/ -

. MET: 1 (. 210042): .1-2 - (. 210147): .3-4 (. 210056): .5-6 2 (. 210115): 1-13

1

( ) ( ). , , . . . , , . . , . . . . , , . . , - , .

, . . . , .

, . (syntax) , . . (semantics) , , . , () , . (pragmatics) . , . , , , (. ) . . . [1]

. , , . [1] : , ; : , ; , , , .

(Regularity), . , . , . ` , , . , ( ( ;) . , , . , ` . , ( ), .

, ` . , . . [2]. [2] . . . , , ( ). [3]. [3] . . . . . ` , ( ). , , , . . , ,

, .

, . . , . , . . . , . , , . . [4]. [4] . . , (__ )

. , . , , , , [4]. , , . (), (). , . , . p, q r. , p, , q. : & ( ). , [4] [5]. [5] p & q p q , p & q . p q ( ), , p & q . . , , p & q , q & p . q & p, [6]. [6] .

, , [4]. , . p q , , &, . . [7]. [7] . [7] . . , . . 2, : , . , (. ;). (deixis).

2

(deixis) () . . , (deictic expression). ;, , . (indexicals). , (person deixis), (, ) , (spatial deixis) (, ) , (temporal deixis) (, ). , . , , , [1] , . [1] . ( , .)

. : . (proximal terms) this, here, now, (, , ). , (distal terms) that, there, then (, , ). (deictic center), . , . , , sore, , are, , , kore, .

, () (). . () () . , , Read you a story ( me), . , (), () (, , ).

( ), (. , ). (honorifics). (social deixis). , , . / (T/V distinction), tu = , vous = , . , (du/Sie) (tu/Usted). . , , , , tu , , vous. , , ( ), ( ), ; , , , tu Usted. (Usted), (), (), ( ). , (-), , . , . , , ( ).

, , [2]. [2] ; , (. ) [3] , [3]. [3] . . . . , , , (), [4]. [4] . . (exclusive we), ( , ) (inclusive we), ( ). , (. Fijian, keimami keda ). [4] . , ( ),

( ).

[4]. Lets go ( ) Let us go ( ). going , .

, , . : here there, ( ), . yonder, ( ), hither () thence (), . . come go, (come to bed) (go to bed). , , this here. that there, ( ). , . , here () o, .

, . , (= ). (deistic projection). , . ( ), [5], . [5] . , [5] , , . , [5] . , , , , . , , : [6] . , ; ( ), . . , , . (. ). ,

, (. ) (I dont like that). , that () , , . .

: ( ). [7] [7] . [7] . 22 1963; . . 8:30; , . , (, [7]) (, [7]). , () , , , , , , . . ( ) , [8], .

[8] . , [9], . [9] . . ( ), ( ). (. the coming week = ) (. in days gone by = , the past week = ). , , , . ( ) . , , , [10] , [10]. [10] . I live here now. (= ) . I lived there then. (= ) (present tense) (past tense) o . , [11], . , ( )

, (), [11]. [11] . I could swim (when I was a child). (= ). . I could be in Hawaii (if I had a lot of money). (= , ) (past tense) , [12]. [12] a. If I had a yacht, (= ) b. If I was rich, (= ) [12] . . ( ). ( Had I known sooner ) , , .

, , , (direct/indirect speech). , (you), (here) (this evening), , , [13]. [13] . Are you planning to be here this evening? (= ;) . I asked her if she was planning to be there that evening. (= ). , [13] , . [13], [13]. , , , , . , . . .

. , .

3 (reference and inference)

M , . , . . . . (referring expressions), (.., , , ), ( , , ,) (.. , , , ). , , , . , (.., , ) , , , (.. ;). (.. ) ( .. ). , (inference).

, . . (.., , , ), . . , [1]. [1] . [1] ( ) , ( ) . [1] , .

(referential and attributive uses) . , [2.],

, , [2.], , , [2.]. 2. . / . . . . / . [2.], , . . , / , . , , , [2.], , . . , [3] . (.. ), .. [3] . , , , , [3] , .

( ), , , . , , , , [2.]. .

(names and referents) -- -- . , , , , , . . , . , , , , . .

. , [4] [4.]. [4] . ; . , () , . , , ( ). , [5.] [5.] . [5] . ; . () , . , , ( ). [4] [5] . [4] ( ) , . . [6]. [6] . . . . . .

, , [7.], [7.], [7.], . [7] . . . . . Rolling Stones ! (pragmatic connection) , - , . , (.., ), (/ ) . , . , [8.], , , [8.], , . [8] . . . .

(the role of co-text) ,

. , (co-text) , . [8] , ( ) . . . . , , [9] [9] (. [9] [9] ). [9] . . . . . (context) , . [9] .

[10] , [10] [10] . [10] . . . . . [10,,,] . ( , ) . . , . .

(anaphoric reference) . , . ,

, [11]. [11]. , . . . , , ( ). [11] ( ) ( ) (anaphoric reference anaphora). , (the anaphor) (the antecedent). . , , , . [12] , ,

. [12] . . [13].

-

[13] . . . . . , [14] , , [14]. [14] . . . . . . , [14], , (zero anaphora) (ellipsis). . . 1 . (cataphora),

.

[15]. [15] . . .

. . . . , . [15], ( x , x ) . , [15], (. ). , ( , ), , [15]. , ( ) () ( ). , . . . . , ( ) , . , , . .

4 (presupposition and entailment)

, . , , , . . . , . , , . . . (presupposition) . , . (entailment) . , .

[1]. [1]. . [1] ,

. . . [1] , , , , . . . , , , , .

(presupposition) , . [2] p [2] q, , >>, , [2] . [2] . . ( =p)

. . . p>>q

( =q)

, [2] (= p), [3], . q [3], p, [3]. [3] . . ( = p) . . . p>>q (constancy under negation). . ( ) , ( [4] ) [4]. [4] . . ( =p) . . ( = p) . . . p>>q & p>>q , p ( [4]) , q ( [4]) . q , [4] , p p, . ( =q) ( =q)

(types of presupposition) , , . (potential presuppositions), . [1] [3], . (existential presupposition) (.., >> ), . [5], . [5] , , ,

Counting Crows , [4]. [4], q, q . , , (factive presupposition). , [6.] [6.], , [6.] [6.] . [6] . . (>> )

. . (>> ) . . (>> ) . . (>> ) . / . (>> ) , . , (lexical presupposition), ( ) . , . , . , , ( ) . , . , , , , , [7]. [7] . . (>> ) . . (>> ) . . (>> ) , ( ) , , . , , (structural presuppositions). , .

(.. ) . , wh- , [8.] [8.], (. when where) . [8] . When did he leave? ( >> He left) [ ; ( >> )] . Where did you buy the bike? ( >> You bought the bike) [ ; ( >> )] [8] , . , . . . [9]. [9] ; ( !) , (.. >> ). , , . , . , , .

(non-factive presupposition) . , , [10], . [10] . /. (>> /) . . (>> ) . . (>> ) , , ( , ....). , , (counter-factual presupposition), , , . [11], , . [11] / , . (>> / ) , , . 4.1. // >> // >>

>> >>

; .... 4.1. .

>>

/, >> /

(the projection problem) . . , ( ) ( ). (the projection problem). 12, q ( ), [12] , [12]. , : . [12] . . ( = p) . . ( = q)

. p>>q ( , [12], [12]) . . ( = r) . . ( = q) . r>> q ( , [12], [12], [12].) . . . r & p >> q ( , r & q, q .) [12] , , . [13] . , [13]. [13] : . . : . . [13] , , . , [14] , q [14] [14]. [14]

. q (. ) [14]. [14] . . ( = p) . . ( = q) . P>>q . . ( = r) . , . ( = p & r) . p & r >> q [14], . q (. ) [14]. . . [13], . , , , q q. ( ) ( ). (.. , ) , [15]. ,

[15], . [15] ; [15].- . . . ! [15] (= ) (= ) , . . , 4.1. , . . ( ), , [16]. [16].- ; . . [16], ( ) . . .

(ordered entailments) , (. ), , - . [17] [18]. [17].- . [18].- . . . . . . . ( = p) ( = q) ( = r) ( = s) ( = t)

[17] [18] p - q, . [17], ( , . [17], (background entailments) ( [18-]). , [17], . , , , , . , [19], . [19] .- . . (foreground entailment), ,

. . [19], , . , . , , . it , [20]. [20] . It was JOHN who chased the squirrels ( . It wasnt ME who took your money. ( ) [20], (. ). [20.] (. someone took your money = ) . [20.] (.., ). .

5 , , , , , . , . , , . , , , . , . , , : [ 1 ] . , [ 1 ] , . [ 1 ] business is business boys will be boys (tautologies). , . [ 1 ] , , - , . , . (implicature). [ 1 ]

, , . , [ 1 ] , . , (..: .) . , , , .

. . . [ 2 ] : ; : . ( . . ) : ! ! : . . . , , . , ( ) . ;

. , . , . , , . , . . (, [ 2 ] .). , (cooperative principle) , (maxims), 5.1.

: , , . : 1. ( .) 2. . . 1. . 2. . . .

1. . 2. . 3. /- ( ). 4. . 5.1. ( Grice,1975 ) , . , , ( [ 2 ] ) , . , . , . (hedges).

(quality) , . [ 3 - ] [ 3 ] . [ 3 ] . , . . , . , . . , .

[ 3 ] , , . , (hedges) / /- (quantity) , [ 4 - ] , . [ 4 ] . , . . , , . . , . ( (relation)) , . , , , . , [ 5 - ] . [ 5 ] . , . . , ; . , ; (manner) [ 6 - ]

. [ 6 ] . , . . , . . /- , . , . , , , . , . , ( ) . , , . , , , , (. ) . (. ) , , .

, , . [ 7 ] , . [ 7 ] : . : , . , , . , . , , . , , , . , (conversational implicature) . (=) (=) [ 8 ] . +> . [ 8 ] : & ; : ( +> )

. .

[ 7 ] , [ 8 ] , . (=) (=) , [ 9 ] [ 9 ] . [ 7 ] , [ 8 ] . [ 9 ] . : ;(& ;) . : . (+> ) , [ 7 ] [ 9 ] , (generalised conversational implicature) . // , [ 10 ] . , , : +> . [ 10 ] . . , , /- /- , / /- /- (. /-, ) , /- . (scalar implicatures) .

Y , . , [ 11 ], . [ 11 ] < , , , > < , , > / /- , , , ( ) , [ 12 ] . [ 12 ] . / /- , , ( +> ). (scalar implicature). , , . [ 11 ] , , , . , / /- (..: +> , +> ). , / /- [ 13 ] . [ 13 ] .

, / /- , (+> , +> ) . , , . , [ 14 ] +> [ 14 ] +> +> . [ 14 ] . . . . , , [ 15 ] , . [ 15 ] - ,

. , , +> , , . , ( +> ) .

, . , , , .

(particularised conversational implicatures) . [ 16 ] , Tom ( , ) . [ 16 ] : ; : . , . ( +> ) . , , . , (. ) , [ 17 ]. [ 17 ] Ann : Where are you going with the dog ? Sam : To the V-E-T. , vet . , Sam , (. ) , . [ 18 ] , . . [ 18 ] : , ;

: . , (..: .) . , . , , , [ 19 ] [ 20 ] , , , . [ 19 ] : ; : ; [ 20 ] : ; : ; [ 19 ] , . , . , , ! . , , , . [ 20] ! .

, , . , .

. ( , , ) . , , , / /- , [ 21 ] . [ 21 ] ! ( +> ) [ 22 ] , , / /- ( +> ) [ 22 ] , [ 22 ] [ 22 ] . ! . , , ! . , ! . , , , , . (conventional implicatures) . [22 ] .

(conventional implicatures) .

. , , , . but . p but q p & q p q . [ 23 ] , (=p) , but , (=q) . [ 23 ] . , . . p & q ( +> p q ) . , , . , . , [ 24 ] (. ) . [ 24 ] . . . , . , . [ 25 ] (= p) , [ 25 ] . [ 25 ] . (= p) . p ( +> p )

( . 1 ) . , , , [ 26 ] plus . , , , [ 26 ] , . [ 26 ] .Yesterday , Mary was happy and ready to work(p & q ,+>p plus q ) . . . (p & q ,+> q p) . , [ 26 ] , . , , [ 26 ] , . , (implicature) . , , . , , (speech acts) .

6 , , , . , , [ 1 ] . [ 1 ] . [ 1 ] . , [ 1 ]. , [ 2 ] , [ 2 ] , [ 2 ]. [ 2 ] . (-) . . . . ( -) ! (speech acts) , , , , . / /- . / /- , , / / /- . (/- /-) . ,

, (speech events) . , . , , , [ 3 ] . . [ 3 ] ! , , / /- /- /- / /- , , [ 3 ] , , . , , , , , . , .

s , . , ( locutionary act) , . (..: /- ) . Aha mokafa , , . , [ 4 ] . [ 4 ] Ive just made some coffee .

, . . , (illocutionary act) . . [ 4 ] , , . , , (illocutionary force) . , . (perlocutionary act) . , [ 4 ] / /- (..: / / .) , , (perlocutionary effect) . , . , . ( counts as) . , [ 5 ] , [ 5 ] , [ 5 ] , [ 5 ] . [ 5 ] . [ 5 ] . .( = ) . [ ] . . [ ] A . . [ ] A . [ 5 ] , , (..: ) . / /- / /- ;

: .

M ( ) ( I F I D Illocutionary Force Indicating Device) [ 6 ] , . (performative verb Vp) . [ 6 ] ( ) [ 5- ] , , . / , . [ 7 ] , , , . [ 7 ] : ; : , . : ; : ! , , , ( ) . , , . ,

, , ( ) [ 8 ] . [ 8 ] . ! [ ] . . ; [ ]. . ; [ ] . , , , , , .

, , (felicity conditions) . , [ 9 ] , / /- ( , o ) . [ 9 ] . , , . ( general conditions) , . , (content conditions) . , ,

. / /- . (preparatory conditions) . , : , , , . , : / /- , / /- , . (sincerity condition) , , / /- , , / /- . , (essential condition) , , , . , . , , , . , , , , , / /- , () .

H ( ) , [ 6 ] , ( ) , .

(performative hypothesis) [ 10 ] . [ 10 ] ( ) ( ) . , ( ) , , , . , ( ) ( ) . , [ 11 ] [ 12 ] , , [ 11 ] [ 12 ] , . [ 11 ] . ! . [ 12 ] . . . . , [ 11 ] [ 12 ] ( ) /- (explicit performatives) . [ 11 ] [ 12 ] (implicit performatives) , (primary performatives) . . , ( [ 12 ]) ( ) . [ 12 ] . , /- Do it yourself , yourself you ( order you that you do it

yourself ). , , [ 13 ] , . [ 13 ] . , . . , ; [ 13 ] ( ) , [ 13 ] ( , ) . , , . , [ 11 ] [ 11 ] . , . , ( ) . / /- / /- [ 14 ] , [ 14 ] . [ 14 ] . . . ; . T , , . , .

: , , , . (declarations) . [ 15 ] , , , . [ 15] . : . . : ! . . ,/ /- . (representatives) / /- . , , [16], / /- . [ 16 ] . . . Chomsky . . , . , ( ). (expressives) / /- . , , , , :

. [ 17 ] / /- / /- , / /- . [ 17 ] . ! . . . , , , , ! ,/ /- ( ). (directives) . / /- . , , , , [ 18 ] , . [ 18 ] . . ' . . , ; . '. ,/ /-

( / /- ). (commissives) . / /- . , , , , , [ 19 ] , / /- ' / /- . [ 19 ] . . . .

. . ,/ /-

( / /- ). 6.1. . ( ) . () . () . (/) . (/) 6.1. (Searle , 1979 )

. . [ 20 ] , ( , , ) ( , , / ) . [ 20 ] . . ( declarative= ) . ; (interrogative= )

. ! ( imperative= ) , ( direct speech act ) . , ( indirect speech act ) . , , . [ 21 ] , [21] . , [21] , . / , [ 21 ] , . [ 21 ] . . . . . . , [ 22 ] , / /- / /- . [ 22 ] / , [ 22 ] . [ 22 ] , , [ 22 ] [ 22 ] , , . [ 22 ] . ! . ; . . . , [ 23 ] , ,

(. ) . [ 23 ] . [ 23 ] . ; . ; , / /- ( ;) ( ;) . , , . , .

(..: [ 23 ] ) . , / /- / /- /- , , . , / /- . [ 24 ] . [ 24 ] . /

/- ( )

;

. - / /- /- ( )

;

.

/ /- .

, [ 24 ] . , , / , / /- , / / /- / /- , , / /- . , / /- . , , , , . , , . , , , , , , . (speech event) . , ,

, , . , - . , , , . , , [ 25 ] . [ 25 ] : ! ! . : ; : : ; : . : ; : . . : ; : Macintosh . Macintosh ; : . : ; : . : , . / / . , , . ; - , . , , , , , . .

, , . . , .

MEPO EYTEPO KEIMENAK 1:O K 1 GEORGIA GREEN:Pragmatics and Natural Language Understanding.Lawrence Erlbaum,1989,.3 H . , .O , ( ), .Y / , , , , , , , .O .T . >A .N , ; ,

>H : . ; >A ( ), ;

K 2 Pragmatics:meaning and context.File 70 Language Files:Materials for an introduction to Linguistics(6 ).Ohio State University Press 1991,.223 , .E . ,K , , 20 . ,T , , .A , , , , . , .O .A , , . , , .T YMPAZOMENA(CONTEXT) ,

.H . > , ;M , ;M ; > ;A , , ; >M , , K 1;

K 2: K 3 CHARLES FILLMORE:Santa Cruz Lectures on Deixis,Indian Uniersity of Linguistics Club,1975,.40-42 O ., .O .Y . , , N (Gestural), (Symbolic) A (Anarhoric).M

, - .M , , .M , (coreferential). M . .H , . , .X :E ;A , . ,O . , , . , .A , , , . .A , , , , , .T , . >M ( 2), ( ) , ;

.> , , ; O

, , , , .M , , , , . .A :O , , .A :O X , . X , . >E , Fillmore ; ,,( ),(), , , Fillmore.

K 4 QUENTIN SMITH:The multiple uses of indexicals, Synthese 78,1989,.182-183. H ,E , .A , .

, N10, . , .O - ., , ., !K!, N10, N3! >M E(

) ; > E;A , ;A , ;

K 5 GEOFFREY NUNBERG:Indexicality and deixis, Linguistics and Philosophy 16,1993,.41 John Ashberry, , , : (94) A ( , ). A, John Ashberry ,E , ,E , E , , , . > , ,A ;A

, ( ) ; >

, ;O ;A , ( ); > E( ) E, 4;

K 5:A K 6 KEITH DONNELLAN:Reference and definite descriptions, Philosophical Review 75,1966,.285-6 , , .O , , , .A , , , . , , , .A , - - , , , .

, , . , , ,O .Y .A , :O . , , , ( ).A, , . , , . > Donnellan, , . Donnellan ; >X Donnellan( ), , ; >M , , Fillmore (K 3) , ;

K 7 M.A.K. HALLIDAY and RUQAIYA HASAN:Cohesion in English,Longman 1976,.31

Y , , ., , .A , .A : .T , . ! ! .O , . , . . . . (A), . (B), . (), . A , .E, .A , ANAOPA(REFERENCE), . , .K , . > , .N ; > ;T (), ;

>A (B) , , (), ; ; >H Donnellan K 6 ;

K 4: K 8 ROBERT C.STALNAKER:Pragmatic presupposition Semantics and Philosophy Milton Munitz Peter Unger.New York University Press,1974,.199-200. , , , , , , . , , ,,T , , , . ,T .H ( )., , , , .A , , . A , .M P P, P, .

>, , , ; > , , , ;( , K 4, 25-30, ). >M , , ;

K 9 GERALD GAZDAP:Pragmatics,Implicature,Presupposition and Logical Form,Academic Press,1979,.106 (65) O , . (66)O , . A (66), , (66) , (65) .A , , , , .

, , , .

> (65), (66);M , , , ; >T ; , , ;

K 5: K 10 PAUL GRICE:Logic and Conversation Syntax and Semantics Volume 9:Speech acts P.Cole J.L.Morgan,Academic Press,1975,.48. , THN PAMATIKTHTA , OIKO NA TO AKOOYOME, EN A EPEE . , , CP(Cooperation Principle=A ) , .A , , , , , ( ) , , , , : 1.O , .O , - ,

.

, , , , , , . 2.O , . 3.Y ( , ), , , . . A , , , , , . >M , ; > , , ; >O Grice , . , , , ;

K 11 J.L.Morgan:Two types of convention in indirect speech acts Syntax and Semantics Volume 9 P.Cole,Academic Press,1978,.277-8.

A , , ,A , , ,M ; , , , .T

;N . , , , OOIAHOTE , : (37)E ; (38) ; (39)E ; . [O A , ,: (40)Is the Pope Catholic? (41)Do bagels wear bikinis? ] A, , , , . :N , /, , , . M , , , - (42) : (42)N,, A!

A , , , : , . >

(,, , ); ( E , ) , ; >O , .N , , ( K 5, 45-46 ); >T , , ;E , , ;

K 6: K 12 JOHN SEARLE:Speech acts,Cambridge University Press,1969,.58-59. M , ,

, .M , , , , , .E, , , , . (,,.) , (,,.).N , . >A , . ;Y , ; K ,, , .Y ,A , .E ;T . .A Y ;N Y (commitment) , . , ,,, . , , .M , Y, .Y, , ., ,;.A,O,

, .T .A , Y , , . > , Y, , ; > , , Y, ; >H , K 10;( K 6, 50-51 ).

K 13 GEOFFREY LEECH:Principles of Pragmatics,Longman,1983,.177-8. A , , , .A , , , .H ,,,, ,,,,.A, , , , ,

.K , Searle, . , , , ; , ,, . . [Searle J.1979:Expression and Meaning.Cambridge: Camridge University Press,.2) A , : , , , ; , ,, . Searle, , , : ( ) , .A ,() ( ) () , , , :,, . > , , ; >T , Leech, , K 12;

>N Leech ; Searle Leech;