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2013

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ABSTRACT

This paper is a first study of spelling skills of deaf and hard of hearing students in

primary and secondary education in Greece. Specifically, it is examined whether the

deaf and hard of hearing students are more prone to misspellings than hearing

students, what kind of errors make and if hearing loss, method of communication,

educational level and type of school affect their spelling choices. 52 deaf students

from schools in Athens, Patras and Thessaloniki and 41 hearing as a control group

participated in this study. The results showed that deaf and hard of hearing students

make all kinds of spelling errors (phonological, grammatical, visual-orthographic),

2

that they are more prone to misspellings than hearing students and differ significantly

from the hearing in the category of phonological errors. Moreover, the degree of

hearing loss, school type and method of communication do not affect spelling choices,

while the level of education affects the spelling choices of deaf and hard of hearing

students in the root of the words.

Key words: spelling, spelling skills, spelling errors, deaf - hard of hearing students

3

1: , .......... 4

1.1. ........................................................................ 4

1.2. .................................................................................................. 4

1.3. .......................................................................................................... 6

1.4. ................................................................................................................... 8

2: ........................................................................ 9

2.1. .......................................................................... 9

2.2. ................................................................... 11

2.3. ................ 14

2.3.1. .................................................................................................. 14

2.3.1.1. ........................................................................................... 14

2.3.1.2. ........................................................................................ 17

2.3.1.3. - ........................................................................... 21

2.4. ................................................................ 25

2.4.1. ............................................................................................. 26

2.4.2. : ............................................ 29

3: ................................................................................................. 39

3.1. ........................................................................................................................... 39

3.2. ............................................................................................................. 44

3.3. ................................................................................................ 45

3.4. - ................................................................................................ 46

4: ............................................................................................... 49

5: ........................................................................................................... 71

......................................................................................................................... 77

............................................................................................................................ 85

4

1: ,

1.1.

.

,

.

,

:

)

;

) ;

) ,

, ,

;

,

, ,

.

1.2.

.

,

,

5

.

, -

. ,

, Moores (2001). , ,

,

(, 2002: 69),

,

, ,

,

.

.

,

, ,

(, , , )

(, 1997),

.

,

.

, ,

.. (Hanson, 1989; Kelly, Albertini & Shannon, 2001;

Goldin - Meadow & Mayberry, 2001).

,

6

(Padden, 1993; Leybaert & Alegria, 1995; Aaron et al, 1998; Sutcliffe et al,

1999; Allman, 2002; Harris & Moreno, 2004; Olson & Caramazza, 2004).

,

(, 2009; , 2010),

.

( ),

(, 1993; ,

1997; , 2000; , 2002),

.

,

, . 3699/2008 ( 3, 1)

, ,

, (Kotoulas

& Panteliadou, 2000; Tsesmeli & Seymour, 2006; , 2009).

,

. , ,

,

.

1.3.

: ,

(, 1913: 69, ,

2002).

7

:

(, ,

, )

(, 2005).

:

,

( &

2001).

: ,

.

(, , ).

70dB (, 1999).

: ,

. ,

.

35dB 69dB (, 1999).

: -

Woodward (, 1999)

: ( ), ,

. ,

,

. (

),

,

.

,

.

8

1.4.

. ,

.

,

.

9

2:

2.1.

, ,

,

.

literacy

, (, 2007).

,

(, 2002),

() ()

,

(, 1985).

( )

( ) . ,

, ,

,

(Fayol & Jaffre,

1999). , , ,

, , .

, ,

. , ,

.

, , .

(1913: 69, , 2002),

,

(1994: 246) ,

,

10

. , (2002)

. ,

,

. , (1992),

,

,

,

. ,

,

- .

Catach (1995: 16;

, 2005),

, :

,

(, , ).

, : )

)

, , .

, ,

. ,

, ,

, ,

,

, ,

.. (Lerner, 1981).

. Allman (2002: 47)

11

- ,

, ,

, .

(Moustry,

& Alegria, 1999, , 2010). ,

, ,

. ,

, ,

, (, , )

( ).

2.2.

.

. ,

,

.

. ,

,

, ,

.

,

,

,

12

. ,

,

.

- -

- .

, (Gentry, 1982; Frith, 1985; Watson, 1988; Ellis,

1994). , ,

, . Ehri (2000),

,

:

) - ( ).

,

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.

.

) ( ).

,

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(..

). , , 3 4 ,

. ,

( )

(..

Super Merket).

) .

.

,

.

13

) .

,

-

(.. --), (..

)

. ,

- (-), (, , ),

(, ) ... ,

,

.

, ,

, ,

(Bourassa & Treiman, 2001; Deavers & Brown; 1997; Hughes &

Searle, 1997; Treiman & Bourassa, 2000; Varnhagen, McCallum, & Burstow, 1997).

,

. ,

,

.

(, 2000) . 8,63%

- .

,

.

14

2.3.

2.3.1.

, , -

(Apel, Masterson & Hart, 2004).

2.3.1.1.

.

,

,

. ,

,

2,5

(,

2011; , 2001). (2002)

, (2008),

, .

,

. Wagner (1993)

(

) (

).

, (segmentation) ,

Treiman (1992) . ,

15

. --

(--), .

.

, --

-- --.

Bruck & Treiman (1990)

--, . ,

(Treiman, Berch & Weatherston, 1993)

(edge effect).

(onset) (rimes) .

, .

, (onset) /chr/

(rime) /o/.

(Underwood &

Batt, 1996), 5 ,

,

. Treiman (1992)

.

. ,

(Gowsami & Bryant, 1990),

6-8 ,

.

,

,

(Stahl & Murray, 1994; Treiman, Berch &

Weatherston, 1993).

-

( & , 2007). ,

16

,

,

. ,

/g/, /a/, /t/, /a/

,,,. Stage Wagner (1992)

, . ,

,

(orthographic depth hypothesis) Katz Frost (1992,

, 2002),

. , ,

,

.

,

(Harris & Giannouli, 1999; Aidinis & Nunes, 2001; Manolitsis & Tafa, 2009).

(, 2006; & , 2004)

. ,

, ,

(Kotoulas & Padeliadou, 2000).

, Treiman (Treiman, 1985, 1991,

1992; Bruck & Treiman, 1990),

,

.

17

, () . ,

(Bradley & Bryant, 1983).

2.3.1.2.

(phonological awareness)

. ,

(Fayol & Jaffre, 1999).

, ,

,

,

(, 2002).

1-1,

(Treiman, 1993;

, & , 2005).

/i/,

: , , , , , (, , ,

, , ),

/ef/ () /ev/ ().

, ,

( &

, 2006).

() () (, 2005).

18

, (), ,

, (),

(, 2008).

(

),

(, 1992)

(, 2005).

,

(Gombert, 1992: 39).

, |ton|

|-on|

|Fanarion| , -

,

.

Bryant, Nunes Aidinis (1999)

.

,

. ()

,

.

- .

,

,

.

, sign

signature sign

/g/ (Varnhagen et al, 1997;

, & 2005).

, (Carlisle & Katz, 2006;

Deacon & Bryant, 2006; Elbro & Arnbak, 1996; Nunes & Bindman, 2006:

19

, 2007) (Aidinis, 1998; Harris

& Giannouli, 1999; , 2001; , 2003; Nunes, Aidinis & Bryant, 2006;

Chliounaki & Bryant, 2007)

.

, Nunes (1997)

/t/ /d/,

.

/t/: (kissed), (kept)

(soft).

-ed.

Chliounaki & Bryant (2007)

/i/ 4

(------).

,

. ,

,

, & (2005),

/i/

- 65%

29% , 6% 1% . ,

.

,

(1998)

// (, ), /e/ (, ) /i/

(, , , ),

,

20

. , (2005)

. 130

, (=45, 46 39 ).

, .

.

.

.

.

, 10 . 10

.

, . , ,

. 37

. ,

.

: ,

,

.

. Treiman (1993)

/ed/ , ,

t.

(Bryant & Nunes, 1998; Nunes, Bryant & Bindman, 1997)

. Treiman

21

(1994)

. ,

/t/ dirty

,

dirt, city cidy.

.

Reed (2008, , 2009)

,

.

Seymour (2007),

, ,

.

2.3.1.3. -

.

(orthotactic) ,

. ,

(Hagiliassis, Pratt & Jonhson, 2006),

. ght,

, nsw,

, .

,

, ,

(..

, , , ) (Varnhagen 1995). ,

22

,

,

. ,

,

, -

. (2002)

, ,

,

.

(Cunningham et al, 2001)

.

,

,

. ,

.

,

,

,

,

,

(Marschark, Lang, & Albertini, 2002). ,

, ,

.

.

,

(working memory)

,

. , ,

23

,

,

,

(Leybaert, 1993; Dreyer, Luke & Melican 1995). ,

, ,

- ,

.

. ,

,

.

,

,

(Goswami,

1988; , 2006). , Laxon, Coltheart & Keating (1998)

. , same,

(name, lane, sane)

neck (, & ,

2005).

, ,

.

-

-

.

24

-

. ,

. Treiman (1993)

,

,

,

85% . , Cassar Treiman (1997)

.

. -

, . ,

(,

2002). -

, .

.

25

2.4.

, ,

, ,

. , ,

( )

,

,

(, , )

. ,

Moores (Stewart & Clarke, 2003), ,

.

, ,

, , .. (Marschark, Lang, &

Albertini, 2002), ,

.

,

( /), ,

, , ,

,

( ),

,

, , - , ,

, . (, 1999; , 2011).

26

2.4.1.

(2002: 239).

.

, , ,

,

(Chard & Dickson, 1999,

& , 2009),

.

, ,

, . , Perfetti &

Sendak (2000, Marschark, Lang, & Albertini, 2002)

,

.

; Miller (1997,

Marschark, Lang, & Albertini, 2002)

,

, .

, :

- (speechreading), Dodd &

Hermelin (1977, Leybaert, 1993),

,

.

27

( ) ,

. ,

,

(Leybaert & Alegria,1995).

- ,

,

.

, -

,

Alvarado (2008) Musselman (2000).

- (cued speech),

,

,

, .

,

.

.

,

.

10 . ,

, .

, ..

, - -.

.

,

(Leybaert, 1993).

,

.

28

- .

.

, , , .

, ,

, ) ,

, ) , )

.

.

, ,

.

(, 1997; 1998).

,

.

,

,

. ,

,

(invented writing), ,

,

. , Jane

6

.

Jane punk

/k/,

punk kiss. ,

kissb,

punk Jane

(Mayer, 2007).

.

, .

29

.

,

,

.

2.4.2. :

.

Padden (1993),

4-9 ,

.

(, , )

. ,

(4-5 ) 3-4

(.. log love) (.. gip pig).

9-10 ,

6 ,

,

. , , 185 7

(.. 4-5 : cta cat, 6

: smlie smile).

(substitution) ,

30

(t, d, b)

(p, q, g) (.. m, n momkey monkey, t, k dest desk).

(deletions)

(.. 4-5 : hose house, 6 : bar bear, 7 : siter

sister), (.. 8 :

cheerling cheerleading).

, Allman (2002)

,

,

.

, ,

, ,

,

, 12

, ,

. ,

12 ,

. ,

Allman ,

, ,

,

, road roe rd,

.

(,

), ,

31

,

(.. pennsul pencil) (Dodd, 1980; Leybaert &

Alegria, 1995; Aaron, Keetay, Boyd, Palmatier, & Wacks, 1998; Sutcliffe et al., 1999;

Leybaert, 2000; Leybaert & Lechat, 2001; arris & Moreno, 2004). ,

Sutcliffe, Dowker Campbell (1999) ,

10 ,

.

,

.

,

(phonological plausible),

,

. ,

(phonological implausible)

,

. Aaron,

Keetay, Boyd, Palmatier Wacks (1998),

5-12

() (.. brothe break),

,

.

Aaron

.

Harris

Moreno (2004)

. ,

(7-8 ) (13-14

) 85dB,

32

.

,

.

: 1) (Short

Term Memory Span - STM), 2)

(orthographic awareness test) 3) (Spelling Test)

(irregular)

(.. eye, door) (television, squirrel)

(regular) (.. car, fish).

,

.

,

. ,

Harris Moreno

,

,

, . , Wakefield (2006)

Harris Moreno

22 ,

( 16 ), , ,

,

, ,

.

,

(regularity).

- -

(Burden & Campbell, 1994; Kyle & Harris, 2006; Leybaert & Alegria,

1995; Leybaert, 2000; Leybaert & Lechat, 2001; Sutcliffe et al., 1999).

, Sutcliffe, Dowker Campbell (1999)

33

(regular) ,

(.. cat, spider) (exceptional),

(.. bread, /e/

e) (strange) ,

(.. tongue, sponge).

. ,

(.. at,

cat)

,

.

.

.

.

,

, .

(Burden & Campbell, 1994; Allman, 2002;

Leybaert, 2000). , Burden Campbell (1994)

, 14 ,

,

.

,

, , .

34

, .

,

. Allman

(2002) .

,

(.. mle, roe, sne). ,

(

),

. , ,

,

, /p/, /b/, /m/

. Leybaert (2000)

,

. , ,

.

, -

.

- ,

. ,

Padden (1993)

,

( gg nn) .

(.. biger bigger)

(.. verry very) ,

(.. alppe apple).

, .

35

10-18 Daigle

(2009).

.

,

.

.

. , 10-12

.

,

Pacton (2001)

. , , ,

-

.

,

,

.

,

.

(Burden et Campbell, 1994; Leybaert, 2000; Sutcliffe et al.,

1999).

(Burden & Campbell, 1994; Lt, Peereman, et Fayol, 2008; Leybaert, 2000;

Treiman, 1993),

. Burden Campbell (1994),

,

, Leybaert

(2000) ,

36

(cued speech)

.

, .

Gaustad (2002)

, .

,

,

(Mervis & Jonhson, 1991).

.

Gaustad (2002; data re-examined in

Gaustad & Kelly, 2004; Kelly & Gaustad, 2007)

(11-12 )

(19-34 ) .

(Test Split Decisions)

(Test Meaningful

Parts).

.

. ,

,

.

11

.

,

.

37

Leybaert Alegria (1995) .

,

.. 10,4-16,8 .. 6,10-8,5 .

(spelling).

,

,

. ,

,

,

.

Tur-Kaspa Dromi (2001)

.

.. 10,9 12,5

(11,2 12,5 ).

.

,

,

(Fabbretti, Volterra, & Pontecorvo, 1998).

(inflectional)

(derivational).

,

, . 1980,

Quigley King (1980, Breadmore, 2007)

38

,

10-18

(8-10 ).

Breadmore (2007)

. ,

,

( ).

.

,

,

,

,

. , ,

,

.

. ,

.

39

3:

3.1.

93

, () (). 39,78%

( 1).

52 ,

, . , 18 ,

34 , .

34 9

.

, 41 ,

19 22

.

1:

& -

, 44, 09 %,

,

11,83 % ( 2).

40

, 45,45%

, 36,36%

18,18% (

3).

2:

3:

41

, dB

,

. ,

.

, 46,15% ,

36,54% 17,31% ( 4).

4:

, ,

.

3 ,

,

.

,

. , 5,

(76,92%)

. , 33,33% (.. ,

) , 16,67%

16,67% ,

42

( 6).

5: 6:

. , ,

,

,

, ,

,

.

53, 85 %

( 7). ,

(92,31%) 3

( 8), (69,23%)

( 9) 51,92%

( 10).

43

7: 8:

9:

10:

,

(30,77%).

44

11:

3.2.

.

( ). 35

filler, -.

35 multiple choice,

.

( )

.

-, , .

:

) , .

(, , ..)

,

.

) ,

, -

(/) .

45

) ,

, .

, ,

,

. ,

) /i/

(-, .. -)

(-, .. -),

(-, -), (-, ..

-), (.. -, -)

(-, .. -).

) /o/

(-, .. )

(-, .. -).

) /e/

(-, .. ),

(-, .. )

(-, .. -).

3.3.

,

,

. ,

4-6 . ,

2 .

,

filler booklet ( ),

.

46

.

, :

, .

( )

,

,

,

.

- 30 . ,

/ .

,

,

. , 15 ,

multiple choice, :

, 15 .

,

.

-

-

.

3.4. -

. ,

,

.

, -

47

Protopapas, Fakou, Drakopoulou, Skaloumbakas Mouzaki (2012).

,

:

) , . ,

|alasa|,

|adi|,

|ati| . ,

, ,

, .

,

.

) ,

. ,

( ) ,

. -

.

) - ( ),

, ,

, .

-

.

.

, Protopapas, Fakou, Drakopoulou, Skaloumbakas Mouzaki

(2012)

(, ,

, ..),

.

.

48

filler multiple choice,

.

,

,

. ,

, ,

.

SPSS,

.

,

,

,

,

- ,

. ,

.

49

4:

,

olmogorov - Smirnof, :

0:

1: .

, :

0:

1: .

,

Mann Whitney U

Kruskal Wallis

.

,

t-test

.

, Levene

,

0:

1: .

t-test ,

.

,

Kruskal Wallis .

, ,

p- (p-

value). p

%, 0 .

5% .

50

.

:

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

-

1

2

3

4 ()

5 ()

1

2

3

4

5

6

51

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

1 1, ,

, filler,

(p-value = 0,001 < = 0,5)

Mann - Whitney U. , 32

, 8,04

, 4,9.

multiple choice. ,

multiple choice, 2,88 2,41

,

Mann-Whitney U (p-value = 0,093 > = 0,05).

1

Kolmogorov-

Smirnov Z P - value

Levenes

P- value

Mann -

Whitney

U t P - value

1

(filler)

0,708 0,697 8,04 5,434 - U = 637 0,001

1,407 0,038 4,9 5,856

2

(choice)

1,488 0,024 2,88 3,16 - U = 856,5 0,093

2,16 0 2,41 4,26

52

1

(, -,

) .

Mann-Whitney U

(p-value = 0 < = 0,05).

2 ( 2), ,

7,1 0,32 ,

.

53

2

Kolmogorov-

Smirnov Z

P

value

Levenes

P- value

Mann -

Whitney

U t P value

1 0,27 7,1 6,53 U =170,5

0 2,959 0 0,32 0,934 -

1,44 0,032 3,85 4,212 U = 901

0,197 1,79 0,003 3,61 5,069 -

1,782 0,003 1,44 1,984 U = 926 0,257

1,613 0,011 2,07 3,102 -

2

,

Mann-Whitney

54

p-value

= 5%.

5 (p-value = 0, 267 > = 0,05), 7

(p-value = 0,375 > = 0,05) 8 (p-value = 0,259 > =0,05),

,

( 3).

3

Kolmogorov-

Smirnov Z P value

Levenes

P- value

Mann -

Whitney

U t P value

1 1,768 0,004 2,346 3,4 - U = 431 0

3,344 0 0,122 0,4

2 1,242 0,092 2,442 2,355 - U = 321 0

3,344 0 0,122 0,4

3 2,291 0 0,673 1,043 - U =637,5 0

3,443 0 0,024 0,156

4 3,209 0 0,307 0,543 - U = 779 0

- - 0 0

5 3,862 0 0,077 0,269 - U =1010 0,267

3,443 0 0,024 0,156

6 3,240 0 0,288 0,499 - U = 779 0

- - 0 0

7 3,865 0 0,019 0,138 - U =1045,5 0,375

- - 0 0

8 3,780 0 0,134 0,525 - U = 1009 0,259

3,443 0 0,024 0,156

9 2,747 0 0,654 1,082 - U = 697 0

- - 0 0

10 3,678 0 0,154 0,415 - U = 922,5 0,015

- - 0 0

55

. ,

, (), - (),

(), ,

.

, (%).

, 4,

=646 .

57,12 %. , - 30,96 %

11,92 % ( 3).

4:

-

369 200 77 646

3:

56

,

=246 ( 5) -

60,16 % 34,56 %.

(5,28 %) ( 4). 3 4,

,

, .

- .

5:

13 148 85 246

4:

, 5

(67,48%) 1

2 .

57

(33,06%) (.. )

(34,42%) (.. ).

6:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

122 127 35 16 4 15 1 7 34 8 369

5:

6 ,

,

1 2 (76,92%).

(38,46%) (38,46%).

58

7:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

5 5 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 13

6:

- ,

=200 ( 8). 64,5 %

(1), -

(4).

64,5 % 1 (.. ) 27,5

% 4 (.. ) ( 7),

2

.

/g/, .

, - , .

59

,

,

.

8: -

1 2 3 4 5

129 0 13 55 3 200

7: -

- ,

148 ( 9). 8

(1)

68,24 %. 18,94 % (4)

.

(2, 3, 5) . ,

6,08 % 2.

60

,

.

.

9: -

1 2 3 4 5

101 9 3 28 7 148

8: -

,

=77 ( 10). , =34

, ,

,

-. 9

15,58 % (6) - . ,

- 11,69 % (4).

- (7) - (2) ,

61

1,3 % . (=43),

. ,

14,28 % - (8),

.

11,68 % 10,39 % (12)

(10) , . ,

7,8% (9) 7,8% (13) 3,9% (11)

-, - - .

10:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

5 1 4 9 3 12 0 11 6 8 3 9 6 77

9:

62

,

=85 ( 11). , =28

11,76% (6)

. ,

- -,

(2, 7) 10 .

, =57,

30,59% - (12),

-. 10,59 % (12)

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77

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