Ανταρκτική

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 Ανταρκτική Συντεταγμένες: 90°S 0°E / 90°S 0°E Ανταρκτική Ο χάρτης χρησιμοποιεί  ορθογραφική προβολή, σχεδόν πο- λική άποψη, Ο Νότιος Πόλος  είναι κοντά στο κέντρο, εκεί που συγκλίνουν οι  μεσημβρινοί. Η  Ανταρκτική  είναι η νοτιότερη  ήπειρος  της  Γης στην οποία βρίσκεται ο γεωγραφικός  Νότιος Πό- λος. Βρίσκεται στην Ανταρκτική περιοχή του Νοτίου Ημισφαιρίου, σχεδόν εξ ολοκλήρου νοτί ως του Ανταρ κτικού Κύκλου, και περ ιβάλλεται από τον Νότιο Ωκεανό. Με έκταση 14,0 εκατομμύρια km 2 , εί- ναι η πέμπτη μεγαλύτερη ήπειρος του πλανήτη μετά την  Ασία, την  Αφρική, τη  Βόρεια Αμερική  και τη Νότια Αμερική. Για σύγκριση, η Ανταρκτική έχει το διπλάσιο μέγεθος της Αυστραλίας. Περίπου το 98% της επιφάνειας της Ανταρκτικής είναι καλυμμένη από πάγο με μέσο πάχος τουλάχιστον ένα μίλι. Η Ανταρκτική είναι, κατά μέσο όρο, η πιο κρύα, η ξηρότερη, και η πιο ανεμώδης ήπειρος, ενώ έχει και το υψηλότερο μέσο  υψόμετρο  από όλες τις άλ- λες ηπείρους. [2] Η Ανταρκτική θεωρείται  έρημος, με ετήσιες  κατακρημνίσεις  μόλις 200 mm κατά μήκος των ακτών, και πολύ λιγότερο στην ενδοχώρα. [3] Η θερμοκρασία στην Ανταρκτική έχει φτάσει και  −93 °C. Δεν υπάρχουν μόνιμοι κάτοικοι, κατοικούν όμως από 1.000 έως 5.000 άνθρωποι σε όλη τη διάρκεια του χρόνου σε ερευνητικούς σταθμούς που υπάρχουν διάσπαρτοι στην ήπειρο. Μόνο προσαρμοσμένοι στο κρύο οργανισμοί μπορούν να ζήσουν στην Ανταρ- κτική, μεταξύ των οποίων πολλά είδη φυκών,  ζώων (για παράδε ιγμα  ακάρεα,  νηματώδη,  πιγκουίνοι, φώκιες  και  βραδύπορα),  βακτήρια,  μύκητες,  φυτά και  πρώτιστα. Η βλάστηση, όπου εμφανίζεται, είναι τύπου τούνδρας. Η πρώτ η επι βεβαιωμένη θέαση της ηπε ίρου είναι κοι - νώς αποδεκτό ότι συνέβη το 1820 από την ρωσική αποστολή του Φάμπιαν Γκότλι μπ φον Μπέλινγκχά- ουζεν  και του Μιχαήλ Λαζάρεφ  στο  Βοστόκ  και το Μίρνι, αν και υπήρχαν μύθοι και υποθέσεις για μία Terra Australis  («Νότια Γη») από την αρχαιότητα. Η ήπειρος ωστόσο έμεινε εν γένει παραμελημένη για το υπόλοι πο του 19ου αιώνα εξαιτί ας του εχθρ ικού περι- βάλλοντος, της έλλειψης πόρων και της απομ όνωσ ης. Η  Συνθήκη της Ανταρκτικής  υπογράφηκε το 1959 από 12 κράτη, και μέχρι τώρα την έχουν υπογράψει 49. Η συνθήκη απαγορεύει στρατιωτικές δραστηριό- τητες και εξόρυξη ορυκτών, πυρηνικές εκρήξεις και διάθεση πυρηνι κών αποβλήτων, ενώ υποσ τηρ ίζε ι την επιστημονική έρευνα και προστατεύει την οικοζώνη της ηπείρου. Συνεχιζόμενα πειράματα διεξάγονται από πάνω από 4.000 επιστήμονες από διάφορες χώ- ρες. 1 Ετυμολογία Η πρώτη επί σημη χρήση του ονόματ ος «Ανταρ κτι κή» ως όνομα για την ήπειρο την δεκαετία του 1890 απο- δίδεται στον Σκώτο χαρτογράφο Τζον Τζορτζ Μπαρ- τόλομιου. [4] Το όνομα  Ανταρκτική (Antarctica, όπως χρησιμοποιήθηκε στην πρώτη του εμφάνιση) προέρ- χεται από την  ελληνική  σύνθετη λέξη  ανταρκτική, θηλυκό του ανταρκτικός, [5] που σημαίνει «αντίθετα από τον Αρκτικό». [6] 2 Ιστορί α εξε ρεύνησης Η πίστη για την ύπαρξη μιας Terra Australis , μιας τε- ράστιας ηπείρου στον άπω νότο της υδρογείου ώστε να «εξισορροπεί» της βόρειες ηπείρους της Ευρώ- πης, της Ασίας και της Βορείου Αμερικής, υπάρχει από τα χρόνια του Πτολεμαίου  (1ος Αιώνας ΚΕ), ο οποίος πρότεινε την ιδέα προκειμένου να διατηρηθεί η συμμετρία όλων των γνωστών μαζών γης του κό- σμου. Ακόμα και στα τέλη του 17ου αιώνα, και αφού είχε διαπιστωθεί ότι η Νότια Αμερική και η Αυστρα- λία δεν ήταν τμήματα της θρυλού μενης «Ανταρκτ ι- κής», οι γεωγρ άφοι πί στ ευαν ότι η ήπει ρος ήτ αν πολύ μεγαλύτερη από το πραγματικό της μέγεθος. Οι ευρωπαϊκοί χάρτες εξακολουθούσαν να δείχνουν αυτή την υποθετική γη μέχρι που τα πλοία του Τζέιμς Κουκ,  HMS  Resolution  και  Adventure  διέσχισαν τον Ανταρκτικό Κύκλο στις 17 Ιανουαρίου του 1773, τον Δεκέμβριο του 1773 και ξανά τον Ιανουάριο του 1774. [7] Ο Κουκ έφτασε σε απόσταση 121 km από τις ακτές τις Ανταρκτικής πριν οπισθοχωρήσει ενόψει του πάγου τον Ιανουάριο του 1773. [8] Η πρώτη επι- βεβαιωμένη θέαση της Ανταρκτικής μπορεί να εντο- πιστεί στα πληρώματα τριών διαφορετικών πλοίων. Σύμφωνα με διάφορ ους οργανι σμο ύς (το  Εθνικό Ίδρυμα Επιστημών (NSF) των ΗΠΑ, [9] την NASA, [10] το  Πανεπιστήμιο της Καλιφόρνια, Σαν Ντιέγκο,  [11] και άλλες πηγές) , [12][13] πλοία τριών καπετάν ιων αντίκρισαν την Ανταρκτική το 1820: του  Φάμπιαν Γκότλιμπ φον Μπέλινγκσχαουζεν (εσθονικής  κατα- γωγή ς πλοίαρχος του Αυτοκρατορι κού Ρωσικού Ναυ- 1

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Transcript of Ανταρκτική

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  • 3

    2000

    3000

    4000

    0 1000

    Km

    2000

    0 200 400 600 800 1000Miles

    60S

    70S

    80S

    90E

    180

    90W South PoleAmundsen-Scott (USA)

    Tra n s a n t a r c t i c

    M

    o un tai n

    s

    South

    Shetland

    Is

    Anvers I.

    Adelaide I.

    South Orkney Is

    Alexander I.

    Peter I y

    Balleny Is

    GRAHAMLAND

    ELLSWORTH LAND

    MARIEBYRDLAND

    VinsonMassif4892m sntME l hls twor

    ExecutiveCommitteeRange

    WhitmoreMtns

    sntMP sr lein rce haC

    ThielMtns

    ShackletonRange

    Thorshavnheine

    eimeh nlubmiF

    Pensacola Mtns

    BerknerIsland

    PALMER LAND

    VICTORIALAND

    OATES LAND

    Mt Erebus

    COATS LAND

    DRONNING MAUDLAND

    ENDERBYLAND

    KEMP LAND

    MACROBERTSON

    PRINCESSELIZABETHLAND

    WILHELM IILAND

    QUEEN MARYLAND

    WILKESLAND

    TERREADLIEGEORGE V

    LAND

    LAND

    Scott Mtns

    ANTARCTIC PENINSULA

    Rothera (UK)

    Palmer (USA)

    Halley (UK)

    McMurdo(USA)

    SubglacialLake Vostok

    ROSSICESHELF

    ABBOT

    ICE

    SHELF

    AMERYICE SHELF

    SHACKLETONICESHELF

    GETZICE

    SHELF

    ROSS SEA

    AMUNDSEN

    SEA

    DomeArgus

    DomeFuji(Valkyrie)

    DomeCirce

    Dumont dUrvilleSea

    Davis

    Sea

    PrydzBay

    BELLINGSHAUSEN

    SEA

    WEDDELL

    SEA

    SO

    U T

    HE

    RN

    OC

    EA

    N

    SO

    UT

    HE

    RN

    OC

    EA

    N

    KO NH VIG I N HO AK V

    RONNEICESHELF

    FILCHNERICESHELF

    BRUNTICESHELF

    ISENLUBMIF

    LARSENICE SHELF

    EAST ANTARCTICA

    WESTANTARCTICA

    Queen Maud Mtns

    Queen Alexandra

    Range

    QueenElizabethRange

    Signy (UK)

    . 14.000.000 km,[1] , 1,3 - . 17.968 km[1] - , : -. -, .

    98% ,

    1 . - 90% ( 70% ). , 60 m.[23] - , , 20 mm . - . - , . . - , , . , , . , 10% , . -, , -, , . . - , - 4892 m, -. , . , . - , - , 1970. - . - .[24] 2004 - . .[25]

    70 . , - 1996, . 500.000 - , - .[26]

    , 400 m

    https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%83%CE%BC%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%A9%CE%BA%CE%B5%CE%B1%CE%BD%CF%8C%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%83%CE%BC%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%A9%CE%BA%CE%B5%CE%B1%CE%BD%CF%8C%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A5%CF%80%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AC_%CE%8C%CF%81%CE%B7https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%98%CE%AC%CE%BB%CE%B1%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1_%CE%93%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%AD%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B5%CE%BBhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%98%CE%AC%CE%BB%CE%B1%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1_%CE%93%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%AD%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B5%CE%BBhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B5%CF%83%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%B2%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BD%CF%8C%CF%82_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%93%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%AE%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%B9%CF%84%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B5%CF%83%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%B2%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BD%CF%8C%CF%82_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%93%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%AE%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%B9%CF%84%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CF%80%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%BF%CE%BA%CE%AC%CE%BB%CF%85%CE%BC%CE%BC%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%8C%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BC%CE%BF_%CE%BD%CE%B5%CF%81%CF%8Chttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%87%CF%8C%CF%80%CF%84%CF%89%CF%83%CE%B7https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CF%80%CE%BB%CE%B5_%CF%80%CE%AC%CE%B3%CE%BF%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CF%80%CE%BB%CE%B5_%CF%80%CE%AC%CE%B3%CE%BF%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CE%BE%CE%AC%CF%87%CE%BD%CF%89%CF%83%CE%B7https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9E%CE%B7%CF%81%CE%AD%CF%82_%CE%9A%CE%BF%CE%B9%CE%BB%CE%AC%CE%B4%CE%B5%CF%82_%CE%9C%CE%B1%CE%BA%CE%9C%CE%AD%CF%81%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%BFhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CF%85%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%91%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AEhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%BF%CE%BA%CE%AC%CE%BB%CF%85%CE%BC%CE%BC%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%94%CF%85%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE%CF%82_%CE%91%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%AE_%CF%83%CF%84%CE%AC%CE%B8%CE%BC%CE%B7%CF%82_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%B8%CE%AC%CE%BB%CE%B1%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B5%CF%89%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82_%CF%87%CF%81%CF%8C%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B7_%CE%9A%CF%8C%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%84%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B7_%CE%9A%CF%8C%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%84%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B7_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%92%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%AF%CE%BB%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1%CF%82_%CE%9C%CE%BF%CE%BD%CF%84https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B7_%CE%88%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BC%CF%80%CE%B9https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B7_%CE%88%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BC%CF%80%CE%B9https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B7_%CE%9C%CE%B1%CE%BA%CE%A1%CF%8C%CE%BC%CF%80%CE%B5%CF%81%CF%84%CF%83%CE%BF%CE%BDhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B7_%CE%93%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%AF%CE%BB%CE%BA%CE%B5%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B7_%CE%92%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%84%CF%8E%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BD%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%86%CE%B1%CE%AF%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BFhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BD%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CE%91%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CE%A0%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%BF%CE%BA%CE%AC%CE%BB%CF%85%CE%BC%CE%BC%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CE%AF%CE%BD%CF%83%CE%BF%CE%BD_%CE%9C%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%AF%CF%86https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%8C%CF%81%CE%B7_%CE%88%CE%BB%CF%83%CE%B3%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%B8https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%8C%CF%81%CE%B7_%CE%88%CE%BB%CF%83%CE%B3%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%B8https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%98%CE%AC%CE%BB%CE%B1%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1_%CE%A1%CE%BF%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9D%CE%AE%CF%83%CE%BF_%CE%9D%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%83%CE%AD%CF%80%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BDhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%A7%CE%B5%CF%81%CF%83%CF%8C%CE%BD%CE%B7%CF%83%CE%BF%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9B%CE%AF%CE%BC%CE%BD%CE%B7_%CE%92%CE%BF%CF%83%CF%84%CF%8C%CE%BAhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9B%CE%AF%CE%BC%CE%BD%CE%B7_%CE%92%CE%BF%CF%83%CF%84%CF%8C%CE%BAhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%B8%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%92%CE%BF%CF%83%CF%84%CF%8C%CE%BAhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A5%CF%80%CE%BF%CF%80%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%B5%CF%84%CF%8E%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%B1_%CE%BB%CE%AF%CE%BC%CE%BD%CE%B7https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%85%CF%81%CE%AE%CE%BD%CE%B1%CF%82_%CF%80%CE%AC%CE%B3%CE%BF%CF%85https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%85%CF%81%CE%AE%CE%BD%CE%B1%CF%82_%CF%80%CE%AC%CE%B3%CE%BF%CF%85

  • 4 4

    , - . - , . , - .[27] 2008, , - . - - , - .[28]. - 93,2C / - Oymyakon , - 67,7C.

    4

    - -

    4.1 -

    170 , . - , , 25 . , - . , , .

    4.1.1 (540250 Ma)

    , - . , - - , , . -, - . (416 Ma), - , - . , . - (360 Ma), - , -. , - Glossopteris, . . - , .[29]

    4.1.2 (25065 Ma)

    - . , , - -. , - , , Lystrosaurus. (206146 Ma), . Ginko Cycadales . , - (14665 Ma), (Nothofagus) - . , , (Cryolophosaurus Glacialisaurus ,[30] Antarctopelta).[31] - .

    https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%AF%CE%B1%CF%82_(%CF%80%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%AE%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82)https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CF%85%CF%81%CF%8E%CF%80%CE%B7_(%CE%B4%CE%BF%CF%81%CF%85%CF%86%CF%8C%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%82)https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9B%CE%AF%CE%BC%CE%BD%CE%B7_%CE%9F%CF%8D%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B6%CE%AD%CE%B5https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CE%BE%CF%84%CF%81%CE%B5%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%86%CE%B9%CE%BB%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%98%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%BF%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%AF%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CE%B9%CE%B2%CE%B7%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CE%BF%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%B3%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%86%CE%AF%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CE%B1%CE%B8%CF%85%CE%BC%CE%B5%CF%84%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A5%CF%80%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%AE%CF%80%CE%B5%CE%B9%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B2%CE%AC%CE%BD%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%AC%CE%BC%CE%B2%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%B1_%CF%80%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%BF%CE%B4%CE%BF%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CF%8C%CF%81%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%BF_%CE%97%CE%BC%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%86%CE%B1%CE%AF%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BFhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%83%CE%B2%CE%B5%CF%83%CF%84%CF%8C%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%B8%CE%BF%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A8%CE%B1%CE%BC%CE%BC%CE%AF%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%87%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CF%8C%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%B8%CE%BF%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%83%CF%80%CF%8C%CE%BD%CE%B4%CF%85%CE%BB%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B2%CE%AF%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%B5%CE%B2%CF%8C%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%B1_%CF%80%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%BF%CE%B4%CE%BF%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%8C%CF%81%CE%B7_%CE%88%CE%BB%CF%83%CE%B3%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%B8https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%8C%CF%81%CE%B7_%CE%A7%CF%8C%CF%81%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BAhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%8C%CF%81%CE%B7_%CE%A0%CE%B5%CE%BD%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%BA%CF%8C%CE%BB%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%86%CE%BC%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9B%CE%AC%CF%83%CF%80%CE%B7https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%BF%CE%B4%CE%BF%CF%82_%CF%80%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%B5%CF%84%CF%8E%CE%BD%CF%89%CE%BDhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%AD%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%B9%CE%B1_%CF%80%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%BF%CE%B4%CE%BF%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CF%84%CE%AD%CF%81%CE%B7https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossopterishttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A5%CF%80%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AC_%CE%8C%CF%81%CE%B7https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%B4%CE%BF%CF%83%CF%80%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%84%CF%8C%CF%86%CF%85%CF%84%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%85%CE%BD%CE%B1%CF%88%CE%B9%CE%B4%CF%89%CF%84%CE%AChttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%8E%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B7_%CE%A0%CE%AD%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%B9%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%81%CF%8E%CE%B9%CE%BC%CE%B7_%CE%A4%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%B4%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AEhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lystrosaurushttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%81%CE%AC%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%B1_%CF%80%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%BF%CE%B4%CE%BF%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%81%CE%AC%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%B1_%CF%80%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%BF%CE%B4%CE%BF%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ginkohttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycadaleshttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CF%89%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%86%CF%8C%CF%81%CE%BF_%CE%B4%CE%AD%CE%BD%CF%84%CF%81%CE%BFhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CF%81%CE%B7%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%B4%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CF%80%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%BF%CE%B4%CE%BF%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9D%CF%8C%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%B5%CF%82_%CE%BF%CE%BE%CE%B9%CE%AD%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BC%CE%BC%CF%89%CE%BD%CE%AF%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_(%CE%BC%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%AC%CE%BA%CE%B9%CE%BF)https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%AD%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%82_(%CE%B2%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1)https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryolophosaurushttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacialisaurushttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%87%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%A7%CE%AC%CE%BD%CF%83%CE%BF%CE%BDhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarctopelta

  • 5

    4.1.3 (16023 Ma)

    , - ( ) , - . 160 Ma, , ( 125 Ma). 65Ma, ( -) , . 40 Ma, , , . - -Ma , 760 ppm[32] ppm . 23 Ma, , - . - .[33] , - . 15Ma, ,[34] 6 Ma.

    4.1.4 (230.05 mya)

    1986, - - 640 3 .[35][36][37]

    4.2 -

    - . , , - ., .[29] - -

    - . - . - - . - , - , . , - . , - , - 3 - . . - , , - . - . .[34] -, , - . - . - , 1973 . 2048 .

    5

    . - 93,2C 10 2010, .[38] - - 89,2C 21 1983.[39] -, 11 C - . -

    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  • 6 6

    , - 10 cm , . - 80 C 90 C 5 C 15 C . - - .[40]

    .

    . , . - , - . - , - , 1,22 m 48 . , - - . - . -, , - - .[1]

    . , - 3 km , . , - , - - . , -

    , - .[40]

    , , , . , -. , - . , , .[40]

    6

    , -

    - . - - 1.000 5.000 -. - , - . , , 2004 , .[41][42]

    ( ) - -, 1786 . , 1966,

    https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%87%CF%8C%CF%80%CF%84%CF%89%CF%83%CE%B7https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%B8%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%9A%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%81%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%B1%CE%B9%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AC_%CE%BC%CE%AD%CF%84%CF%89%CF%80%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%B2%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%AC%CE%BD%CE%B5%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%B2%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%AC%CE%BD%CE%B5%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CF%85%CF%88%CE%AF%CF%80%CE%B5%CE%B4%CE%BFhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%97%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B1%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%B2%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%AF%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%97%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B1%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%B2%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%AF%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CF%83%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BD%CF%8C%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%81%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AEhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9D%CF%8C%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BF_%CF%83%CE%AD%CE%BB%CE%B1%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%97%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%AC%CE%BD%CE%B5%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%97%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%AC%CE%BD%CE%B5%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BC%CE%B1%CE%BD%CF%84%CF%8C%CF%83%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%B7https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%AE%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BFhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9F%CF%80%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CF%86%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%BD%CF%8C%CE%BC%CE%B5%CE%BD%CE%BFhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9D%CF%8C%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%A0%CF%8C%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%B8%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%9D%CE%BF%CF%84%CE%AF%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%A0%CF%8C%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%91%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%8D%CE%BD%CE%B4%CF%83%CE%B5%CE%BD-%CE%A3%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%84https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%B8%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%9D%CE%BF%CF%84%CE%AF%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%A0%CF%8C%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%91%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%8D%CE%BD%CE%B4%CF%83%CE%B5%CE%BD-%CE%A3%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%84https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CF%81%CE%B5%CF%85%CE%BD%CE%B7%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82_%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%B8%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9F%CF%81%CE%B8%CF%8C%CE%B4%CE%BF%CE%BE%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%BD%CE%B1%CF%8C%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CE%A4%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%AC%CE%B4%CE%B1,_%CE%91%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AEhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%B8%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%9C%CF%80%CE%AD%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%B3%CE%BA%CF%83%CF%87%CE%AC%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%B6%CE%B5%CE%BDhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%A3%CF%8D%CE%B3%CE%BA%CE%BB%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%B7https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CF%85%CE%BD%CE%AE%CE%B3%CE%B9_%CF%86%CF%8E%CE%BA%CE%B9%CE%B1%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9D%CE%AE%CF%83%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%9D%CF%8C%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%B1_%CE%93%CE%B5%CF%89%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9D%CE%AE%CF%83%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%9D%CF%8C%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%B1_%CE%93%CE%B5%CF%89%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%B8%CE%B7%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1

  • 7

    1,000 ( 2.000 ) 200 . , . , , , , , , . . , , , , 1910. - -, 8 1913, . , , . 1904 , 1914 1921, .[43]

    60 ( ),[44] - , 1978 , - .[45][46] - - - . 1984, , . .[47] 2009, , [48] .[49]

    7

    .[50] Alaskozetes antarcticus, , ,, , . Belgica antarctica, 6 mm, .[51] Pagodroma nivea

    , -

    .[52]

    , , . , -, , . - - , . Eudyptes chrysocome - , . , ] . Arctocephalus gazella - 18 19 . -, , - , -. , , , , -, , , , -, .[53]

    https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%AF%CF%84%CE%B2%CE%B9%CE%B3%CE%BA%CE%B5%CE%BDhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9B%CE%AD%CE%B9%CE%B8_%CE%A7%CE%AC%CF%81%CE%BC%CF%80%CE%BF%CF%81https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%B3%CE%BA_%CE%88%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BD%CF%84_%CE%A0%CF%8C%CE%B9%CE%BD%CF%84https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%84%CF%81%CF%8C%CE%BC%CE%BD%CE%B5%CF%82_(%CE%9D%CF%8C%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%B1_%CE%93%CE%B5%CF%89%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1)https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A7%CE%BF%CF%8D%CF%83%CE%B2%CE%B9%CE%BAhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BD%CF%82_%CE%8C%CE%BB%CE%B1%CF%86_%CE%A7%CE%AC%CF%81%CE%BC%CF%80%CE%BF%CF%81https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%8C%CF%83%CE%B5%CE%B1%CE%BD_%CE%A7%CE%AC%CF%81%CE%BC%CF%80%CE%BF%CF%81https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%BA%CF%8C%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B8%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%BBhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BB_%CE%86%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BD_%CE%9B%CE%AC%CF%81%CF%83%CE%B5%CE%BDhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BB_%CE%86%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BD_%CE%9B%CE%AC%CF%81%CF%83%CE%B5%CE%BDhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9D%CF%8C%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%B1_%CE%93%CE%B5%CF%89%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CE%BC%CE%AF%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BF_%CE%9C%CE%AC%CF%81%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%A0%CE%AC%CE%BB%CE%BC%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/60%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%BD%CF%8C%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%82_%CF%80%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%AC%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%B7%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%85%CE%BD%CE%B8%CE%AE%CE%BA%CE%B7_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%91%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%85%CE%BD%CE%B8%CE%AE%CE%BA%CE%B7_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%91%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CE%AC%CF%83%CE%B7_%CE%95%CF%83%CF%80%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%AC%CE%BD%CE%B6%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%B5%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%AEhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%B8%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%A6%CF%81%CE%AD%CE%B9_%CE%9C%CE%BF%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%AC%CE%BB%CE%B2%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%B8%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%A6%CF%81%CE%AD%CE%B9_%CE%9C%CE%BF%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%AC%CE%BB%CE%B2%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CE%AC%CF%83%CE%B7_%CE%95%CF%83%CF%80%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%AC%CE%BD%CE%B6%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%B4%CF%85%CE%BB%CF%89%CF%84%CE%AChttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BA%CE%AC%CF%81%CE%B5%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaskozetes_antarcticushttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A8%CE%B5%CE%AF%CF%81%CE%B5%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9D%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%84%CF%8E%CE%B4%CE%B7https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%B4%CF%8D%CF%80%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%87%CF%8C%CE%B6%CF%89%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BBhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%AD%CE%BC%CE%B2%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9D%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%84%CF%8C%CE%BA%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgica_antarcticahttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagodroma_niveahttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%85%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82_%CF%80%CE%B9%CE%B3%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%AF%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%98%CE%AC%CE%BB%CE%B1%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1_%CE%A1%CE%BF%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B9%CE%B3%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%AF%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%AC%CE%B6%CE%B9%CE%B1_%CF%86%CE%AC%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%AC%CE%B6%CE%B9%CE%B1_%CF%86%CE%AC%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%8C%CF%81%CE%BA%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B9%CE%B3%CE%AC%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BF_%CE%BA%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%BC%CE%AC%CF%81%CE%B9https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A9%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B4%CE%B5%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%85%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82_%CF%80%CE%B9%CE%B3%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%AF%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%B4%CE%AD%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%82_%CF%80%CE%B9%CE%B3%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%AF%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eudyptes_chrysocomehttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%AF_%CF%80%CE%B9%CE%B3%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%AF%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%B9https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B9%CE%B3%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%AF%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%82_%CF%84%CE%B6%CE%B5%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%8Dhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B5%CE%BD%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%86%CF%8C%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%82_%CF%80%CE%B9%CE%B3%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%AF%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctocephalus_gazellahttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CF%8E%CE%BA%CE%B9%CE%B1_%CE%B3%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%AD%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B5%CE%BBhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CF%8E%CE%BA%CE%B9%CE%B1_%CE%B3%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%AD%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B5%CE%BBhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BB%CE%B7%CE%B8%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%AE_%CF%86%CF%8E%CE%BA%CE%B9%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CE%B6%CE%AD%CE%B9%CE%BC%CF%82_%CE%93%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%AD%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B5%CE%BBhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%98%CE%AC%CE%BB%CE%B1%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1_%CE%93%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%AD%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B5%CE%BBhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%98%CE%AC%CE%BB%CE%B1%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1_%CE%93%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%AD%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B5%CE%BBhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BBhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CF%8E%CE%BA%CE%B9%CE%B1_%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BF%CF%80%CE%AC%CF%81%CE%B4%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B7https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CF%8E%CE%BA%CE%B9%CE%B1_%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BF%CF%80%CE%AC%CF%81%CE%B4%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B7https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CF%81%CE%B9%CF%87%CF%89%CF%84%CE%AE_%CF%86%CF%8E%CE%BA%CE%B9%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%BC%CE%AC%CF%81%CE%B9https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notothenioideihttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%86%CE%BB%CE%BC%CF%80%CE%B1%CF%84%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%82

  • 8 7

    - 500 , 2010. - (Census of Marine Life, CoML) - . 235 - 12,000 km. - , . , , . : - 5 C, , .[54]

    400 .

    . -, , . , - . ( , ), (- 100 25 ), , : Deschampsia antarctica Colobanthus quitensis. , .[55][56]

    1150 , 750 -

    400 .[57][56] - .[58] - , . .[55] - - .[59] - .[55]

    7.1

    ( ), 1992, - 1998.

    ( - ) 1998, . . - .[60]

    (Antarctic Conservation Act, 1978) , . , -. , , . (Convention for the Conservation ofAntarctic Marine Living Resources, CCAMLR) 1980,

    https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%B9%CE%B5%CE%B8%CE%BD%CE%AD%CF%82_%CE%A0%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CE%88%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%B3%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%86%CE%AE_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%98%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%AC%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%B1%CF%82_%CE%96%CF%89%CE%AE%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%B3%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%86%CE%AE_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%98%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%AC%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%B1%CF%82_%CE%96%CF%89%CE%AE%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9F%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B8%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%B4%CE%AEhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%98%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%BF%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%BA%CF%85%CE%BA%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%86%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9B%CE%B5%CE%B9%CF%87%CE%AE%CE%BD%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CF%8D%CE%BA%CE%B7https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CF%8D%CE%BA%CE%B7%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9B%CE%B5%CE%B9%CF%87%CE%AE%CE%BD%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A7%CE%BB%CF%89%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B4%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CF%81%CF%85%CF%8C%CF%86%CF%85%CF%84%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CF%81%CF%8D%CE%BFhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%97%CF%80%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8Chttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deschampsia_antarcticahttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colobanthus_quitensishttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CF%81%CF%85%CF%80%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%B5%CE%BD%CE%B4%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%B8%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8Chttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CF%85%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%80%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%BA%CF%84%CF%8C%CE%BDhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CF%8D%CE%BA%CE%B7_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CF%87%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%8Dhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CF%8D%CE%BA%CE%B7_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CF%87%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%8Dhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%B9%CE%AC%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%85%CF%84%CF%8C%CF%84%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%86%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%81%CF%8E%CF%84%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%B8%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%9C%CF%80%CE%AD%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%B3%CE%BA%CF%83%CF%87%CE%AC%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%B6%CE%B5%CE%BDhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9D%CF%8C%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%91%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE%CF%82_%CE%94%CE%B9%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%AE%CF%81%CE%B7%CF%83%CE%B7%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A5%CF%80%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%AF%CE%B5%CF%85%CF%83%CE%B7

  • 9

    - .[1] , , , - . - , 200 32.000 .[61][62]

    8

    2002.

    , . - ,[63] .[1]

    1959 - . - 1959 , - -. - , - 60 . - , ( -), , , , .[64] -, , - , - .

    1983 - - .[65] - [66] , Greenpeace International[67] , World Park Base, [68] - .[69] 1988, - (Conventionon the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resources,CRAMRA).[70] , - - , . .[71] ( - ) 14 1998 .[71][72] - , .

    HMS Endurance: -

    , - - , - . - - .[73] - .[74]

    https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9F%CE%B4%CE%BF%CE%BD%CF%84%CF%8C%CF%88%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BF_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%A0%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%B3%CF%89%CE%BD%CE%AF%CE%B1%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%A3%CF%85%CE%BD%CE%B8%CE%AE%CE%BA%CE%B7https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CE%A3%CF%8D%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%B1_%CE%A3%CF%85%CE%BD%CE%B8%CE%B7%CE%BA%CF%8E%CE%BDhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CE%A3%CF%8D%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%B1_%CE%A3%CF%85%CE%BD%CE%B8%CE%B7%CE%BA%CF%8E%CE%BDhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CE%BF%CE%B2%CE%B9%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%88%CE%BD%CF%89%CF%83%CE%B7https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%97%CE%BD%CF%89%CE%BC%CE%AD%CE%BD%CE%BF_%CE%92%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%AF%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%BFhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%B5%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%AEhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A7%CE%B9%CE%BB%CE%AEhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A8%CF%85%CF%87%CF%81%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%A0%CF%8C%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenpeace_Internationalhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Park_Basehttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CF%81%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CE%92%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CE%9D%CE%B1%CF%85%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8Chttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CF%81%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CE%92%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CE%9D%CE%B1%CF%85%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8Chttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CF%81%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%91%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AEhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CF%80%CE%B9%CF%87%CE%B5%CE%AF%CF%81%CE%B7%CF%83%CE%B7_%CE%95%CE%9D%CE%95%CE%9D%CE%97%CE%9D%CE%A4%CE%91https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%84%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%84%CF%8C%CF%82_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%91%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%B5%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%AE%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%84%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%84%CF%8C%CF%82_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%91%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%B5%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%AE%CF%82

  • 10 10

    8.1

    , , . - - - . -. , -, , - . - .[75][76]

    - .[77]

    .[75][76]

    .[78]

    - .[75][76]

    - .[78]

    9

    ,, , ,, , , , -. 1991 . 1998, ' , 2048 , -. . 2000-01 112.934 . " " - 1957 ,

    (International Association of AntarcticaTour Operators, IAATO). IAATO, IAATO 95% -. , - - .[79]

    - . - ..[80] - - IAATO,, - . - ( ) - , 901 Air New Zealand 1979 , - 257 . Qantas 1990.

    10

    - - 25 - . -, . .

    , 28 - - . - 4000

    https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%B6%CE%B9%CE%BB%CE%AF%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%B6%CE%B9%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%AC%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%B7_%CE%91%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AEhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%B6%CE%B9%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%AC%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%B7_%CE%91%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AEhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%8Dhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A1%CF%89%CF%83%CE%AF%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9D%CF%8C%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%B1_%CE%91%CF%86%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AEhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%97%CE%BD%CF%89%CE%BC%CE%AD%CE%BD%CE%B5%CF%82_%CE%A0%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%B9%CF%84%CE%B5%CE%AF%CE%B5%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A5%CE%B4%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%AC%CE%BD%CE%B8%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%BA%CE%B1%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9B%CE%B5%CF%85%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%87%CF%81%CF%85%CF%83%CE%BF%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A7%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A7%CF%81%CF%8E%CE%BC%CE%B9%CE%BFhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9D%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AD%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BFhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A7%CF%81%CF%85%CF%83%CF%8C%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%81%CF%89%CF%84%CF%8C%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%BF_%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%B7%CE%BD_%CE%A0%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%B2%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%A0%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B7%CE%BD_%CE%91%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%A3%CF%85%CE%BD%CE%B8%CE%AE%CE%BA%CE%B7https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%81%CF%89%CF%84%CF%8C%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%BF_%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%B7%CE%BD_%CE%A0%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%B2%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%A0%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B7%CE%BD_%CE%91%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%A3%CF%85%CE%BD%CE%B8%CE%AE%CE%BA%CE%B7https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%84%CE%AE%CF%83%CE%B7_901_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_Air_New_Zealandhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%84%CE%AE%CF%83%CE%B7_901_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_Air_New_Zealandhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qantashttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%B8%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%9D%CE%BF%CF%84%CE%AF%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%A0%CF%8C%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%91%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%8D%CE%B4%CF%83%CE%B5%CE%BD_%CE%A3%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%84https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%B8%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%9D%CE%BF%CF%84%CE%AF%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%A0%CF%8C%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%91%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%8D%CE%B4%CF%83%CE%B5%CE%BD_%CE%A3%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%84https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B1%CE%BD%CF%83%CE%AD%CE%BB%CE%B7%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9D%CF%8C%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BF_%CF%83%CE%AD%CE%BB%CE%B1%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CF%81%CE%B5%CF%85%CE%BD%CE%B7%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82_%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%B8%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82

  • 10.1 11

    , 1000 .[1] McMurdo, , 1000 , . ,, , , , . , , . , , . , , - . - . - . , , , . , 2 km -.[81]

    1970, - . 1985, - . (CFC) - . CFC 1989, 2065.[82] - 2006 NASA , 27,5 km.[82]

    6 2007, - ,

    , . 16,3 , , , 2008 -. - , - . - , .[83]

    2008 BritishAntarctic Survey (BAS), , ( - Nature Geoscience) 2.200 , ( ). 10.000 , - .[84]

    10.1

    , ALH84001,

    - - . - , - . 1912. 1969 . . -, - .

    https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CF%81%CE%B5%CF%85%CE%BD%CE%B7%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82_%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%B8%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%B8%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82_McMurdohttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B5%CF%89%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A9%CE%BA%CE%B5%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%B3%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%86%CE%AF%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CF%85%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AEhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%83%CF%84%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%AF%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%B5%CF%84%CF%89%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%89%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CE%B5%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AD%CF%82_%CF%80%CE%BB%CE%AC%CE%BA%CE%B5%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B2%CE%AC%CE%BD%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CF%85%CE%BD%CE%B1%CE%BC%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CF%80%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%BF%CE%BA%CE%B1%CE%BB%CF%8D%CE%BC%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A7%CE%B9%CF%8C%CE%BD%CE%B9https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%B5%CF%84%CF%8E%CE%BD%CE%B1%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%BF%CE%BA%CE%B1%CE%BB%CF%8D%CE%BC%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%B8%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%9D%CE%BF%CF%84%CE%AF%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%A0%CF%8C%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%91%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%8D%CE%BD%CE%B4%CF%83%CE%B5%CE%BD-%CE%A3%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%84https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%B8%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%9D%CE%BF%CF%84%CE%AF%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%A0%CF%8C%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%91%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%8D%CE%BD%CE%B4%CF%83%CE%B5%CE%BD-%CE%A3%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%84https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%B2%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CF%85%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%B2%CE%AC%CE%B8%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%85https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CF%89%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CF%8D%CF%80%CE%B1%CE%BD%CF%83%CE%B7https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/IceCubehttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/IceCubehttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%84%CF%81%CF%8E%CE%BC%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CF%8C%CE%B6%CE%BF%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%B8%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%A7%CE%AC%CE%BB%CE%B5%CF%8Ahttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%BF%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%B7%CF%80%CE%AF%CE%B4%CE%B1_%CE%9C%CF%80%CF%81%CE%AC%CE%BD%CF%84https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A7%CE%BB%CF%89%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%86%CE%B8%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AC%CE%BD%CE%B8%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%BA%CE%B5%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%81%CF%89%CF%84%CF%8C%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%BF_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%9C%CF%8C%CE%BD%CF%84%CF%81%CE%B5%CE%B1%CE%BBhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASAhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CF%81%CF%8D%CF%80%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CF%8C%CE%B6%CE%BF%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CE%AD%CE%BB%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%BFhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%B8%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%A0%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%B3%CE%BA%CE%AF%CF%80%CE%B7%CF%83%CE%B1%CF%82_%CE%95%CE%BB%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%AC%CE%B2%CE%B5%CF%84https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%B8%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%A0%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%B3%CE%BA%CE%AF%CF%80%CE%B7%CF%83%CE%B1%CF%82_%CE%95%CE%BB%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%AC%CE%B2%CE%B5%CF%84https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%AEhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%AEhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%BA%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%BA%CE%B5%CF%85%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%BC%CE%AD%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%B9%CE%B5%CE%B8%CE%BD%CE%AD%CF%82_%CE%A0%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CE%88%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BB%CE%AD%CE%BD_%CE%9F%CF%85%CE%BC%CF%80%CE%AD%CF%81%CF%84https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%B5%CF%84%CF%89%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%B2%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Antarctic_Surveyhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Antarctic_Surveyhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_Geosciencehttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%97%CF%86%CE%B1%CE%AF%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%BFhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%8C%CF%81%CE%B7_%CE%A7%CE%AC%CE%BD%CF%84%CF%83%CE%BF%CE%BDhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%B5%CF%84%CF%8E%CE%BD%CE%B1%CF%82_%CE%A0%CE%AC%CE%B9%CE%BD_%CE%86%CE%B9%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%BD%CF%84https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/ALH84001https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%86%CF%81%CE%B7%CF%82_(%CF%80%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%AE%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82)https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%89%CF%81%CE%AF%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%97%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CF%83%CF%8D%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%B4%CE%AE%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%AE%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82

  • 12 11

    , .[85]

    - - . -. - - . , ALH84001 ANSMET, . - , . , , . [85]

    2006, - GRACE NASA - 480 km , 250 - .[86]

    11

    , . - -. ( ) - , - . - , . -

    . - - . . - - . . , . - , .[87][88]

    ( ) - ( ). , - . . - - , . - - .[89]

    , 70% - .[23] - . - , - . - 1992 2006 - 50 ( 0,14mm ).[90] 2006.[91]

    -. - -

    https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/ALH84001https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/ANSMEThttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CE%A0%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B5%CF%80%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%AE%CE%BC%CE%B9%CE%BF_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%9F%CF%87%CE%AC%CE%B9%CE%BFhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CE%A0%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B5%CF%80%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%AE%CE%BC%CE%B9%CE%BF_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%9F%CF%87%CE%AC%CE%B9%CE%BFhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/GRACEhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASAhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%AE%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%82_%CE%93%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%93%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%AF%CE%BB%CE%BA%CE%B5%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%88%CF%81%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%BF%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%B7%CF%80%CE%AF%CE%B4%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%98%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B1%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BD%CF%8C_%CE%BD%CE%B5%CF%81%CF%8Chttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%98%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B1%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BD%CF%8C_%CE%BD%CE%B5%CF%81%CF%8Chttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B9%CE%B3%CE%B1%CF%84%CF%8C%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CF%8C%CE%BB%CF%80%CE%BF%CF%82_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%98%CE%AC%CE%BB%CE%B1%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1%CF%82_%CE%91%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%8D%CE%BD%CE%B4%CF%83%CE%B5%CE%BD

  • 13

    . ( ) .[90][91] , .[91][92]

    12 -

    19572006

    , . - 2009 >0.05 C 1957 2006. 0.1 C -, - . - .[93] .[94] - - . , - , .[95][96] - - .[97]

    2002 -

    .[98] 28 - 8 2008, 570 km , , 15.000 km . - 6 km,[99][100] 5 2009.[101][102] NASA, - 30 2005, . 5C.[103]

    13

    - CFC ( 2006)

    - . - - 2008, - .[104] - 1985[105] . - CFC , .[106]

    ( ).[105]

    https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%BF%CE%BA%CE%AC%CE%BB%CF%85%CE%BC%CE%BC%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%91%CE%BD%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE%CF%82_%CE%91%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%BF%CE%BA%CE%AC%CE%BB%CF%85%CE%BC%CE%BC%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%91%CE%BD%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE%CF%82_%CE%91%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%83%CE%BC%CE%B9%CE%B1_%CE%B8%CE%AD%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%B1%CE%BD%CF%83%CE%B7https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BE%CE%B5%CE%AF%CE%B4%CE%B9%CE%BF_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%AC%CE%BD%CE%B8%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%BA%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%BF%CE%BA%CE%AC%CE%BB%CF%85%CE%BC%CE%BC%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%94%CF%85%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE%CF%82_%CE%91%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%BF%CE%BA%CE%AC%CE%BB%CF%85%CE%BC%CE%BC%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%94%CF%85%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE%CF%82_%CE%91%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A5%CF%86%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%B7%CF%80%CE%AF%CE%B4%CE%B1https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASAhttps://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CF%81%CF%8D%CF%80%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CF%8C%CE%B6%CE%BF%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A7%CE%BB%CF%89%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%86%CE%B8%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AC%CE%BD%CE%B8%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%BA%CE%B5%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CF%81%CF%8D%CF%80%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CF%8C%CE%B6%CE%BF%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%82https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A7%CE%BB%CF%89%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%86%CE%B8%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AC%CE%BD%CE%B8%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%BA%CE%B5%CF%82

  • 14 15

    . 6 C . - ( ) . - , , .[105] .[107]

    14 2404 (2404

    Antarctica) .

    15 [1] United States Central Intelligence Agency (2011).

    Antarctica. The World Factbook. Government of theUnited States. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ay.html. 22 2011.

    [2] National Satellite, Data, and InformationService. National Geophysical Data Center.Government of the United States. - 13 2006.http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/image/2minrelief.html. 9 2006.

    [3] Joyce, C. Alan (18 2007). The Worldat a Glance: Surprising Facts. The World Almanac. 4 2009. http://www.worldalmanac.com/blog/2007/01/the_world_at_a_glance_surprisi.html. 7 2009.

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