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AIRE SOR ‘FIRST-TONGUE’Created by Stephen Escher - 2021

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PHONOLOGY

ConsonantsThe chart below represents Aires’s consonant inventory. Broad IPA symbols are provided where theydi er from their romanisation. When consonants are paired, the left consonant is unvoiced while theright one is voiced.

Labial* Dental Velar Uvular GlottalNasal m n ng /ŋ/Stop p,b t,d k,g ‘ /ʔ/Fricative s,z h /χ/, r /ʁ/Approximant w l /ʟ/

*m, p, and b are bilabial, while w is labiovelar.

Some tips on pronouncing some of the trickier consonants:

● ng /ŋ/ is pronounced like the ‘ng’ in ‘sing’, the ‘g’ is not pronounced● ‘ /ʔ/ is a glottal stop, and is pronounced by cutting the air stream in the throat● h /χ/ and r /ʁ/ are both pronounced with the tongue pulled back● n, t, d, s, z are all pronounced with the tongue touching the teeth● l /ʟ/ is usually pronounced with the tongue in the same position as k,g or ng.

Allophones

The exact realisation of certain consonants may vary in certain contexts:

h /χ/, has various allophones:● /h/ when preceding a voiceless stop or a ricate; eg. hahkeikoi [ˌχæhkeiˈkʰoi] ‘tower’● /ɸ/ when following /p/: eg. deiphai [deiˈpɸæi] ‘ankles’● /θ/ when following /t/: eg. thas [ˈtθæs] ‘neck’● /x/ before a /w/ or /ʟ/: eg. akhwe’ [ɐˈkxwɘ ʔ] ‘western’

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The list above is ordered in terms of priority, so thlo ‘to cause’ should be pronounced [tθlo] and not[txʟo].

l /ʟ/ becomes [l] after a dental consonant. eg. tla [ˈtlɐ] ‘straight’

/ʁ/ becomes a uvular trill /ʀ/ between two vowels eg. aires [æiˈʀɘs] ‘ rst-tongue’

Velar stops /k/ and/g/, become uvular stops, [q] and [ɢ], before a /ʁ/ or a /χ/ eg. grr [ˈɢʁ] ‘wolf’

Oral voiceless stops, /p,t,k/ are aspirated before a vowel if the syllable is stressed, but are unaspiratedelsewhere: subopa [ˌsubɵˈpʰæ]

VowelsFront Centre Back

Closed i /ɨ/ u /u/Close-Mid e /e/ e /ɘ/, o /ɵ/ o /o/Open a /æ/ a /ɐ/

Vowels have a creaky voice if followed by a glottal stop /ʔ/. eg. hiwe’ [χɨˈwəʔ]

Some vowels are shifted when adjacent to a uvular consonant:● e /ɘ/ is realised as [ɤ] eg. pare s [pæˈʀɤs] ‘ruler’● o /o/ is realised as [ɔ] eg. khrok [ˈqχʁɔk] ‘sometime’● a /ɐ/ is realised as [ɑ] eg. akhres [ɑˈqχʁɤs] ‘elder’

The allophones of /h/ that are not uvular do not a ect these vowels: eg. hwahwa ‘life’ is realised [xwɐˈxwɐ] and not *[xwɑxwɐ] as the h is realised as a velar fricative in this context.

Diphthongs:

-i -ue- ei /ei/ eu /eu/o- oi /oi/ ou /ou/a- ai /æi/ au /æu/

The diphthongs oi /oi/ and ou /ou/ can also be a ected by a uvular shift, resulting in [ɔi] and [ɔu]respectively. However, they are a ected only if a preceding uvular consonant precedes it: eg. roi ‘fat’ is

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respectively. However, they are a ected only if a preceding uvular consonant precedes it: eg. roi ‘fat’ is

realised as [ˈʁɔi], but kakoirr ‘across’ is realised as [ˌkækoiˈʁ] and not *[ˌkækɔiˈʁ].

Stress and TimingStressed syllables tend to be louder and have a falling pitch unless the nal consonant is a stop. PrimaryStress always falls on the nal syllable. If there are three or more syllables, then third from last syllablewill have secondary stress. Syllables with secondary stress are slightly louder than unstressed syllables,but they are not as loud and lack a fall in pitch.

Aires is a stress-timed language, where a word can be broken into three rhythmic units of equalduration:

● The initial unstressed syllables● The syllable with secondary stress and it’s following unstressed syllable● The stressed syllable

For example: hamehlosres ‘peasant’ can be broken into ha-mehlos-RES [χæː ˌmexʟos ˈʁɘː s].

Phonotactics

Aires’s syllables can be broken into three parts: the onset, which may have up to three consonants; thenucleus which may consist of a monophthong vowel, diphthong or syllabic consonant; and the codawhich may consist of a single consonant. The onset and coda are optional while the nucleus ismandatory. This syllable structure may be summed up as: (C)(C)(C)V(C)

Onset

A glottal stop ‘ /ʔ/ can only occur in the coda of a syllable. All other consonants may appear in theonset, but there are further limitations for what consonant clusters are permitted.

l may occur after any oral stop, nasal or voiceless fricative. It may not occur after a voiced fricative or anapproximant:

P+l pl, tl, klS+l: sl, hl

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N+l: ml, nl, nglB+l: bl, dl, gl

Not permitted: *rl, *zl, *ll, *wl

The same applies to w, but with a additional restriction: it cannot follow a dental consonant.

P+w pw, kwS+w: hw N+w mw, ngwB+w: bw, gw

Not permitted: *nw, *dw *tw *sw

However, as t and s are permitted in the coda, tw and sw may be permitted across a syllable boundary:eg. reswe [ʁɘsˈwɘ] ‘guts’.

In addition to the restrictions with consonant clusters, w or l can only precede the vowels e, a, or o.

Voiceless fricatives may precede voiceless stops:

S+P: sp, st, sk, hp, ht, hk

These clusters may also be followed by l or w (if permitted under the previous restrictions):

S+P+l: spl, stl, skl, hpl, htl, hklS+P+w: spw, hpw, skw, hkw

A voiceless stop may be followed by a voiceless fricative:

P+S: ps, ts, ks, ph [pɸ], th [tθ], kh [qχ]

These can also be followed by l or w:

P+S+l: psl, tsl, ksl, phl [pɸʟ], thl [tθl], khl [kxʟ]P+S+w: phw, khw

A voiceless fricative may be followed by a voiced fricative of the same place of articulation:

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S+Z: sz, hr

A voiceless stop cannot directly be followed by a voiced fricative, but can be followed by a voicelessfricative plus voiced fricative cluster:

P+S+Z: psz, tsz, ksz, phr, thr, khr

Lastly, a voiced stop may be followed by a voiced fricative:

B+Z: bz, dz, gz, br, dr, gr

Syllabic consonants

Some syllables can have a consonant in their nucleus instead of a vowel. The only consonants that maydo this are the voiced fricatives. When syllabic these are written rr /ʁ/, and zz /z/.

These syllables may have a consonant in the onset, but only those that are allowed to cluster with thevoiced fricative in the nucleus:

P+S+Z: pszz, tszz, kszz, phrr, thrr, khrrB+Z: bzz, dzz, gzz, brr, drr, grrS+Z: szz, hrr

Syllabic consonants cannot have a syllable coda, and cannot be followed be a vowel.

Coda

Only ve consonants may be permitted in a syllable’s coda: s,h,’, t, and k. The glottal stop,‘, cannot bethe coda if the syllable has a diphthong or the vowel is a closed vowel.

DERIVATIONAL MORPHOLOGY

MorphophonologyWhen deriving new words, there are certain phonological rules that must be applied to to both

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When deriving new words, there are certain phonological rules that must be applied to to both

compounds and a xes. This includes the in ectional pre xes described in the grammar section.

If a syllable nal stop is followed by a stop, it becomes geminate:

● ‘p, tp, kp → pp [p:]● ‘t, kt → tt [t:]● ‘k, tk → kk [k:]● ‘b, tb, kb → bb [b:]● ‘d, td, kd → dd [d:]● ‘g, tg, kg → gg {g:}

Glottal stops assimilate before voiced fricatives, becoming voiced stops in the same place of articulationas the fricative:

● ‘z → dz [dz]● ‘r → gr [ɢʁ]

A voiceless fricative is followed by another voiceless fricative, then the second fricative will be dropped:

● hh → h /χ/● ss → s /s/● hs → h /χ/● sh → s /s/

A glottal stop, ‘, must be inserted between two vowels if they don’t from a valid diphthong. If the rstvowel is a closed vowel, then p is inserted instead.

A xesBelow is a list of common a xes used in AIres. The segments in brackets only occur when necessary.

The Diminutive A x

Diminutives can be formed with an a x, i, that primarily functions as a pre x but can sometimesfunction as an in x depending on the context:

● i is simply pre xed to the root if it begins with a single consonant: eg. pok ‘ re’ → ipok ‘ember’.

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● If the root starts with a vowel, then a p can be inserted after the i (ip-) eg. uh ‘fear’ → ipuh‘anxiety’.

● If the root begins with a consonant cluster, then i can be inserted as an in x between the rstand second consonants of the cluster: eg. hpla’ ‘mountain’ → hipla’ ‘hill’.

Pre xes

h(a)- Augmentative ○ eg. ska ‘bad’ → haska ‘evil’○ eg. to ‘wall’ → hto ‘cli ’

m(e)- Gas (results in a mass noun) ○ eg. tszo’ ‘black’→ metszo’ ‘smoke’○ eg. lo ‘white’ → mlo ‘cloud’

ng(e)- Negation○ eg. ak ‘old’ → ngak ‘baby’○ eg. bopa ‘look’ → ngebopa ‘hate’

res- Time○ eg. koikoi ‘to inhabit’ → reskoikoi ‘time of residence’

Su xes

-(o)‘ The result of an action, to have a property, being full of something○ eg. iddla ‘to pierce’ → iddla’ ‘hollow’○ eg. iddla’ ‘hollow’ → iddla’o’ ‘box’

-koi Produces a collective noun that refers to a house, but can refer to a room in thesingulative form (see Nouns)

○ eg. tszo’ ‘dark’ → tszokkoi ‘prison’; teszokkoi ‘cell’

-pa Performing an action using something○ eg. sla ‘ears’ → sla pa ‘to hear’

-res Person○ eg. ak ‘old’ → akhres ‘elder’

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-rr Liquid (mass), movement (verb)○ eg. hos ‘red’ → hosrr ‘blood’

-thlo Causative○ eg. khrr ‘to crumble’ → khrrthlo ‘to sabotage’

-zz Powder (mass)○ eg. lo ‘white’ → lozz ‘salt’

The following su xes are common in place-names:

-ito Town-nu Place-oi Island-psas Sea-ri Lake, river-seh Land-to City

ReduplicationNew words can also be formed by repeating the stressed syllable. This can be done to a count noun toproduce a collective noun: eg. grr ‘wolf’ → grrgrr ‘a pack of wolves’. For more information on collectivenouns, please see Nouns.

Reduplication can also be used on a verb to indicate a repeated action: eg. wegrr ‘to jump’ → wegrrgrr ‘todance’.

CompoundsCompounds can be formed with following patterns:

● Adjective + noun○ eg. ou ‘good’ + res ‘beard’ = oures ‘hero’

● Material + p(a) + noun○ tik ‘metal’+ pa + bo ‘circle’ = tippabo ‘coin’

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● Benefactor + (o)’ + noun○ so’ ‘body’ + o’ + gwo ‘hood’ = so’oggwo ‘cloak’

● Location+ n(u)+ noun○ hahkei ‘tree’ + nu + tle’ ‘arms’= hahkeinutle’ ‘tree branches’

● Adverb + verb○ ska ’bad’ + pslok ‘think’ = skapslok ‘to be mean’

● Adjective + adjective○ res ‘long’ + ik ‘sharp’ = resik ‘spear’

● Noun + postposition○ rires ‘tongue’ + nu ‘on’= riresnu ‘taste’

● Postposition + verb○ rus ‘before’ +rirespa ‘to say’ = rusrirespa ‘to warn’

● Object + verb○ res ‘beard’ + teu ‘to pull’ = resteu ‘to ght’

GRAMMAR

Examples in this section are formatted in the following way:

ExampleglossFree translation.

Abbreviations for Glosses

1 First person2 Second person3 Third personCESS Cessative aspectDIST DistalFUT Future tenseGNO Gnomic aspectIMP Imperative moodINCEP Inceptive aspectINT Interrogative mood/pronounIPFV Imperfective aspectMED MedialNEG Negation

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PASS Passive voicePFV Perfective aspectPL Plural numberPRO PronounPROG Progressive aspectPROX ProximalPST Past tenseRECP Reciprocal voiceREFL Re exive voiceREL RelativeSBJV Subjunctive mood SGV Singulative number

NounsNouns can take two in ectional pre xes: Determiner; and number. These pre xes are arranged in thefollowing order: Determiner-Number-Stem.

Determiner Pre xes

There are two kinds of Determiner Pre xes: Possessive and Demonstrative.

Possessive pre xes mark the grammatical person of the infected noun’s possessor:

Singular Plural1 (a)k- koi-2 o- ot-3 (o)t- tot-

Note that plural pre xes above indicate plurality of the possessor and not the in ected noun. eg. koire’ is‘our fruit’ as opposed to ‘my fruits’ (khre’)

Demonstrative pre xes take the same slot as possessive pre xes.

Pre x UsageProximate dak- ‘this’ - Indicates that the noun is near the speaker.Medial doi(p)- ‘that’ - Indicates the the noun in near the listener.Distal dot- Indicates the noun is far away fro both the speaker and listener

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Interrogative gz(z)- ‘which’ - Used in questions

Number Pre xes

Number pre xes indicate grammatical number. Which pre xes a noun can take depends on it class:

Count nouns represent single objects. They are unmarked when singular and take the pre x h(e)- inthe plural

Collective nouns represent groups of objects. When unmarked, they represent a single group. Likecount nouns, these nouns can take the plural pre x h(e)- to indicate multiple groups. Collectivenouns can also take a singulative a x e- which indicates a single member from that group. Like thediminutive a x (see Derivation), e- can be an in x where possible.

For example, sla ‘ears’ is a collective noun, when unmarked refers to a pair ears on a single person.Adding the plural pre x, hesla, refers to multiple sets of ears. To refer to an individual ear, thesingulative a x must be added: sela.

Some collective nouns are derived from count nouns via reduplication (see Derivation). For these words,the unmarked count noun suggests that it is on its own; as opposed to the singulative form of the derivedcollective noun, which suggests it belongs to a group. For example:

grr A wolf (alone)hegrr Wolves (everywhere)grrgrr A pack of wolveshegrrgrr Many packs of wolves gerrgrr A wolf (that is part of a pack)

The following sample sentence demonstrates how a noun in the singulative form can be used:

Dak gzzhak epihrrhrr ai?PROX.PRO 3.INT-GNO.be SVG-kitten.litter rst Is this the rst kitten of the litter?

Compare this to:

Dak gzzhak pihrr ai?PROX.PRO 3.INT-GNO.be kitten rst Is this the rst kitten?

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There is a third class of nouns, mass nouns, which cannot take any of the number pre xes. Mass nounsare treated as singular in verb agreement (see Verbs).

Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

Singular Plural1 ak koi2 oi ot3 ot tot

Demonstratives

Singular PluralProximal dak dokiMedial doi dotDistal dot dot

Location GoalProximal aknu khrrMedial oinu oirrDistal otnu thrr

Inde nite Pronouns

None Any Some EveryLocation ngenu enu khro’nu henuGoal ngerr re khrogrr hrePerson/Object ngot et khro’ot hetTime (pfv.) ngekoi ekoi khrok hkoiTime (ipfv.) ngeres eres khrogres hres

Interrogative Pronouns

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gzz what, whogzznu wheregzzrr whither, to wheregzzkoi when (pfv.)gzzres when (ipfv.)

VerbsVerbs take two pre xes: a personal pre x and a tense/aspect pre x. Following the template: Personal-Tense/aspect-Stem

Personal Pre xes

Verbs in Aires have polypersonal agreement, which means they are marked with the grammaticalperson of both the subject and the object (with some exceptions) . The personal pre x primarily markspolypersonal agreement, but can sometimes indicate other thing such as various moods and passivevoice.

There are two main conjugation patterns: pre xes that precede a consonant and those that precede avowel.

Consonant Conjugation

Subject agreement only:

1 Subject 2 Subject 3 Subject ImperativeIntransitive ak- -o-* - oi-Plural Intrans. koi- ot- - oit-Passive ko’- o’- o’- po’-Subjunctive ke- -e-* -e-* pe-Negative nge- nge- nge- nge-Interrogative gzz- gos- gzz- gis-Relative pa- pa- pa- paPassive-Rel. op- op- op- op-

Transitive:

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1 Subject 2 Subject 3 Subject Imperative1s Object bo- ok- tak- pak-1p Object ka- koi- koi- koi-2s Object ko- bo- to- bo-2p object kot- nau- tot- nau-3s Object kot- ot- bo-/-** oit-3p Object tot- tot- nau- tot-Reciprocal gai- gai- gai- gai-

Vowel Conjugation

Subject agreement only:

1 Subject 2 Subject 3 Subject ImperativeIntransitive k- o’- - oip-Plural Intrans. koip- ot- - oit-Passive ko’- o’- o’- po’-Subjunctive ek- e’- e’- p-Negative ng- ng- ng- ng-Interrogative gz- goz- gz- giz-Relative p- p- p- p-Passive-Rel. opp- opp- opp- opp-

Transitive:

1 Subject 2 Subject 3 Subject Imperative1s Object b- ok- tak- pak-1p Object kan- koip- koip- koip-2s Object k- b- t- b-2p Object kot- ngwa’- tot- ngwa’-3s Object kot- ot- b-/-** oit-3p Object tot- tot- ngwa’- tot-Reciprocal koig- ogg- g- oigg-

* these pre xes can also be used as in xes, eg. phri ‘to walk’ → pohri ‘you walk’** b(o)- is re exive, while the non-re exive is unmarked

The rules described in the Morphophonology section must also be applied to the pre xes above:

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eg. ak + phri = apphri ‘I walk’

The main advantage of marking person on the verb is that pronouns can dropped if they're obvious fromcontext:

Tattotthlo1.3-breakI break it.

This is often the case in casual everyday speech, but the pronouns could be included to add emphasis ormake to sound more formal:

Ak tattotthlo.PRO.1 1.3-breakI break it.

Tattotthlo ot.1.3-break PRO.3I break IT.

Ak tattotthlo ot.PRO.1 1.3-break PRO.3I break it (very formal).

The intransitive pre xes are used when there is no object:

Apphri.1-walkI walk.

Plurality of the subject can be marked on an intransitive verb with the plural intransitive pre xes:

Koiphri.1.PL-walkWe walk.

However, the plurality of a subject cannot be marked with the transitive pre xes, so the pronoun mustbe included for clarity:

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Koi tattotthloPRO.1.PL 1.3-breakWe break it.

Another instance where pronouns must be used is with re exive pre xes, b(o)-. These are used if thesubject performs the action on itself:

Ak bopeh.PRO.1 REFL-kickI kick myself.

Oi bopeh.PRO.2 REFL-kickYou kick yourself.

Ot bopeh.PRO.3 REFL-kickHe kicks himself.

Note that the third person re exive is di erent from having a third person in the subject and object:

Ot peh ot.PRO.3 kick PRO.3He kicks him.

Plural re exives are also distinct from the reciprocals:

Koi bopeh.PRO.1.PL REFL-kickWe kick ourselves.

Koi gaipeh.PRO.!.PL RECP-kickWe kick each other.

The passive voice promotes an object to a subject, this process is marked on the verb with a passivepre x:

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Ottszz.3.PASS-burnIt is burnt.

Usually the demoted subject is dropped like in the example above, but it can be included by placing itafter the verb:

Ottszz pokhwa’.3.PASS-burn dragonIt is burnt by the dragon.

Some personal pre xes can be used to express grammatical mood. Subjunctive pre xes are used tosuggest that something is uncertain:

Pszz e’akhra’sut dei3.SBJV-FUT.CESS-fall soonThe rain may stop soon.

Tobbopapa pszz e’akhra’sut dei1-3.PL-hope rain 3.SBJV-FUT.CESS-fall soonI hope the rain stops soon.

The imperative pre xes are used for commands. When used without a pronoun, it implies the secondperson:

Oipikhrus grr!IMP-PFV-go away(you) Go away!

A pronoun can be used to indicate that the imperative is in a di erent person:

Koi oikikhrus!PRO.1.PL IMP-PFV-goLet's go!

The ‘subjunctive-imperative’ is much weaker in force, and can be used for suggestions:

Pestarus.IMP.SBJV-FUT.PFV-go

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You should go.

Koi peikhlekhle habrr he’.1.PL IMP.SBJV-FUT.IPFV-eat slow more We should eat more slowly.

Adverbs may be used with a subjunctive verb to indicate other moods. For example, borr ‘can’ can beused to indicate permission:

Ekeibei borr respuslotthlo ra’1.SBJV-FUT.IPFV-play can schooltime afterI can play after school.

Yes-no questions can be formed by marking the verb with a interrogative pre x:

Res gzairus?man 3.INT-PST.PFV-go Did the man leave?

These questions can be answered with tes ‘yes’ or nge ‘no’.

Finally there are the relative and passive-relative pre xes which are used for modifying nouns and inrelative clauses (see Subclauses)

Tense and Aspect Pre xes

Verbs in Aires can be marked for their location in time, tense, and their relationship to time, aspect.Tense and aspect is marked with a pre x that is placed between the personal pre x and the stem.

Like the personal pre xes, there is a conjugation for consonant initial stems and one for vowel initialstems:

Consonant Conjugation:Past Present Future

Imperfective -ak- - -ei-Perfective -ai- -ik- -sta-Progressive -rus- -res- -ra’-Inceptive -eirus- -eires- -eira’-Cessative -akhrus- -akhres- -akhra’-

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Gnomic -hak- -hak- -hak-

Vowel Conjugation:Past Present Future

Imperfective -k- - -eip-Perfective -aip- -k- -sat-Progressive -rus- -res- -ra’-Inceptive -eirus- -eires- -eira’-Cessative -kahrus- -kahres- -kahra’-Gnomic -hk- -hk- -hk-

However, there are some verbs where the stem may change depending tense and aspect (see IrregularVerbs). Of course, the morphophonological rules described in the Derivational Morphology section alsoapply here.

The two most basic aspects are the imperfective and perfective aspects. The imperfective treats a verbas a process with a duration, while the perfective treats a verb as an unanalysed whole. Compare thefollowing examples:

PehIPFV.kickHe kicks (for a while)

IppehPFV-kickHe kicks (in an instant)

These may seem similar, but the key di erence is the imperfective (which is unmarked in the presenttense) suggests that the action has a duration, while the perfective suggests the action is instantaneous.

Another important distinction to make is the di erence between the imperfective and the progressiveaspects. The progressive aspect also suggests the action has a duration, but puts more emphasis on itbeing a process and implies that it is a temporary state. Compare the following:

Pli.IPFV.dripIt drips.

Respli

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PROG-dripIt is dripping

There are also the inceptive and cessative aspects which focus on the beginning and the end of aprocess respectively.

Eirespli.INCEP.dripIt starts to drip.

AkrespliCESS-dripIt stops to drip

Finally there’s the gnomic aspect, which suggests that something is always true. This aspect is the samein each of the three tenses, as it suggests an eternal state.

Hlotsza hakhlo.sun GNO-shineThe sun always shines.

Certain verbs have limitations on which aspects they can be marked for. Verbs can be categorised intotwo groups: Telic and atelic. Telic verbs are actions that have a goal, these cannot take the gnomicaspect; while Atelic verbs represent actions that have no clear goal, and cannot take the perfectiveaspect.

Aspect can also e ect postpositions, mainly when referring to time. When a verb is in the perfectiveaspect, koi ‘in’ is used; while res ‘during’ is used for the other aspects:

Gostara’ borr akhwera’ koi?2.INT-FUT.PFV-come can tomorrow inCan you come tomorrow?

Hlotsza eihlo akhwera’ ressun FUT.IPFV-shine tomorrow duringThe sun will shine tomorrow.

This also e ects pronouns concerning time (see Pronouns) For example the word ‘when’ is gzzkoi whenperfective but gzzres in the other aspects.

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Tot toto grr ohegai stangwo’ gzzkoi3.PL.PRO city from 2-PL.guest FUT.PFV-arrive when.PFVWhen will your guests from the city arrive?

Irregular Verbs

This section lists verbs with unique conjugations. Most of the irregularities are due to having di erentstems for certain tenses or aspects. However, most of these verbs take a regular personal pre x (asdescribed in the Personal Pre x section).

To be

Past Present FutureImperfective ak nu eiProgressive rus res ra’Inceptive eirus eires eira’Cessative akhrus akhres akhra’Gnomic hak hak hak

To come

Past Present FutureImperfective akhra’ ra’ eira’Perfective aira’ ikhra’ stara’Progressive rustei restei raddeiInceptive eirustei eirestei eiraddeiCessative akhrustei akhrestei akhraddei

To go

Past Present FutureImperfective akhrus rus eirusPerfective airus ikhrus starusProgressive ruska reska raggaInceptive eiruska eireska eiraggaCessative akhruska akhreska akhragga

To grow

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Past Present FutureImperfective ako’ ak eipakPerfective aipo’ iko’ sato’Progressive ruso’ resak ra’akInceptive eiruso’ eiresak eira’akCessative akhruso’ akhresak akhra’ak

To hold, to have Past Present Future

Imperfective appa pa* eipaProgressive rusau hau ra’hauInceptive eirusau eihau eira’hauCessative akhrusau akhau akhra’hauGnomic haknu haknu haknu

Present-imperfective form of this verb has some irregularities for some of its personal pre xes. Note thatthere are there is no intransitive form for this verb.

1 Subject 2 Subject 3 Subject ImperativePassive ko’ o’ o’ po’Subjunctive kepa pe pe pepaNegative ngepa ngepa ngepa ngepaInterrogative gzzpa gospa gzzpa gispaRelative pa pa pa paPassive-Rel. po po po po

The transitive pre xes for this verb are regular with pa being the stem.

NumbersThere are three basic types of number: cardinals used for amounts; ordinals used for order; andadverbs for specifying the frequency of a verb:

Value Cardinal Ordinal Adverb1 e ai eik2 at sta taik3 ok okkset koik4 o kos oik

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5 e kes eki

6 sat sakkset satik7 stat stakkset statik8 stok stokkset stokik9 sto stokset stoki10 ste stekset steki

11 okksete okksetai okkseteik12 okksetat okksetsta okksetatik13 okksetok okksetokkset okksetokik14 okkseto okksekkos okksetoik15 okksete okksekkes okkseteki

16 kose kosai koseik17 kosat kosta kostaik18 kosok kosokkset koskoik19 koso koskos kosoik20 kose koskes koseki

21 kese kesai keseik22 kesat kesta kestaik23 kesok kesokkset keskoik24 keso keskos kesoik25 kese keskes keseki

Numbers 26 to 49 are formed with the formula ‘25 and x (cardinal number)’:

Value Cardinal Ordinal Adverb26 (25+1) kese to e keskes to e keseki to e49 (25+24) kese to keso keskes to keso keseki to keso

Numbers 50 and above are formed by adding a multiplier to 25:

Value Cardinal Ordinal Adverb50 (2x25) at kese at keskes at keseki51 (2x25+1) at kese to e at keskes to e at keseki to e600 (24x25) keso to kese at keskes to keso at keseki to keso

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This pattern can be extended to higher numbers:

Value Cardinal Ordinal Adverb625 pwo spwe pwoki390 625 hpwo haspwe hpwoki

Modifying a noun with a number depends on the noun class. For count nouns the are simply added likeadjectives:

Ok hephrr.three PL-catThree cats.

Kos phrr.fourth catThe fourth cat.

For collectives, if whole groups are being counted then they function as count nouns. But if members arebeing counted, then the singulative is used. Compare:

Ok hesla.three PL-earsThree pairs of ears.

Ok selathree SGV-earsThree ears.

Mass nouns cannot be counted directly, so they must have a possessor to indicate a unit:

Ok heklo tottik.three PL-block 3.PL-metalThree blocks of metal.

Syntax

Basic Word Order

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Aires’s basic word order is Subject-Verb-Object:

Girr khlekhle mwo.dog eat meatThe dog eats the meat.

Adverbs may come between the verb and the object:

Girr khlekhle habrr mwo.dog eat slow meatThe dog slowly eats the meat.

Postpositional phrases (noun +postposition ) should come after the object:

Koi kotairus so’so’ resboparr o’.1.PL 1.3-PST.PFV-go village visit forWe went to the village for a visit.

Postpositions can be placed after the verb to function as an adverb:

Stangwo’ deiFUT.PFV-arrive soonHe will arrive soon.

Noun Phrase Order

The order of components in a noun phrase tends to vary depending on its position in a sentence and thepre xes marked on the head noun.

A noun phrase before a verb has the following order:

Relative clause - Number - Adjective - Head noun

Ok haklo’ hegirr khlekhle mwo.three angry PL-dog eat meatThe three angry dogs eat the meat.

If the head noun has a determiner pre x, or if the noun phrase follows the verb; then the following nounphrase structure is used:

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Relative clause - Possessor - Head noun - Adjective - Number

Phwa thegirr haklo’ ok khlekhle mwo.phwa 3-PL-dog angry three eat meatPhwa’s three angry dogs eat the meat.

Girr khlekhle mwo ska’.dog eat meat rottenThe dog eats the rotten meat.

Phwa ngwa’aihpa girr thebei.Phwa 3.3.PL-PST.PFV-laugh dog 3-PL-trickPhwa laughed at the dog’s tricks.

Numbers and adjectives may be placed before a possessor to modify it:

O ei hireso’ tothegirr haklo’ ok khlekhle mwo.four young PL-boy 3.PL-PL-dog angry three eat meatThe three angry dogs of the four young boys eat the meat. Unless the noun phrase comes after the verb, then the adjectives and numbers come in-between thepossessor and the head noun:

Phwa ngwa’aihpa girr haklo’ thebei.Phwa 3.3.PL-PST.PFV-laugh dog angry 3-PL-trickPhwa laughed at the angry dog’s tricks.

There are no strict rules on the order of multiple adjectives, but generally those dealing with quality willbe closer to the head noun than those concerning quantity:

Khro’ haklo’ hegirr khlekhle mwo.some angry PL-dog eat meatSome angry dogs eat the meat.

Girr khlekhle mwo ska’ khro’.dog eat meat rotten someThe dog eats some of the rotten meat.

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Conjunctions

to ‘and’ is simply placed between two noun phrases

Hegirr to hephrrPL-dog and PL-catDogs and cats.

to can also be used to join two verbs:

Tszz to khlekhlecook and eatHe cooks it and eats it.

pauh ‘because’ is placed between two sentences:

Akairus pauh o’ak.1-PST.PFV.go because 2.PST.IPFV-beI left because of you.

ple ‘if-then’ is placed after the condition and is followed by the consequence. The verb in the conditionmust be subjunctive, while the consequence is not:

E’eirus ple akeirus2.SBJV-FUT.IPFV.go if.then 1-FUT.IPFV.goIf you go, then I will go.

Subordinate clauses

Unlike main clauses, subordinate clauses have a Subject-Object-Verb word order. The most basic use ofa subordinate clause is to embed a sentence as an object:

Kotopuslok girr mwo khlekhle.1.3-know dog meat eatI know that the dog eats meat.

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The subject of the subordinate clause is treated as the object of main clause. So in the example above,opuslok ‘to know’ is marked with the pre x for rst person subject and third person singular object, kot-.

Adjectives and numbers come after the noun in subordinate clauses:

Kotopuslok girr haklo’ mwo ska’ khlekhle.1.3-know dog angry meat rotten eatI know that the angry dog eats rotten meat.

Postpositional phrases still come after the verb:

Kotopuslok girr mwo khlekhle spe’seh nu.1.3-know dog meat eat meadow atI know that the dog eats meat in the meadow.

A relative clause can be formed placing a relative pre x (see Personal Pre xes) on the verb:

Paresbei hemouspa.REL-PROG-play PL-childChildren that are playing

The relative pre x is also used to allow a verb to modify a noun. So the example above can also betranslated as ‘The playing children’.

An object of a relativised verb can be placed in front of it:

Grr paiskethlo ot.wolf REL-PST.PFV-kill PRO.3He who killed a wolf.

There is also a passive-relative pre x, where the modi ed noun is a ected by the verb:

Oppaiskethlo otPASS.REL-PST.PFV-kill PRO.3He who was killed.

Passive relatives can also have an agent precede the verb:

Grr oppaiskethlo ot

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wolf PASS.REL-PST.PFV-kill PRO.3He who was killed by a wolf.

Relative clauses are always at the start of a noun phrase:

Hlotsza abbopa us hahkeinutle’ kakoirr paresbei hemouspa nusun PST.IPFV-look down branches through REL-PROG.play PL.child uponThe sun looked down through the branches upon the children at play.

Verbs may be dropped if there’s a postposition:

Tlaso’hai koi ai ireso’ aibrotthlo koiphrinu nu.line in rst boy PST.PFV-stop entrance at The rst boy in the line stopped at the entrance.

SEMANTICS

NamesHere is a brief list of common given names:

Name Gender EtymologySkoippares m Home’s rulerSikoippa f Feminine variant of SkoipparesHkahlo m/f Eternally-holyHikahlo m/f Diminutive of HkahloEgaiphwa m TwinPhwa m Short for Egaiphwa

Surnames are treated as collective nouns. These can be used alone to refer to a family as a whole: eg.Hkahlogrr ‘The Hkahlogrrs’

In a full name, a surname precedes the given name: eg. Hkahlogrr Skoippares

A full name can be shortened by using the singulative pre x: eg. Hekahlogrr ‘Mr./Mrs. Hkahlogrr’

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SwearingThe swearword ski can be added to any word as an a x. ski can inserted as an in x before thepenultimate syllable of any content word (nouns, verbs and adjectives), giving it secondary stress. If theword has only two syllables then ski- is just pre xed. If the word has only one syllable, then skipa- ispre xed instead. For example:

ska → skipaska f***ing badskaiddla’ → skiskaiddla’ f***ing h***

ski can even be used on itself to create the much stronger skipaski, which often occurs on it’s own. Thisoften takes imperative pre xes eg. po’skipaski ‘get f***ed’, oiboskipaski ‘go f*** yourself’.

THE KSLA KHRO’ ALPHABET

Aires is written using an alphabet known as the Kslakhro’ (literally ‘The Runes’). Please note that theromanisation system used in this document is supposed to re ect the pronunciation of Aires words, anddoes not necessary re ect how words are spelt in its native writing system. This section will describehow to write words using the Kslakhro’.

Below is a summary of Kslakhro’ runes, how to type them using the font, and their romanisation:

Rune Font Key(s) Romanisation

A a

a a

B,b b

D,d d

E e

e e

G.g g

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H,R h or r

h,r h or r*

I i

i i*

K k

k k*

L,l l

M,m m

N,n n

^(shift+6) ng

O o

o o

P p

p,’ ‘

S,Z s or z

s,z s or z*

T t

t t*

U u

u u*

W,w wa

X,x we

Y,y wo

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. .

, ,

*Minuscule runes that are only used for the coda of a syllable or the glide of diphthong

Spelling rulesSome runes have minuscule forms which are used when it occurs in a syllable coda:

khrok ‘sometime’

Diphthongs are spelt with the minuscule forms of i and u:

Spelling Font Keys Romanisation

Ii ei

Ui oi

ai ai

Iu eu

Uu ou

au au

Note that in diphthongs, e and o are spelt with the runes I and U respectively.

Germinates are usually spelt with a regular rune preceded by a minuscule rune. The usual combinationsare:

Spelling Font Keys Romanisation

pP pp

pB bb

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tT tt

tD dd

kK kk

kG gg

There are exceptions based on how a word is dervived. For example:

ittszo’ ‘tonight’ [sharp-black]

The geminate consonant in ittszo’ is spelt ‘kT’ to re ect its derivation: ik ‘sharp’+ tszo’ ‘black’.

The spelling of fricatives is dependent on context. Word initial fricatives are spelt in the following way:

Spelling Font Keys Romanisation

S s

H h

Zz z, zz

Rr r, rr

These runes are spelt slightly di erently between two vowels:

Spelling Font Keys Romanisation

Z z

R r

s s

h h

sZ sz

hR hr

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In consonant clusters, these runes are interpreted as voiced when following a voiced stop, and unvoicedwhen following an unvoiced stop:

Spelling Font Keys Romanisation

BZ bz

GR gr

PS ps

KH kh

PSZ psz

KHR khr

If preceded by a vowel, the clusters dz and gr are spelt the following way:

Spelling Font Keys Romanisation

pZ dz

pR gr

Finally syllabic consonants are spelt in the following way:

Spelling Font Keys Romanisation

Zz zz

Rr rr

SZz szz

HRr hrr

Historical SpellingsSome consonant clusters were formed through the loss of a vowel. These lost vowels are persevered in

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Some consonant clusters were formed through the loss of a vowel. These lost vowels are persevered in

spellings of the following roots:

hkei green, plant

hkloh sleep

hkwot throw

hpa to laugh

ska bad

ske to die

skloh to wear

skwet to argue

spa chin

spe colour

sta right

stu front

hre to everywhere

hkoi everytime

hres always

Silent vowels will also appear if one of those roots occurs in a compound. For example:

skapslok ‘to be mean’ [bad-think]

PunctuationThere are two glyphs that function as punctuation marks:

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Glyph Font Key Punctuation

. full stop

, comma

Other forms of punctuation can be formed by using certain combinations:

Combination Font Keys Punctuation

.. exclamation mark

,, semicolon

Note that punctuation marks are always preceded by a space.

Tla aknu gainu, oupsloko’ nupwes nu.directly here opposite wonderful place standDirectly opposite, stands a wonderful place.

Oipikhrus grr!IMP-PFV-go awayGo away!

There is no punctuation mark at the end of a question:

Osetares gzzwegrrgrr ou borr?2-SGV.brothers 3.INT-IPFV-dance good canCan your brother dance well?

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NumeralsNumerals are derived from letters I (1) and S (5), but are joined together with a strikeout. An additionalunderline may be added for the value of four:

Numeral Font Keys Value

I 1

II 2

III 3

I 4

S 5

SI 6

SII 7

SIII 8

SI 9

SS 10

SSS 15

S 20

SI 24

Higher numerals do not have a strikeout:

Numeral Font Keys Value

K 25

P 625

H 390 625

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The numerals above must always be preceded by a multiplier:

1x25 = 25

5x25+24=149

Ordinals can be marked by placing the glyph ‘a’ before the number:

4th

AIRE S TO ENGLISH DICTIONARY

Dictionary entries have the following layout:

lemma part.of.speech. gloss, polyseme (additional information) [etymology]

Abbreviations:

a. Adjective/adverbadv. Adverbconj. Conjunctionint. Interjectionn.col. Collective nounn.count. Count nounn.mass. Mass nounnum. Numberpost. Postpositionpro. Pronounsgv. singulative formv.atl Atelic verbv.tel. Telic verb

ai a. left ai num. rstaihwa v.tel. to be born [ rst-breathe]aikhle n.count. breakfast [ rst-bite]

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aires n.count. Aires, native language [ rst-tongue]aireso’o’ n.col. ‘First-men’aista a. in order, orderlyaista n.count. side, order, riverbank [left-right]ak pro. Iaknu pro. hereat num. twoau a. dull, depressing, boringaumas a. dirty, unholyak a. old, ancient, wiseak v.tel. to age, to grow up (irregular)akei n.mass. age, wisdomakenarurr n.count. tradition [old-trend]akhres n.count. ancestor, elderakhwera’ n.count. tomorrowakhwe’ a. westernakhwe’ n.count. evening, sunset, westako’ n.count. adultappa’ n.col. grandparentsatthlo a. fertilebei n.count. trickbei v.tel. to play, to fool around, to trickbirr n.col. hail, hailstone (sgv.)ble v.tel. to vomit, puke; to admit somethingbo a. round, repetitivebo n.count. circle, wheel, nest, basket, spoolbo post. aroundbobo n.col. pair of eyesbokwas v.atl. to be ashamed [self-cover]bopa n.count. window; appearance, lookbopa v.tel. to see, to look; to plan out; to spy; seem (passive)bopapa a. lovely, lovable, desirable, beautifulbopapa v.atl. to love, to want, to desire, to hopebopares n.count. spyboparr v.tel. to visitbopsas n.count. bay, gulf [round-sea]bopwes v.tel. to wrap [circle-put]borr a. free, allowed to, can (adv.)bospe’spe’ n.col. wreath of owers

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bra’ n.count. springbres n.count. egg, ovalbrobbrr n.mass. icebrotthlo v.tel. to freeze, to stop, to waitbro v.tel. to turn, rotate, steer, roll; to repeat; to opposebrores n.count. steersmanbro’ a. another, again (adv.)bro’ a. frozenbrr a. coldbrr n.mass. cold water, icy waterbrrpszz n.col. sleetbrrthlo v.atl. to cool; to slowbrrzz n.mass. snowbrus n.count. autumn, fallbwa n.count. belly, stomachbzz n.count. y, ying insectdak pro. thisdei a. close, near, soon (adv.)dei post. nearby, neardeiga n.count. distancedeiphai n.col. a pair of ankles [near-feet]deiphaibo n.count. robe, dress [ankles-around]deipsas n.count. coast [near-sea]deires n.count. neighbourdirr n.count. path, way, coursedirrbopa v.atl. to scout [way-plan]dirrbopares n.count. scoutdla v.tel. to hit, to insult, to strikedladla n.col. war, battle (sgv.)dladla v.tel. to beat updladlabro v.tel to revolt [war-repeat]dlapa n.count. dagger [reanalysis of knife]doi pro. thatdot pro. that (distal)drr n.count. road; plan, methoddrrgrr v.tel. to raiddzz v.atl. to rubdzzdzz v.tel. to cleane num. one

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eh a. heavy, lowehbzz n.count. louse, insect, bugehme n.mass. weight [heavy-light]ehmlo a. unknown, mysteriousehmlo n.mass. fog, mist; the unknown, mysteryehnla v.atl. to lie down [heavy-back]ehteu v.atl. to drag, to work [heavy-pull]ei a. new, young, na veeihwegrus n.count. yesterdayeihwe’ a. easterneihwe’ n.count. morning, sunrise, easteik n.count. rodentekoi pro. anytime (perfective)enu pro. anywhereeres pro. anytime (imperfective)et pro. anyone, anybodyeu a. yellowe num. vee’ num. fthse’ a. allga a. farga post. ogai a. othergai n.count. stranger, guestgai v.atl. to travel, to wondergaidei post. like, similar togaikoi n.count. hotel, taverngainu post. oppositegaipa adv. togethergaipaihwa n.col. twinsgirr a. loyal [dog]girr n.count. doggla n.count. namegrr n.count. wolfgrr post. away, fromgrrgrr n.col. a pack of wolvesgwo n.count. mouth, hood, doorway, doorgzz pro. whatgzzkoi pro. when (perfective)

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gzznu pro. wheregzzres pro. when (imperfective)gzzrr pro. to where, whitherhabrr a. slowhabrr n.count. glacierhadirr n.count. streethagwo n.col. gateway, gate (sgv.)hahe’ a. mosthahkei a. tall, proud [tree]hahkei n.count. treehahkeikei n.col. woods, foresthahkeikoi n.count. towerhahkeinutle’ n.col tree branches, boughs [tree-at-arms]hahkeipoppa a. woodenhahkeipoppato n.count. fence [wooden-wall]hahkeipo’ n.mass. woodhahlos n.count. stormhahwa v.tel. to blow, to blast, to clear awayhai a. northernhai n.count. northhai v.tel. to pushhainla a. north-easternhainla n.count. north-easthaistu a. north-westernhaistu n.count. north-westhaklo n.count. strength, angerhaklo’ a. angry hamehlos a. ruralhamehlos n.mass. countrysidehamehlosres n.count. peasanthami n.count. sailhamipa v.tel. to sail (somewhere)hamires n.count. sailorhapli v.atl. to spillhapsas a. oceanic; vast, endless [ocean]hapsas n.count. oceanhaska a. evilhaspwe num. 390 625thhasta a. southern

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hasta n.count. southhastanla a. south-easternhastanla n.count. south-east hastastu a. south-westernhastastu n.count. south-westhastleh v.tel. to rip into twohathlo’ n.col. palace, castle; chamber, hall (sgv.)hatslek v.tel. to slashhauthlo v.tel. to grab, to griphak a. eternalhakhres n.col. the gods [eternal-beard]heh a. bigheik n.count. ratheres n.count. rope, beltheus v.tel. to sit (down)he a. many, frequent, usualhenu pro. everywherehet pro. everyone, everybodyhe’ a. morehiddla’ n.count. cave, cavernhik n.count. middlehipla’ n.count. hillhiwe’ n.count. ceilinghkei a. greenhkei n.count. planthkeihkei n.col. crop [reduplication of plant]hkeimaseh n.col. grass, eld, pasture [green-earth]hkeiteu v.tel. to harvest [green-pull]hkloh n.count. sleep, rest, peacehkloh v.atl. to sleep, to resthkoi pro. every-timehkwot v.tel. to throw, to send, to launch (a ship); to lose a ght or game (passive)hkwotnu n.count. porthlo a. bright, holyhlo v.tel. to shine, to ashhlobo n.count. moon, full moon [bright-circle]hlohwe’ n.count. day [bright-sky]hlores n.col. thunderstorm, lightning-bolt (sgv.) [bright-long]hlori n.count. rainbow, arc, arch, curve, bow (and arrow) [bright-wet]

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hloripa v.tel. to shoothlos n.count. windhlotsza a. sunnyhlotsza n.count. sun [bright-warm]hlotszo’ n.count. autumnal/fall equinox [bright-dark]hos a. redhosro’ n.count. hearthosrr n.mass. bloodhpa v.tel. to laugh (at)hpa’ n.count. a period of timehpla’ n.count. mountainhpli a. too much, excessivehpwo num. 390 625hre pro. to everywherehres n.count. milehres pro. alwayshrespa v.tel. to tiehrirespa v.tel. to shouthrirr n.count. rapidshrr n.count. animal, beasthtle’ n.col. pair of legshto n.count. clihtoto n.col. canyon, gorgehuthlo v.tel. to frighten, to scare, to intimidatehwa v.tel. to breathehwahwa v.atl. to livehwakhri v.tel. to inhale, suckhwanaru v.tel. to exhalehwa’ n.count. breathhwe n.count. liverhwehwe n.col. internal organshweknu n.count. shiphweknunu n.col. eethwe’ n.count. skyibopsas n.count. coveiddla v.tel. to stab, to pierceiddlakkwas n.count. cover, blanket, lididdlapa n.count. knifeiddlappwes v.tel. to trap [pit-put]

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iddla’ a. hollowiddla’ n.count. hole, pit, trapiddla’o’ n.count. box, containerih n.mass. sizeik a. sharp, exactly; central; just, now, on time, punctualik n.count. centreike adj. any, everikhlo n.count. today [sharp-bright]ikkslak n.col. claws, weaponsimires n.count. threadipeh a. denseipeh n.count. stone, seedipehkwot v.tel. to sow [seed-throw]ipeik n.count. mouseipik n.count. needleipikhrr v.tel. to sewipok n.count. ember, spark, staripo’ a. small, littleippsas n.count. strait, sound, channel [narrow-sea]ipuh a. nervousipuh n.count. anxiety, worryiresik n.count. arrowireso’ n.count. boyit a. narrowito n.count. townittszo’ n.count. tonight [sharp-black]kakoi post. in betweenkakoirr post. through, acrosskes num. fthkestle’ n.count. tail [ fth-leg]khle v.tel. to bitekhlekhle v.tel. to eatkhres n.count. captain, chiefkhri post. intokhrogres pro. sometimeskhrogrr pro. to somewhere khrok pro. sometimekhrokkhwe’ a. probable [some-win]khro’ a. some, often (adv.)

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khro’ n.count. ruinkhro’nu pro. somewherekhro’ot pro. someone, somebodykhrr pro. to here, hitherkhrr v.tel. to crumblekhrrthlo v.tel. to ruin, to sabotagekhu n.count. head, bow (of a ship)khukwas n.count. helmet, hat [head-cover]khuseh n.count. peninsula, cape, headlandkhwe v.atl. to struggle [ ght]khwepa n.count. combatkhwe’ v.tel. to win, to triumph kihro’ n.count. part, fragmentkik n.col. hornskirespla’ n.count. edge, blade [sharp-ridge]kiri v.tel. to squeeze, to juicekiripo’ a. juicykiripo’ n.mass. juiceklo a. hard, solid, strong, violentklo n.count. block, cubeklo v.atl. to resist, to protest, to be againstklodla v.tel. to murder [violent-strike]klonge’ v.tel. to violently remove, to tear o , to stripklores n.count. enemy, endkoi post. in, amongkoibo n.count. yard, gardenkoibothlo n.count. farmkoibothlo v.atl. to farmkoikoi v.atl. to live in, to inhabit, to residekoiphri v.tel. to enter, to invadekoiphrinu n.count. entrancekos num. fourthko’ num. thirdsksekkoi a. ready, preparedksekkset a. militaryksekkset n.col. army, soldier (sgv.)kset n.col. handskset n.count. warriorkslak a. rough, jagged

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kslak n.col. ngernailskslak n.mass. barkkslakhro’ n.col. runeskslakhrr v.tel. to scratchkslakhrrgrr v.tel. to writekszz n.col. hunting, hunt (svg.)kszz v.tel. to huntkwas n.count. tentkwas v.tel. to cover, to hidekwaskwas n.col. campkwaskwasres n.count. camperlo a. whitelozo’ a. saltylozz n.mass. saltlozz v.tel. to add saltma n.count. mothermas a. drymasaista n.count. roadside [dry-riverbank]maseh n.mass. earth, ground, land, soil [heavy-dry]masehteu v.tel. to plough [earth-pull]masiddla v.tel. to digmasiddla’ n.count. bedmaspa’ n.count. drought [dry-time]maszz n.mass. sand, powder, dustmaszzseh n.count. beachma’ n.count. daughterma’ma’ n.col. o spring, childrenme a. light (weight)me n.count. feathermehlos a. outdoor, outsidemehlos a. wildmehlos n.mass. cold air; outdoors, outsidemehlospok n.count. bon remehwappok n.count. domestic re, stovemehwa’ a. indoor, insidemehwa’ n.mass. warm air; indoors, insidemephwa n.col. pair of wingsmetszo’ n.mass. smokemi a. soft, weak, thin

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mi n.mass. clothmi v.atl to droopmidzz v.atl. to caressmimi n.col. clothesmimibo n.count. coatminge’ v.tel. to strip, to remove clothing [cloth-move]miphwarr n.count. rag [cloth-wipe]mipo’ n.count. defeatmipwes v.tel. to dress [cloth-put]mires n.count. stringmithlo v.tel. to lose (something)mlo n.mass. cloudmou a. smooth, barren, sound (asleep)mou n.mass. skin, hidemoubo n.count. pearl, globe, sphere, ball, orb [smooth-round]mounu n.count. feel, feeling, texturemounu v.atl. to feel, to touchmoupopphai n.col. pair of shoes, bootsmoupo’ n.mass. leathermouspa a. beardless, feminine [smooth-chin]mouspa n.count. woman, female; child; girlmwo n.mass. meat, eshnaru post. out-wardsnarurogro’ n.col. empire, province (sgv.)naruro’ n.count. country, nation; victorynarurr n.col. culture, fashion; trend (sgv.)narurr v.tel. to expand, to spread; to conquernau post. out ngak n.count. babynge a. notnge int. nongebopa v.atl. to hatengedirrI a. lostngekoi pro. never (perfective)ngemi a. nakedngenu pro. nowherengeres pro. never (imperfective)ngerr pro. to nowherenge’ v.tel. to remove

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ngle n.count. nosenglepa v.tel. to smell, to sningot pro. no-one, nobody nguh a. brave, fearlessngwa a. thick, viscousngwarr a. sweetngwarr n.mass. sap, syrupngwarrzz n.mass. sugarngwo’ v.tel. to arrive (at)nla n.count. backnla post. behindnu post. on, at, uponnu v.atl. to benu v.tel. to stand (up)nupwes n.count. placenurr post. onto, to, towardso num. fourobbo a. naturalobbo n.count. natureoi pro. youoiko’ a. leastoinu pro. there (medial)oirr pro. to there, thither (medial) ok num. threeokaista n.count. triangle [three-side]okkset num. thirdoko a. few, severalokohe n.count. quantity, numberokohpa v.tel. to countoko’ a. lessopehai n.col. table, desk; table-leg (sgv.) [four-feet]opuslok v.atl. to know (about)opuslokkoi n.col. library, archive (sgv.)opuslokkwas v.tel. to lie, to deceive [knowledge-hide]opusloko’ n.count. knowledgeopuslotthlo v.tel. to learnopuslotthlo’ a. intelligent, smartot pro. he, she, them, itotnu pro. over-there (distal)

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ou a. goodougai a. friendly, fellowougai n.count. friend, fellow, allyoupo’ a. happy, gladoupslok v.atl. to wonder [good-think]oupsloko’ a. wonderfuloures n.count. hero [good-beard]ourrspa v.tel. to sing [good-speak]ourrspa’ n.count. songourrspa’spa’ n.col. concertouska n.mass. qualityo’ a. shorto’hlohe’ n.count. winter solstice [short-day]o’ post. foro’aista n.count. square, market [four-side]o’o’ n.col. people, folk, ethnic group [back-formation from ‘ rst-men’]o’o’ num. quarterspa post. withpa v.atl. to hold, to have (irregular)pares n.count. owner, rulerpauh conj. becausepa’ n.col. parentspeh v.tel. to kickphai n.col. a pair of feetphla n.count. birdphla v.tel. to y (somewhere)phri n.count. stepphri v.tel. to walkphrinu n.count. corridorphriphri n.col. staircase, stairsphrr n.count. catphwa a. wide, at, levelphwa n.count. plainphwabrr n.count. sheet of ice [wide-cold]phwahkei n.count. leaf [wide-green]phwahpla’ n.count. plateauphwari n.count. lake [wide-water]phwarr v.tel. to wipephwatik n.count. shield [wide-metal]

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phwatingla v.tel. to defend, to protect, to savephwatingla’ a. safepihrr n.count. kittenpihrrhrr n.col. a litter of kittenspilappla n.col. pair of breastsple conj. if-thenpli v.atl. to drippok a. hot, erypok n.count. repokhpla’ n.count. volcano [hot-mountain]pokhwa’ n.count. dragon [hot-breath]pouslotthlokoi n.col. school, classroom (sgv.)psas n.col. sea, wave (sgv.)pslok v.atl. to thinkpszz n.col. rain, raindrop (sgv.)pwes v.tel. to put, to place, to applypwo num. 625ra’ post. afterra’ v.tel. to come (irregular)re pro. to anywhereres a. longres n.col. beard, facial hair, hair-stand (sgv.)res post. duringresboparr n.count. visitresbrr n.count. winterresiddla’ n.count. trench, valley [long-hole]resik n.count. spear; message [long-sharp]reskhle n.count. meal, dinnerreskloh a. patient [long-peace]reskoikoi n.count. time of residencereskslak n.count. stick, walking stickreslo n.count. bonereslo n.count. summer [long-bright]reslohwe’ n.count. summer solstice [long-day]reslolo n.col. skeleton, bone (svg.)resmi n.count. strip [long-cloth]resoppa’ n.count. fatherreso’ n.mass. lengthreso’ a. masculine

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reso’ n.count. man, malereso’ma’ n.count. sonreso’seu n.count. husbandrespa’ n.count. yearrespla’ n.col. mountain range, ridge (sgv.)respuslotthlo n.col. school-time, lesson (sgv.)resri n.count. river [long-water]resteu v.atl. to ght, to scrap [beard-pull] restik n.count. sword [long-metal]restla n.count. linereswe n.count. guts, intestines, entrails [long-organ]re’ n.count. fruitri a. wetri n.mass. water, liquidrible n.count. estuary, the mouth of a river [water-vomit]ribo n.count. pool, pond [wet-circle]ribro v.tel. to pour [water-turn]ridrr n.count. ford [wet-road]rihai v.tel. to row (somewhere) [water-push]rihlori n.count. bridge [wet-arch]rihrr n.count. sh [wet-animal]rihwa v.tel. to spitrikoi a. insular; alone, lonelyrikoi n.count. islandrikoikoi n.count. island group, archipelagoripeh v.tel. to swim [water-kick]rires n.count. tongue, language [wet-long]riresnu n.count. taste, avour riresnu v.atl. to tasterirespa n.count. voicerirespa v.tel. to say, to speakrirr n.count. stream, brook, creekrirr v.atl. to owrirrthlo n.count. spring (water)riseh a. wetlandriszz n.count. eel [wet-snake]rithlo v.tel. to wash, to clean, to bathrithlokoi n.col. baths, bath-house, bathtub (sgv.)rithlottla a. neat [clean-straight]

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rithlo’ a. cleanrito n.count. dam [wet-wall]ritsza a. steamy, hot, boiling, scoldingritsza n.mass. steam [wet-warm]roi a. fatrotthlo v.tel. to ll, to swellro’ a. full, wholerus post. beforerus v.tel. to go, to leave (irregular)rusrirespa v.tel. to warn [before-say]sat num. sixseu n.count. wifeseuseu n.col. married couple, spousesseuthlo v.tel. to marrysitnu post. besidesizz n.count. wormska a. badskaiddla’ n.count. hell [bad-hole]skapslok v.atl. to be mean [bad-think]skathlo v.tel. to annoy, to botherska’ a. rottenska’ou a. fermentedska’ou n.count. alcoholske v.tel. to dieskethlo v.tel. to killski int. f***skloh v.atl. to wear, to carryskwet v.tel. to arguesla n.col. earsslapa n.count. soundslapa v.atl. to hearsokkoi n.col. home, household, family; family-member (sgv.)so’ n.count. person, bodyso’hai n.col. crowdso’oggwo n.count. cloak [body’s hood]so’so’ n.col. village, community; villager (sgv.)spa n.count. chinspe n.count. colour, pigmentspe’ n.count. ower

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spe’seh n.count. meadowspe’spe’ n.col. bunch of owers, ower-arrangementsplah v.tel. to splashspwe num. 625thsta a. right (side), nextsta num. secondstapa’ n.col. aunts, uncles stares n.col. brothers, sisters, siblingsstat num. sevensta’ai a. backwards, in reverse [right-left]ste num. tenstleh v.tel. to tear into twostleho’ n.count. tear (in a material)stlehtleh v.tel. to tear up into pieces [reduplication of ‘to tear’]stok num. eightsto num. ninestu n.count. front, facestu post. in frontsturr v.atl. to move forward, to run (after), to attacksubopa v.atl. to suspect [below-look]sut v.tel. to fall, to come downszz n.count. snake, serpentta n.col. teethteu v.tel. to pulltes a. correct, true, verytes int. yesthas n.count. neckthlo n.count. rootthlo v.tel. to cause, to make, to buildthlo’ n.col. house, room (sgv.)thrr n.count. thunderthrr pro. to there, thither (distal)thrr v.tel. to threattihlo’ n.count. huttik n.mass. metaltippabo n.count. coin [metal-circle]tla a. straight, direct, lineartlaso’hai n.col. queue, a line of peopletle’ n.col. pair of arms

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to conj. andtotthlo v.tel. to split, to breakto n.count. walltoto n.col. city, city-wall (sgv.)to’ num. halfstslek v.tel. to cuttso’ n.count. kneetsza a. warmtszodzz n.mass. ash [black-powder]tszokkoi n.col. prison, cell (sgv.)tszo’ a. black, darktszo’hlo n.count. vernal/spring equinox [dark-bright]tszo’hwe’ n.count. night [black-sky]tszz v.tel. to burn, to cook, to forgetszzkoi n.col. restaurant, kitchen (sgv.)uh n.count. fearus a. lower us n.count. bottom, oorus post. below, down, underuseus n.count. chair, stool, seat [down-sit]uslori n.count. tunnel [under-arch]usres n.col. body hair [lower-hair]uswe’ n.count. world [below-sky]wegres n.col. hair (on the head); roof, roof-tile (sgv.) [upper-hair]wegri n.count. surfacewegrinu n.count. boatwegrinu v.atl. to oatwegrr v.tel. to rise, to climb, to ascend, to jumpwegrrgrr v.atl. to dancewekkhle n.count lunch [high-bite]we’ a. upper, high, loftywe’ n.count. topwe’ post. above, overwe’eik n.count. squirrel [upper-rodent]we’hlotsza n.count. noon, middayzou v.tel. to give