mind 1) Computation What problem was the system designed to solve? 3 9 12.6 101 9.42 28.27 39.58...

1) Computation

What problem was the system designed to solve?

3

9

12.6

101

9.42

28.27

39.58

317.14

2) Algorithm

What is the step-by-step procedure for solving the problem?

Archimedes (287 - 212 BCE)

3.140845 < π < 3.142858

2) Algorithm


Wallis (1616-1703)

with 60 iterations: π = 3.1159


2) Algorithm


π = # inside circle4 # total

http://polymer.bu.edu/java/java/montepi/MontePi.html

2) Algorithm




with 171 iterations: π = ?

3) Implementation

How is the solution realized physically?

π = # inside circle4 # total

3) Implementation

How is the solution realized physically?

Neuroimaging is great at asking one particular question:

• Are two phenomena the result of a single cognitive process or more than one cognitive process?

• Association and dissociation (see Henson, Trends Cogn Sci, 2006; Henson, Quarterly J of Exp Psychol, 2005)



visual imagery visual perception

Visual perception Visual imagery

Kosslyn et al. (1993) J Cog Neuro




(Buckner & Schacter, 1998, Neuron)


implicit memory explicit memory

“I suppose it is tempting, if all you have is a hammer, to treat every problem as if it were a nail.”

– Abraham Maslow, The Psychology of Science (1966)

“I suppose it is tempting, if all you have is a hammer, to treat every problem as if it were a nail.”

– Abraham Maslow, The Psychology of Science (1966)

Neuroimaging is a problematic tool

• expensive

• technically challenging

• imposes extreme methodological constraints

– limited to one DV

– limited range of measurable behaviors

– one person at a time (no groups)

– requires dozens of within-subject trials

How has fMRI addressed social psychological questions?

1) Is social cognition = nonsocial cognition?

2) Default mode of (social) cognition

3) Neural resonance

4) Self-reference effect in memory

Distinctiveness of social cognition

“One key question is whether general cognitive processes involved in perception, language, memory, and attention are sufficient to explain social competence, or whether over and above these general processes, there are specific processes that are special to social interaction.” (Blakemore, Winston, & Frith, 2004, p.216)

1) Inferences

2) Semantic knowledge

3) Episodic memory

Distinctiveness of social cognition inferences

False Belief test


Where will Sally look for her ball?

False Belief test

Most three-year-oldsMost of us


Neuro

typic

al

Autist

ic

(IQ

= 8

2)

Down

synd

rom

e (IQ

= 6

2)0%

25%

50%

75%

100%


False belief

Jenny put her chocolate away in the cupboard. Then she went outside. Alan moved the chocolate from the cupboard into the fridge. Half an hour later, Jenny came back inside.

Jenny expects to find her cholocate in the cupboard fridge

False photograph

A photograph was taken of an apple hanging on a tree branch. The film took half an hour to develop. In the meantime, a strong wind blew the apple to the ground.

The developed photograph shows the apple on theground branch


0%

25%

50%

75%

100%

False belief False photograph

Percentage of Ss "passing"

Normal Autistic


Data courtesy of Rebecca Saxe


Beliefs > Photos



1) Inferences


3) Episodic memory

Distinctiveness of social cognition semantics


Left inferior frontal gyrus

Inferotemporal cortex

Be made of wood

Chairs Tables


Contreras, Banaji, & Mitchell (under review)

Fetch a ball

Cats Dogs



Enjoy watching football

Men Women



Paint their faces red

Cornell students Harvard students



IT

IPL

IFG


nonsocial > social


IT IPL IFG-1.00

-0.50

0.00

0.50

1.00

Social Nonsocial

Pa

ram

ete

r E

sti

ma

te


nonsocial > social

IT

IPL

IFG


social > nonsocialPCC dmPFC

vmPFC

PCC vmPFC dmPFC-1.00

-0.50

0.00

0.50

1.00

Social Nonsocial

Pa

ram

ete

r E

sti

ma

te



1) Inferences


3) Episodic memory

Processing information in a social manner produces qualitative changes

in episodic memory (Hastie & Kumar, 1979; Hamilton et al., 1980; Srull & Wyer, 1989)

Distinctiveness of social cognition episodic memory

(adapted from Hamilton et al., 1980)

He chose just the right tie to go with his shirt and slacks.

Form Impression

Mitchell, Macrae & Banaji (2004), J Neuroscience


He stepped on his girlfriend's feet while dancing.

Remember Order



He stepped on his girlfriend's feet while dancing.


Form Impression

Remember Order

Form Impression

[statement 1]

[statement 2]

[statement 3]

[statement 4]

Remember Order

1) Distinct neural basis for impression

formation v. nonsocial orienting task?


Form Impression

Remember Order

Form Impression

Remember Order

[statement 1]

[statement 2]

[statement 3]

[statement 4]

1) Distinct neural basis for impression

formation v. nonsocial orienting task?


Impression formation > Sequencing

Impression formation

Sequencing

-0.10

0.00

0.10

0.20

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Peristimulus time (s)

Percent signal change



Form Impression

Remember Order

Form Impression

[statement 1]

[statement 2]

[statement 3]

[statement 4]

Remember Order

2) Distinct brain regions critical for

successful memory encoding?


Form Impression

Remember Order

Form Impression

Remember Order

[statement 1]

[statement 2]

[statement 3]

[statement 4]

hit

miss

2) Distinct brain regions critical for

successful memory encoding?


Impression formation: hits > misses

Impression hits

Impression misses

-0.10

0.00

0.10

0.20

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16





Impression formation: hits > misses



Impression hits

Impression misses

Sequencing hits

Sequencing misses

-0.10

0.00

0.10

0.20

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16



Form Impression

Remember Order

Form Impression

Remember Order

[statement 1]

[statement 2]

[statement 3]

[statement 4]

hit

miss


Sequencing hits

Sequencing misses

Sequencing: hits > misses

-0.10

-0.05

0.00

0.05

0.10

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16





Sequencing: hits > misses



Impression hits

Impression misses

Sequencing hits

Sequencing misses

-0.10

-0.05

0.00

0.05

0.10

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16



“One of the hallmarks of social cognition is the influence of detailed

models from cognitive psychology. These models are important

because they precisely describe mechanisms of learning and

thinking that apply in a wide variety of areas, including social

perception. Because these models are general and because

cognitive processes presumably influence social behavior heavily, it

makes sense to adapt cognitive theory to social settings” (Fiske &

Taylor, 1984, pp. 1-2).





3) Neural resonance


Heider & Simmel (1944)

Medial PFCTemporo-parietal junction

Posterior medial parietal

Default state

Temporo-parietal junction

Medial prefrontal cortex

Posterior medial parietal cortex

Default state




3) Neural resonance


Wicker et al., (2003), Neuron

Your disgust ≈ my disgust

‘Neural resonance’

see Rizzolatti & Craighero (2004), Annual Rev Neurosci

Your goals ≈ my goals


Your pain ≈ my pain

Singer et al. (2006)

-1

0

1

2

Female Ss Male Ss

Activation in ACC

Fair playerUnfair player





3) Neural resonance


Self Deep Shallow

Memory advantage for information processed in relation to the self (Rogers, Kuiper, & Kirker, 1977; Symons & Johnson, 1997)

Why?

• special mnemonic powers

(Rogers et al., 1977)

(Greenwald & Banaji, 1989)

• powerful but ordinary

Self-reference effect

Depth-of-Processing effect:

Self Deep Shallow

Memory advantage for information processed in relation to the self


BUSH+

talkativeSELF+

daring+

CASE+

politeSELF+

DEPENDABLE

2.5 sec

Kelley et al. (2002), J Cog Neuro


-0.1

0.0

0.1

0.2

-5 0 5 10 15 20

OtherSelfCase

L IFG

SELF + OTHER > CASE



-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0.0

0.1

-5 0 5 10 15 20

OtherSelfCase

Medial PFC

SELF > OTHER

Self-reference effect as distinct






3) Neural resonance


mind 1) Computation What problem was the system designed to solve? 3 9 12.6 101 9.42 28.27 39.58...

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