith it. The dialogue, recitationand music of Khon Na Jaw aresimilar to those of Nang Yai.There is only one orchestra andno singing.

Khon Rong Nai is performedinside a theatre. It brings in theart of Lakhon Nai to mix withKhon. Therefore, it incorporatesdancing, singing of the Lakhonwith the recitation and dialoguethat are typical of Khon. There arebig benches for royal charactersto sit, human characters andmonkeys sit on one side and thedemons on the other.

Khon Chak Rok is believed

to be performed since the Ayu-dhya period. The characters whocan fly actually float in the airby the use of pulleys. The actorattaches a big strong string witha hook behind his back and hewill be pulled up in the air to givethe impression of flying. Theacrobatic skill is needed. Apartfrom this, it is the same as KhonNa Jaw.

Khon Chak means the mo-dern Khon performance which isperformed in a theatre with settings(chak) and modern stage tech-niques. There are dancing, singing,recitation and dialogue. There isonly one orchestra at one sidebelow the stage.

Khon Na Fai is the outdoorperformance of Khon in front ofthe cremation site at the temple.In the old days, a well-to-do familywould provide a Khon Na Fai atthe funeral of the deceased one.This practice is rare now. Theperformance usually resemblesthat of Khon Rong Nai except forthe fact that it is not performedinside a theatre. The episodechosen is often a short one withfew characters because of thelimited space and time. When thecremation ceremony is over, theperformance may be continuedon a highly raised open-air stage,playing a longer episode that maylast the whole night to honor thedeceased person. This later per-formance is not called Khon NaFai because the “Fai” or fire of thefuneral pyre is already burnt out.

Khon Sod is the folk versionof Khon. In some areas, it is calledNang Sod because the characterssing their own parts and use thesongs resembling those of theshadow play or Nang Talung.Their dancing gestures also re-semble Nang Talung. The masksare not worn completely like thoseof Khon performers but they areworn perched on top of the headabove the eyebrows so that theycan recite and speak for them-selves while the other kinds ofKhon characters never recite norspeak except for the comic cha-racters who also wear their masksperched on top of the head. Theword “Sod” means “simultaneous”or “in the flesh” for the charactersare men in the flesh who recite,sing or speak their own partswithout waiting for the narratoror chorus to do for them.

The art of Khon performancegives rise to various art forms:

In the field of performingarts, it is believed that Khon givesbirth to at least 4 forms of pup-petry or “Hun” in Thai.

Hun Yai or large full figurepuppets are dressed up exactlylike the Khon characters, they areone metre tall and have hiddenmechanisms to make them movethrough various strings inside thebody parts and the pole in themiddle of the body. The mecha-nisms enable the Hun Yai to dance,make finger movements, roll theeyes and so on. The costumes canbe changed and the masks can


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also be removed. These puppetsor Hun Yai are real works of art.Hun Yai was performed in theAyudhya period, possibly fromthe reign of King Baromakot(A.D. 1733-1748)9 if not earlier.

As these Hun Yai are quitedifficult and expensive to makeand the movements are not asbeautiful as the Khon performersthat they try to imitate, the HunYai performance is not popular.No private performing troupeperforms this kind of puppetry.It was only performed as part ofthe entertainment for a royalcelebration in Ayudhya and earlyBangkok periods. As they arepresented during royal functions,they are also called Hun Luangas “Luang” means “royal”. Now“Hun Luang” is no longer per-formed.

During the reign of KingRama V, Hun Chin from Chinacame into fashion.10 It inspiredthe creation of a new Hun of thesame size as Hun Chin which isonly one foot tall. It has also thesame mechanisms as Hun Yaiand the difference is only in thesize. This new Hun or puppetis smaller, therefore it is calledHun Lek as “Lek” means “small”.It is used for performing theRamakien and other kinds ofdramas. Hun Lek, now calledHun Lakhon Lek is at presentperfected by a troupe called JoLouis. The Thai artist-teacherSakhon Yangkheosod, nick-namedJo Louis, has three artists to ma-

nipulate each puppet: one holdingthe pole in the middle of the puppetbody and manipulating the headand the right hand, one manipu-lating the left hand and the thirdone manipulating the feet. Thethree artists’ feet also dance to themusic. In this way, the puppetcan dance exactly like the Khoncharacter while the audience cansee and admire the skill of theartists manipulating the puppets.

Hun Krabok is another kindof puppet. It is so called becauseit uses a small bamboo trunk,which is called Krabok in Thai,to hold the puppet. Hun Krabokalso originated during the reignof King Rama V. It is only a half-figure puppet showing the head,hands and costume but no feet.The puppeteer can control itsmovements much better thanHun Yai and Hun Lek. The pup-peteer uses his hands to mani-pulate the puppet behind a semi-transparent screen. He also speaksthe puppet’s part. Hun Krabokperforms the Ramakien as wellas other classical dramas.

Lakhon Lek is another kindof puppet. It has a full figure withsupple moving joints. It needs twoto three puppeteers to manipulateeach character. Apart from thebamboo trunk, this Lakhon Lekfigure also has small sticksattached to the hands and feet ofthe puppet. While the sticks helpmake movements more lifelikeand smooth, the audience who cansee the sticks cannot forget that

it is a mere puppet. Lakhon Lekis almost like Hun Lakhon Lekexcept that the latter shows themanipulators on stage while theformer has the manipulator hiddenbehind the screen.

Nowadays Hun Krabok andLakhon Lek are rarely performedbut they are revived in academicinstitutions such as colleges anduniversities as courses in thetheatre arts curriculum or as extra-curricular activities. Now the useof plastic poles instead of bamboomakes the puppets lighter andmore manageable. They are alsoperformed for tourists interestedin Thai arts.

Arts derived from various formsof the performing arts

It can be seen from above thatthe Ramakien performance givesrise to various arts: drama, dance,music, singing and recitation,choreography, the making of cos-tumes, various kinds of puppets,leather puppets for shadow plays,stage set, special effects and tech-niques.

The dancing, music, tunes,singing and recitation mustcombine and compliment oneanother. Besides the masks andcostumes which differentiate onecharacter from another, the dancemovements of human characters,demons and monkeys are dis-tinctive. Masks or headdresseswith high pointed tops signifyroyalty or kingship. Each maskis different in its details such as

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the eyes and mouth, the color,the top or peak of the crown. Ademon dances differently froma man or a monkey. As the maskcan not show emotions or moods,and does not allow a character tospeak, the dance gestures, musicaltunes and songs must convey thefeelings and moods instead. Realhuman gestures are convention-alized into dance gestures which,once understood by the audience,become effective dramatically.Each tune of music has its mean-ing; hearing the music, the au-dience knows what is happening.For example, one tune meansthe character is weeping, anothermeans he is transforming himselffrom a demon into a deer or ahuman being.

The costumes of Khon andHun may look too rich with itsgold and glitters. This is neces-sary especially in the olden dayswhen spotlights had not yet beeninvented. In the glow of oil lampsand burning torches, the costumesneeded to be bright and glitteringto be seen properly from the far-thest audience.

The carved coloured leatherpuppets used for Nang Yai are acombined art of painting, por-traiture and graphic design. Theleather figures become alive bothin front and behind the screen.The play between light andcolours is very artistic. It is apity that the conservation workstarted rather late in the lastcentury. Some old and invaluable

leather puppets disappeared orremain damaged. Many were soldto foreign collectors. The fewremaining are mostly preservedby the monks of Khanon templein Ratchaburi province. However,the art of making leather puppetis still alive and promoted inThailand by H.M. the Queen.

The art involved in the worshipof the master

In connection with the per-formances and studies of Khon,Nang and Hun which present theepisodes from the Ramakien, theceremony of worshipping themasters or Wai Khru must be per-formed. The masters or teachersof old must be worshipped pro-perly and asked for blessings.There are special verses for in-vocation, special offerings anddances for the masters. Neitherperformers nor students dareperform or learn without takingpart in the Wai Khru ceremonyfirst. This shows the ancientThai tradition of obedience andgratitude to their art teachers.The tradition helps preserve theinvaluable art and culture ofThailand.

In the ceremony, the impor-tant masks or all the masks mustbe displayed. Those of the sages(rishis) and Birap (a benigndemon) are especially sacred.Food, flowers and incense sticksare offered to the masters repre-sented by the Khon masks. InNang Yai performance, the wor-

shipping ceremony starts off byplacing the Nang figures of Na-rayana, rishi, and Shiva in frontof the screen.11 Each figure isgarlanded and the head of thetroupe lights 3 candles to beginthe worship.

The reasons for the appeal ofthe Ramakien

The Rama story is a veryappealing story in itself. Morethan a story of love and sacrifice,it presents the image of an idealking Rama who symbolizes theforce of virtue or dharma whileThotsakan (Ravana) symbolizesthe force of evil. In the long strug-gle between the two, Rama even-tually wins. The Ramakien is,therefore, the symbol of victoryof the good over the evil. Ramais also the symbol of good king-ship, of sacred power of the kingwhom everyone must obey, serve,and show absolute loyalty. Theabsolute devotion and loyalty ofRama’s brothers and generals arestressed, so is Sita’s faithfulnessin spite of her long stay in Lanka.

The performance of Rama-kien instils many ideals and muchknowledge while it entertains:moral obligation, bravery, grati-tude, the Buddhist philosophy oftransitoriness and Buddhist lawof cause and effect, war strategy,discipline and many other virtuesnecessary for a nation. The Ra-makien is one of the most success-ful form of moral and political edu-cation for the courtiers, officials


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and the common people beforethe arrival of formal educationfrom the West.

The Khon performance isassociated with the state celebra-tions and ceremonies as well asany grand occasions. The danceand costumes are elaborate andrefined. It is only performed fromtime to time. Therefore, whenevera Khon performance is presented,people flock to see it and enjoythe rare spectacle.

As the Rama story is alsowell-known to other countries inSoutheast Asia, it serves as thecommon background of cultureand the common ground amongthe Southeast Asian countries tobuild up understanding andfriendship through literary anddramatic activities. Most of all,the Ramakien links Thailand toIndia which is the ancient andmain source of Thai culture. TheRamakien helps the Thai peopleunderstand and appreciate thegreatness of the Ramayana ofIndia.

In the past, many Thai kingsand poets tried their hand atcomposing the Ramakien invarious verse forms. As the idealsexpressed in the Ramakien areimmortal, they still inspire mo-dern poets, writers, dramatists andartists. The message in the Ra-makien can be studied and appliedin the modern society. The useof force should be denounced

as destructive and futile. For thepowerful but evil Thotsakan orRavana will finally fall while amere human-being who relieson virtue like Rama will alwayssurvive.

Footnotes

1 Composed in the reign of King Ba-

romatrailokanath (A.D. 1448-1488)

2 Anumanrajadhon, Phraya, The

Complete Works of Professor

Phraya Anumanrajadhon, Book I

(Bangkok : Krom Silpakorn, 1988),

p. 197.

3 Pa-ob Posakrisna, Wannakam

Prakob Kanlen Nang Yai Wat

Khanon Changwat Ratchaburi

(Bangkok : Ministry of Education,

1990), p. 5.

4 Krom Phraya Damrongrajanubhab,

Tamnan Lakhon Inao (Bangkok :

Klang Vidya, 1964), p. 12.

5 King Rama VI, Bor Kerd Rama-

kien (Bangkok : Silpabannakan,

1970), p. 210.

6 Sant T. Komolbutr (tr.) The King-

dom of Siam by M. de La Loubère,

2 vols, vol. I (Bangkok : Kaona

Press, 1967), p. 217.

7 Anumanrajadhon, Phraya, op.cit,

pp. 202-204.

8 Maneepin Phromsuthirak, “Influence

of the Ramakien on the Arts,” Special

Exhibition of the Ramakien in Thai

Arts and Culture (Bangkok : Thai-

land Cultural Center, 1991), p. 78.

9 Wiboon Leesuwan, Moradok Thai

(Bangkok : Panaya, 1978), p.58.

10 Ibid., p. 47.

11 Pa-ob Posakrisna, op.cit., p. 19.

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Bangkok : Silpabannakan, 1970.

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ªï∑’Ë ÛÒ ©∫ —∫∑ ’Ë Ò ¡.§.-¡ ’.§. ÚıÙ˘ The Influence of ... some...

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