The principal inverse of the gamma function

Mitsuru Uchiyama

Shimane University

2013/7

Mitsuru Uchiyama (Shimane University) The principal inverse of the gamma function 2013/7 1 / 25

Introduction

The gamma function Γ(x) is usually defined by the Euler form

Γ(x) =

∫ ∞

0e−ttx−1dt

for x > 0. This is extended to ℜz > 0. By Γ(z + 1) = zΓ(z) forz = 0,−1,−2, · · · it is defined and holomorphic on C \ {0,−1,−2, · · · }

The Weierstrass form

Γ(x)= xeγx

∞∏n=1

n)e−

xn (1)

is useful, where γ is the Euler constant defined by

γ = limn→∞

2+ · · ·+ 1

n− log n) = 0.57721 · · · .

Introduction

The gamma function Γ(x) is usually defined by the Euler form

Γ(x) =

∫ ∞

0e−ttx−1dt

for x > 0. This is extended to ℜz > 0. By Γ(z + 1) = zΓ(z) forz = 0,−1,−2, · · · it is defined and holomorphic on C \ {0,−1,−2, · · · }The Weierstrass form

Γ(x)= xeγx

∞∏n=1

n)e−

xn (1)

is useful, where γ is the Euler constant defined by

γ = limn→∞

2+ · · ·+ 1

n− log n) = 0.57721 · · · .

Introduction

From (1) (Weierstrass form) it follows that

log Γ(x) = − log x − γx +∞∑n=1

(xn− log(1 +

Γ′(x)

Γ(x)= −γ +

∞∑n=0

n + 1− 1

n + x) (psifunction) (2)

on C \ {0,−1,−2, · · · }.

By (2), Γ′(z)Γ(z) maps the open upper half plane Π+ into itself, namely Γ′(z)

is a Pick (Nevanlinna) function. Γ′(z) does not vanish on Π+.

Introduction

(xn− log(1 +

Γ′(x)

Γ(x)= −γ +

∞∑n=0

n + 1− 1

on C \ {0,−1,−2, · · · }.By (2), Γ′(z)

Γ(z) maps the open upper half plane Π+ into itself, namely Γ′(z)Γ(z)

is a Pick (Nevanlinna) function.

Γ′(z) does not vanish on Π+.

Introduction

(xn− log(1 +

Γ′(x)

Γ(x)= −γ +

∞∑n=0

n + 1− 1

on C \ {0,−1,−2, · · · }.By (2), Γ′(z)

Γ(z) maps the open upper half plane Π+ into itself, namely Γ′(z)Γ(z)

is a Pick (Nevanlinna) function. Γ′(z) does not vanish on Π+.

Introduction

-2 2 4

Figure : Gamma function

Introduction

Γ(1) = Γ(2) = 1, Γ′(1) = −γ, Γ′(2) = −γ + 1.

Denote the unique zero in (0,∞) of Γ′(x) by α.

α = 1.4616 · · · , Γ(α) = 0.8856 · · ·.

We call the inverse function of the restriction of Γ(x) to (α,∞) theprincipal inverse function and write Γ−1.Γ−1(x) is an increasing and concave function defined on (Γ(α),∞).

Introduction

Γ(1) = Γ(2) = 1, Γ′(1) = −γ, Γ′(2) = −γ + 1.

Denote the unique zero in (0,∞) of Γ′(x) by α.

α = 1.4616 · · · , Γ(α) = 0.8856 · · ·.

We call the inverse function of the restriction of Γ(x) to (α,∞) theprincipal inverse function and write Γ−1.Γ−1(x) is an increasing and concave function defined on (Γ(α),∞).

Introduction

Main Theorem

Theorem 1

The principal inverse Γ−1(x) of Γ(x) has the holomorphic extensionΓ−1(z) to D := C \ (−∞, Γ(α)], which satisfies

(i) Γ−1(Π+) ⊂ Π+ and Γ−1(Π−) ⊂ Π−,

(ii) Γ−1(z) is univalent,

(iii) Γ(Γ−1(z)) = z for z ∈ D.

kernel function

Definition 2

Let I be an interval in R and K (x , y) a continuous function defined onI × I . Then K (x , y) is said to be a positive semidefinite (p.s.d.) kernelfunction on an interval I × I (on I for short) if∫∫

I×IK (x , y)ϕ(x)ϕ(y)dxdy ≧ 0 (3)

for every complex continuous function ϕ with compact support in I .

• K (x , y) is p.s.d. if and only if for each n and for all n points xi ∈ I ,

n∑i ,j=1

K (xi , xj)zizj ≧ 0

for n complex numbers zi .

kernel function

Definition 2

Let I be an interval in R and K (x , y) a continuous function defined onI × I . Then K (x , y) is said to be a positive semidefinite (p.s.d.) kernelfunction on an interval I × I (on I for short) if∫∫

I×IK (x , y)ϕ(x)ϕ(y)dxdy ≧ 0 (3)

for every complex continuous function ϕ with compact support in I .

• K (x , y) is p.s.d. if and only if for each n and for all n points xi ∈ I ,

n∑i ,j=1

K (xi , xj)zizj ≧ 0

for n complex numbers zi .

kernel function

Definition 3

K (x , y) is said to be conditionally (or almost) positive semidefinite(c.p.s.d.) on I × I (on I for short) if (3) holds for every continuousfunction ϕ on I such that the support of ϕ is compact and

∫I ϕ(x)dx = 0.

K (x , y) is said to be conditionally negative semidefinite (c.n.s.d.) on I if−K (x , y) is c.p.s.d.

• K (x , y) is c.p.s.d. if and only if

n∑i ,j=1

K (xi , xj)zizj ≧ 0 (4)

for each n, for all n points xi ∈ I and for n complex numbers zi with∑ni=1 zi = 0.

kernel function

Definition 3

K (x , y) is said to be conditionally (or almost) positive semidefinite(c.p.s.d.) on I × I (on I for short) if (3) holds for every continuousfunction ϕ on I such that the support of ϕ is compact and

∫I ϕ(x)dx = 0.

K (x , y) is said to be conditionally negative semidefinite (c.n.s.d.) on I if−K (x , y) is c.p.s.d.

• K (x , y) is c.p.s.d. if and only if

n∑i ,j=1

K (xi , xj)zizj ≧ 0 (4)

for each n, for all n points xi ∈ I and for n complex numbers zi with∑ni=1 zi = 0.

kernel function

K (x , y) = f (x)f (y) is p.s.d.

If K (x , y) is p.s.d. on [a, b] and h : [c , d ] 7→ [a, b] is increasing and(differentiable), then so is K (h(t), h(s)) on [c , d ].

If Kt(x , y) is p.s.d. for each t, then so is∫Kt(x , y)dµ(t).

(Schur) If K1(x , y) and K2(x , y) are both p.s.d. on I , then so is theproduct K1(x , y)K2(x , y).

If K (x , y) is p.s.d. on I , then K (x , y) is c.p.s.d. on I .

K (x , y) = x + y is not p.s.d. but c. p. s. d. and c. n. s. d. on any I .

kernel function

Definition 4

Suppose K (x , y) ≧ 0 for every x , y in I . Then K (x , y) is said to be　infinitely divisible on I × I (on I for short) if K (x , y)a is positivesemi-definite for every a > 0.

K (x , y) is infinitely divisible if and only if for each n, for all n points xi ∈ Iand for every a > 0matrix

(K (xi , xj)a)

is positive semi-definite.

kernel function

Definition 4

Suppose K (x , y) ≧ 0 for every x , y in I . Then K (x , y) is said to be　infinitely divisible on I × I (on I for short) if K (x , y)a is positivesemi-definite for every a > 0.

K (x , y) is infinitely divisible if and only if for each n, for all n points xi ∈ Iand for every a > 0matrix

(K (xi , xj)a)

is positive semi-definite.

kernel function

Cauchy kernel1

is infinitely divisible on (0,∞)× (0,∞).

(x + y)a=

∫ ∞

0e−txe−ty ta−1dt

kernel function

Cauchy kernel1

is infinitely divisible on (0,∞)× (0,∞).

(x + y)a=

∫ ∞

0e−txe−ty ta−1dt

kernel function

Lemma 5

(Fitzgerald, Horn) Let K (x , y) > 0 for x , y ∈ I and suppose −K (x , y) isc.p.s.d. on I × I . Then exp(−K (x , y)) and the reciprocal function 1

K(x ,y)are infinitely divisible there.

Example K (x , y) := x + y on (0,∞)× (0,∞)K (x , y) > 0 and −K (x , y) is c.p.s.d. on (0,∞)× (0,∞).(exp(−K (x , y)))a = e−axe−ay is p.s.d. for every a > 0.

1K(x ,y) =

1x+y is the Cauchy kernel .

kernel function

Lemma 5

(Fitzgerald, Horn) Let K (x , y) > 0 for x , y ∈ I and suppose −K (x , y) isc.p.s.d. on I × I . Then exp(−K (x , y)) and the reciprocal function 1

K(x ,y)are infinitely divisible there.

Example K (x , y) := x + y on (0,∞)× (0,∞)K (x , y) > 0 and −K (x , y) is c.p.s.d. on (0,∞)× (0,∞).(exp(−K (x , y)))a = e−axe−ay is p.s.d. for every a > 0.

1K(x ,y) =

1x+y is the Cauchy kernel .

kernel function

The Lowner kernel

Definition 6

Let f (x) be a real C 1-function on I . Then the Lowner kernel function isdefined by

Kf (x , y) =

{f (x)−f (y)

x−y (x = y)

f ′(x) (x = y).

Example

(i) For f (x) = x , Kf (x , y) = 1 is p. s. d. on R2.

(ii) For f (x) = − 1x+λ , Kf (x , y) =

1(x+λ)(y+λ) is p. s. d. on

(−λ,∞)× (−λ,∞) and on (−∞,−λ)× (−∞,−λ).

(iii) For f (x) = x2, Kf (x , y) = x + y is not p. s. d. but c. p. s. d. and c.n. s. d.

kernel function

The Lowner kernel

Definition 6

Let f (x) be a real C 1-function on I . Then the Lowner kernel function isdefined by

Kf (x , y) =

{f (x)−f (y)

x−y (x = y)

f ′(x) (x = y).

Example

(i) For f (x) = x , Kf (x , y) = 1 is p. s. d. on R2.

(ii) For f (x) = − 1x+λ , Kf (x , y) =

1(x+λ)(y+λ) is p. s. d. on

(−λ,∞)× (−λ,∞) and on (−∞,−λ)× (−∞,−λ).

(iii) For f (x) = x2, Kf (x , y) = x + y is not p. s. d. but c. p. s. d. and c.n. s. d.

kernel function

(Lowner Theorem) (also Koranyi)

Let f (x) be a real C 1-function on I . Then the Lowner kernel functionKf (x , y) is p.s.d. on I × I if and only if f (x) has a holomorphic extensionf (z) to Π+ which is a Pick (Nevanlinna) function.

We will showKΓ−1(x , y)

is p. s. d. on (Γ(α),∞)× (Γ(α),∞).

kernel function

(Lowner Theorem) (also Koranyi)

Let f (x) be a real C 1-function on I . Then the Lowner kernel functionKf (x , y) is p.s.d. on I × I if and only if f (x) has a holomorphic extensionf (z) to Π+ which is a Pick (Nevanlinna) function.

We will showKΓ−1(x , y)

is p. s. d. on (Γ(α),∞)× (Γ(α),∞).

Lemma 7

(Known result)

Klog x(x , y) :=

{log x−log y

x−y (x = y)1x (x = y)

is p.s.d. on (0,∞)× (0,∞)

Proof. By the formula

log x =∫∞0 ( −1

x+t +t

t2+1)dt (x > 0),

we obtain

Klog x(x , y) =∫∞0

1(x+t)(y+t)dt

for x , y > 0. □

Lemma 7

(Known result)

Klog x(x , y) :=

{log x−log y

x−y (x = y)1x (x = y)

is p.s.d. on (0,∞)× (0,∞)

log x =∫∞0 ( −1

x+t +t

t2+1)dt (x > 0),

we obtain

Klog x(x , y) =∫∞0

1(x+t)(y+t)dt

for x , y > 0. □

Lemma 7

(Known result)

Klog x(x , y) :=

{log x−log y

x−y (x = y)1x (x = y)

is p.s.d. on (0,∞)× (0,∞)

log x =∫∞0 ( −1

x+t +t

t2+1)dt (x > 0),

we obtain

Klog x(x , y) =∫∞0

1(x+t)(y+t)dt

for x , y > 0. □

Lemma 8

Klog Γ(x)(x , y) :=

{log Γ(x)−log Γ(y)

x−y (x = y)Γ′(x)Γ(x) (x = y).

−Klog Γ(x)(x , y) is c.p.s.d. on (0,∞).

Proof.

log Γ(x) = − log x − γx +∑∞

(xn − log(1 + x

g(x) :=∑∞

(xk − log(1 + x

log Γ(x) = − log x − γx + g(x)−Klog Γ(x)(x , y) = Klog x(x , y) + γ − Kg (x , y).

Lemma 8

x−y (x = y)Γ′(x)Γ(x) (x = y).

Proof.

(xn − log(1 + x

g(x) :=∑∞

(xk − log(1 + x

Lemma 8

x−y (x = y)Γ′(x)Γ(x) (x = y).

Proof.

(xn − log(1 + x

g(x) :=∑∞

(xk − log(1 + x

−Klog Γ(x)(x , y) = Klog x(x , y) + γ − Kg (x , y).

Klog x(x , y) is p.s.d. and a constant function γ is c.p.s.d.We will see −Kg (x , y) is c.p.s.d.

gn(x) :=∑n

(xk − log(1 + x

(i) −Kgn(x , y) is c.p.s.d.

(ii) g ′n(x) =

∑nk=1

xk(k+x) ⇒

∑∞k=1

xk(k+x) = g ′(x) on any finite interval

[0,M].

(iii) Kgn(x , y)− Kg (x , y) =

∫ xy (g ′

n(t)− g ′(t)) dt (x = y)

g ′n(x)− g ′(x) (x = y)

Therefore, −Kg (x , y) is c.p.s.d. on (0,∞). □

Klog x(x , y) is p.s.d. and a constant function γ is c.p.s.d.We will see −Kg (x , y) is c.p.s.d.gn(x) :=

∑nk=1

(xk − log(1 + x

(ii) g ′n(x) =

∑nk=1

xk(k+x) ⇒

∑∞k=1

[0,M].

∫ xy (g ′

n(t)− g ′(t)) dt (x = y)

g ′n(x)− g ′(x) (x = y)

∑nk=1

(xk − log(1 + x

(ii) g ′n(x) =

∑nk=1

xk(k+x) ⇒

∑∞k=1

[0,M].

∫ xy (g ′

n(t)− g ′(t)) dt (x = y)

g ′n(x)− g ′(x) (x = y)

∑nk=1

(xk − log(1 + x

(ii) g ′n(x) =

∑nk=1

xk(k+x) ⇒

∑∞k=1

[0,M].

∫ xy (g ′

n(t)− g ′(t)) dt (x = y)

g ′n(x)− g ′(x) (x = y)

∑nk=1

(xk − log(1 + x

(ii) g ′n(x) =

∑nk=1

xk(k+x) ⇒

∑∞k=1

[0,M].

∫ xy (g ′

n(t)− g ′(t)) dt (x = y)

g ′n(x)− g ′(x) (x = y)

Lemma 9

Klog Γ(x)(x , y)

is infinitely divisible on (α,∞).

By the previous lemmaKlog Γ(x)(x , y) > 0

is c.n.s.d. on (α,∞). By Fitzgerald and Horn’s result, we get the requiredresult.

Lemma 9

Klog Γ(x)(x , y)

is infinitely divisible on (α,∞).

By the previous lemmaKlog Γ(x)(x , y) > 0

is c.n.s.d. on (α,∞). By Fitzgerald and Horn’s result, we get the requiredresult.

Lemma 10

Let K1(x , y) be the kernel function defined on (α,∞)× (α,∞) by

K1(x , y) =

{x−y

Γ(x)−Γ(y) (x = y)1

Γ′(x) (x = y).

Then K1(x , y) is p.s.d. on (α,∞).

Proof.

K1(x , y) =

Γ(x)−Γ(y)x−y

log Γ(x)−log Γ(y) (x = y)1

Γ(x)Γ(x)Γ′(x) (x = y)

= Klog x(Γ(x), Γ(y)) ·1

Klog Γ(x)(x , y)□

Lemma 10

Let K1(x , y) be the kernel function defined on (α,∞)× (α,∞) by

K1(x , y) =

{x−y

Γ(x)−Γ(y) (x = y)1

Γ′(x) (x = y).

Then K1(x , y) is p.s.d. on (α,∞).

Proof.

K1(x , y) =

Γ(x)−Γ(y)x−y

log Γ(x)−log Γ(y) (x = y)1

Γ(x)Γ(x)Γ′(x) (x = y)

= Klog x(Γ(x), Γ(y)) ·1

Klog Γ(x)(x , y)□

Proof of Theorem

We have shown

K1(x , y) =

{x−y

Γ(x)−Γ(y) (x = y)1

Γ′(x) (x = y).

is p.s.d. on (α,∞). Hence

KΓ−1(x , y) =

{Γ−1(x)−Γ−1(y)

x−y (x = y)

(Γ−1)′(x) (x = y)= K1(Γ

−1(x), Γ−1(y))

is p.s.d. on (Γ(α),∞)× (Γ(α),∞).Thus by the Lowner theorem, Γ−1(x) has the holomorphic extensionΓ−1(z) onto Π+, which is a Pick function.By reflection Γ−1(x) has also holomorphic extension to Π− and the rangeis in it.

Γ(Γ−1(z)) is thus holomorphic on the simply connected domainD := C \ (−∞, Γ(α)], and Γ(Γ−1(x)) = x for Γ(α) < x < ∞. By theunicity theorem, Γ

(Γ−1(z)

)= z for z ∈ D. It is clear that Γ−1(z) is

univalent. □

Corollary 11

There is a Borel measure µ so that

Γ−1(x) = a+ bx +

∫ Γ(α)

−∞(

t − x− t

t2 + 1)dµ(t), (5)

where∫ Γ(α)−∞

dµ(t) < ∞, and a, b are real numbers and b ≧ 0.

Γ(Γ−1(z)) is thus holomorphic on the simply connected domainD := C \ (−∞, Γ(α)], and Γ(Γ−1(x)) = x for Γ(α) < x < ∞. By theunicity theorem, Γ

(Γ−1(z)

)= z for z ∈ D. It is clear that Γ−1(z) is

univalent. □Corollary 11

There is a Borel measure µ so that

Γ−1(x) = a+ bx +

∫ Γ(α)

−∞(

t − x− t

t2 + 1)dµ(t), (5)

where∫ Γ(α)−∞

dµ(t) < ∞, and a, b are real numbers and b ≧ 0.

Application

Matrix inequality

Theorem 12

The principal inverse Γ−1(x) of Γ(x) is operator monotone on[Γ(α),∞); i.e.,and hence for bounded self-adjoint operators A,B whose spectra are in[Γ(α),∞)

A ≦ B ⇒ Γ−1(A) ≦ Γ−1(B).

Proof A ≦ B implies that −(A− tI )−1 ≦ −(B − tI )−1 for t < Γ(α). From

Γ−1(x) = a+ bx +∫ Γ(α)−∞ ( −1

x−t −t

t2+1)dµ(t)

we have Γ−1(A) ≦ Γ−1(B). □

Application

Matrix inequality

Theorem 12

The principal inverse Γ−1(x) of Γ(x) is operator monotone on[Γ(α),∞); i.e.,and hence for bounded self-adjoint operators A,B whose spectra are in[Γ(α),∞)

A ≦ B ⇒ Γ−1(A) ≦ Γ−1(B).

Proof A ≦ B implies that −(A− tI )−1 ≦ −(B − tI )−1 for t < Γ(α). From

Γ−1(x) = a+ bx +∫ Γ(α)−∞ ( −1

x−t −t

t2+1)dµ(t)

we have Γ−1(A) ≦ Γ−1(B). □

Application

K2(x , y) := Klog Γ(x)(x , y) =

x−y (x = y)Γ′(x)Γ(x) (x = y).

e−K2(x ,y) =

(Γ(y)Γ(x))1

x−y (x = y)

e− Γ′(x)

Γ(x) (x = y)

is infinitely divisible. Since Γ(x + 1) = xΓ(x),

Γ′(1)

Γ(1)= −γ,

Γ′(m + 1)

Γ(m + 1)=

Γ′(m)

Γ(m)+

m,Γ(n)

Γ(m)=

(n − 1)!

(m − 1)!.

Application

matrix

The following (n+ 1)× (n+ 1) matrix is therefore not only p.s.d. but alsoinfinitely divisible. (

e−K2(i ,j))=

eγ (1!1!)−1 (2!)−

12 (3!)−

13 · · · (n!)−

(1!1!)−1 eγ−1 (2!1!)

−1 (3!1!)− 1

2 · · · (n!1! )− 1

(2!)−12 (2!1!)

−1 eγ−1− 12 (3!2!)

−1 · · · (n!2! )− 1

(3!)−13 (3!1!)

− 12 (3!2!)

−1 eγ−1− 12− 1

3 · · · (n!3! )− 1

......

. . ....

(n!)−1n (n!1! )

− 1n−1 (n!2! )

− 1n−2 (n!3! )

− 1n−3 · · · eγ−1− 1

2−···− 1

Application

R. Bhatia, Infinitely divisible matrices, Amer. Math. Monthly, 113, 221–235(2006).

R. Bahtia and H. Kosaki, Mean matrices and infinite divisibility, Linear Algebra Appl., 424,

36–54(2007).

C. Berg, H. L. Pedersen, Pick functions related to the gamma function, Rocky Mountain J. of Math.

32(2002)507–525.

A, Koranyi, On a theorem of Lowner and its connections with resolvents of selfadjoint

transformations, Acta Sci. Math. 17, 63–70(1956).

K. Lowner, Uber monotone Matrixfunctionen, Math. Z. 38(1934)177–216.

W. F. Donoghue, Monotone Matrix Functions and Analytic Continuation, Springer-Verlag, 1974.

C. H. Fitzgerald, On analytic continuation to a Schlicht function, Proc. Amer. Math. Soc., 18,

788–792(1967).

R. A. Horn, Schlicht mapping and infinitely divisible kernels, Pacific J. of Math. 38, 423–430(1971).

R. A. Horn and C. R. Johnson, Topics in Matrix Analysis, Cambridge University Press, 1991.

M. Uchiyama, Operator monotone functions, positive definite kernels and majorization, Proc. Amer.

Math. 138(2010)3985–3996

M. Uchiyama, The principal inverse of the gamma function, PAMS (2012) 1343–1348.

The principal inverse of the gamma function

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Fisica gamma-gamma a LEP - INFN Lecce web · 2003. 5. 7. · S. Braccini Fisica gamma-gamma a LEP 28 Conclusioni (1) • Processi esclusivi • Formazione di risonanze : candidati

Funcion Gamma

Fungsi Gamma Beta Print.ppt - Gunadarma Universitypardede.staff.gunadarma.ac.id/Downloads/files/37636/Fungsi+Gamma... · Tabel Nilai Fungsi Gamma 4.1. Fungsi Gamma n ΓΓΓΓ(n) 1,00

Inverse Trigonometric Functions 4.7

07 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Gamma Beta

Topics Part I •Principal Component Analysis •Independent Component Analysis · •Principal Component Analysis •Independent Component Analysis. Fall 2004 Pattern Recognition

QC Gamma Camera

Principal components - University of Massachusetts Amherstpeople.math.umass.edu/~anna/stat697F/Chapter10_part2.pdf · compute their principal components via the SVD (singular value

Fungsi Gamma dan Fungsi Beta Ayundyah · PDF fileFungsi Gamma dan Fungsi Beta Ayundyah Fungsi Gamma Fungsi Gamma dide nisikan sebagai integral tak wajar berikut: ( ) := Z 1 0 e xx

1 Trig/Precalc Chapter 4.7 Inverse trig functions Objectives Evaluate and graph the inverse sine function Evaluate and graph the remaining five inverse.

Gamma Ray Bursts - NASA

Gamma rays

Interstellar gamma rays and cosmic rays New insights from … · 2010-10-05 · Interstellar radiation field (-> inverse Compton) HI, CO, dust surveys CO-to-H 2 conversion a function

Absorsi Gamma

FAILURE CRITERIA: MOHR’S CIRCLE AND PRINCIPAL STRESSES

Inverse Problems in Transport Theory - MSRIlibrary.msri.org/books/Book47/files/stefanov.pdf · Inverse Problems in Transport Theory PLAMEN STEFANOV Abstract. We study an inverse problem

Función gamma

Los Neutrinos Solares - RIULL Principal

Raggi alfa, beta, gamma