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Marching On!The Salvation Army-

Its Originand Development

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International Headquarters of The Salvation Armylol Queen Victoria Street, London EC4P 4EP

Copyright @ The General of The Salvation ArmyISBN O 85412 589 2

First publi.slrcd 1927 (reprinted) 1928Reui,sed 1932 (repri,nted) 1938

Reui,sed 1945 (reprinted) 1948, 1951, 1953,1956, 1960, 1964, 1966, 1973, 1976,

Reui,sed 1985, 1990

This edition (199O) prepared byMALCOLM BALE

at International Headquarters

Cover by Jim Moss

Printed in Great Britain byThe Campfield Press, St Albans

Contents

PrefaceI The Founder's early days2 The Christian Mission3 The Salvation Army founded4 Women's place in the Army5 The training of officers6 Extension to other lands7 Early years of the social services8 Developments in the social services9 Work among young people

10 LiteratureI I Music12 Some unusual features13 Characteristics of salvationismAppendix: Constitutional historyIndex

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Prefacё

THIS booklet has its origins in The Salvation Army'straining college in London in the early years of thecentury. Caclets were given lectures on SalvationArmy history, and the lecture notes (no doubtimprbved upon from year to year) formed part of lhelibiary which they took with them into their life'swork.

In L927, the suggestion was made that a widerpublic might be interested in a concise account of theLrmy's beginnings and subsequent expansion and AnOuiline of Salvation Army llistory was published inthat year.

That original text remains the basis of the presentvolume, although thoroughly revised for this edition'Previous revisions (in 1932, 1945 and 1985) have up-dated the information to a limited degree, but it ishoped that this new version will further extend thebook's usefulness.

Some of the material has been re-arranged toprovide a more logical narrative; certain significantomissions have been remedied; and some attentionhas been given to bringing the language and style upto date.

The account it gives of what William Booth wouldhave called 'the salvation war' is necessarily brief.It is intended to be no more than an introduction toSalvation Army history and most chapters arefollowed by some suggestions for further reading. Ihave tried, in this bibliography, to include only titles

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which are still readily available and have thereforeignored many valuable books which have been outof print for 20 years or so. The more definitivehistories of the movement and biographies of itsFounders may often be found in public libraries.

MALCOLmlt BALE

July 1990

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1

The Founder's early daysWILLIAM BOOTH was born in Nottingham, England,on 10 April 1829.

The poverty with which he was brought closely intocontact in his early life filled him with passionaterevolt. Three ideas took possession of his mind:determination to get on in the world; ambition towork for an alleviation of the miseries of the poor;and a longing to get right with God.

He was converted at the age of 15, and made acomplete and immediate separation from the godlessworld. His first sermon was preached in a cottage,and he was soon the recognised leader of a body ofzealous young men connected with Wesley Chapel.One Sunday he marched his first ragged regiment intothe best pews of Wesley Chapel, Nottin;gham, but wastold that in future he must bring these outcasts intothe chapel only by the door hidden behind the pulpit,and seat them only on benches reserved for the poor.

White still in his teens, William Booth became a laypreacher. At the age of 19, his apprenticeship to apawnbroker was completed, and, ayear later, after

vainly hunting for employment in Nottingham, hewent to London, but failed to secure work outsidethe pawnbroking business. Although his life was hardhe maintained his faith and the preaching of it as faras he had opportunity. He startled most of hislisteners by the strength and fire of his ruggedreligious energy.

Among those who listened to the young preacherwas Edward Harris Rabbits, a member of what wasthen known as the Methodist Reform Movement. Inorder that William Booth might devote himself whollyto preaching the gospel, this wealthy laymanundertook to pay him a salary of one pound a weekfor the first three months. At the end of this timethe engagement, which began on 10 April 1852, cameto an end. Then William Booth sold his furniture andlived on the proceeds, but by November he hadreached the end of his resources. He gave his lastsixpence to a poor woman. Within a week, he wasinvited to take charge of the Spalding (Lincolnshire)Methodist circuit, which had embraced the ReformMovement.

Even as a boy, in his first cottage meetings, WilliamBooth had always required that penitents shouldopenly witness to their repentance by declaring it inthe presence of others. At Spalding his custom wasto invite penitents to come forward to thecommunion rail, signifying publicly their desire toserve God. Thus was anticipated the penitent formof The Salvation Army.

Toward the end of his 18 months as a minister ofthe Methodist Reformers, William Booth wasundecided as to whether he should remain with thereformers or offer himself to the Methodist New

Connexion. Finally his call to the latter course wasmade clear, and he became a student of theology inLondon under Dr William Cooke. He was soonaccepted as a probationary minister of the MethodistNew Connexion, and appointed to assist thesuperintendent of a London circuit. A special tokenof appreciation was given him in that he was grantedpermission to marry at the end of 12 months insteadof after the customary four years' probation.

The young man threw himself heart and soul intohis work as assistant pastor, but he soon receivedother requests for his services, and conducted ardentrevival campaigns in Bristol, Guernsey, theStaffordshire potteries and elsewhere.

Catherine Mumford was born at Ashbourne,Derbyshire, on 17 January 1829. While still a childshe became secretary to a juveniler temperancesociety and was deeply interested in foreign missions.With no such institution as the Army's self-denialweek to inspire her, she voluntarily renounced sugar,and in other ways denied herself to help temperanceand missionary causes. She wanted above everythingto see the poor and suffering made happy. In her 18thyear she found a personal experience of salvationand, being an eager reader, soon acquired anextensive knowledge of theology and church history.

At the house of Mr Rabbits, William Booth andCatherine Mumford first met, and at once felt astrong attraction toward each other. They weremarried in London on 16 June 1855.

By his evangelistic work William Booth had wona widespread reputation as a soul-winner. When theannual conference of the Methodist New Connexionmet, just before his wedding, it resolved 'that the Rev

William Booth, whose labours have been soabundantly blessed in the conversion of sinners, beappointed to the work of an evangelist to give thevarious circuits an opportunity of having his servicesduring the coming year'. William Booth continuedthis work for two years, during which thousands ofsouls were converted.

Bramwell Booth, the first child of the marriage, wasborn on 8 March 1856, during a campaign at Halifax.

William Booth's remarkable success in soul-winningstrengthened his conviction that he was called of Godto evangelistic work. He was deeply disappointed,therefore, when, in 1857, the annual conferencedecided that he should be appointed to the BrighouseCircuit for a year.

In May l85B William Booth was ordained in Hull.Whether he should be re-appointed to evangelisticwork or retained in circuit work now became aburning question to be decided at the annualconference. A number of circuits had petitioned thathe might be set apart for evangelistic work; but hewas appointed to the Gateshead Circuit, with thehalf-promise (which was not fulfilled) of a return toevangelistic work at the end of the year.

At the time of his appointment to Gateshead, theSunday night congregation of Bethesda Chapelaveraged about 120. Before many weeks it was notuncommon for 2,000 people to crowd into the chapel,in which decisions for Christ were so numerous thatit became known as 'the converbing shop'. By the endof a year, the revival had spread into several of theoutlying districts.

The Rev William Booth faithfully served theGateshead Circuit for three years, during which time

he and his wife grasped more and more clearly, andembodied in their own lives and work, those greatprinciples which were to give birth to The SalvationArmy.

One Sunday evening, on her way to chapel, whilepassing down a narrow slum street, Catherine Boothbegan a ministry of personal dealing with sinners ontheir own doorsteps and in their own homes.

At Gateshead, too, Catherine Booth first gavepublic testimony to her religious experience and, fornine weeks, during the absence through illness of herhusband, conducted many of the services at BethesdaChapel, besides supervising circuit affairs.

John Wesley had laid great stress on the doctrineof entire sanctification but in the Wesleyan MethodistChurch this doctrine had gradually ceased to occupythe prominence he had given to it, and William Boothhad not hitherto devoted special attention to itsconsideration and proclamation. But at Gateshead theFounders entered into the experience for themselvesand determined they would henceforth present theBible doctrine of holiness as a desirable, attainablepossibility in the lives of ordinary people.

In March 1861 the momentous conference was heldin Liverpool, and after a heated discussion it wasproposed that the Rev William Booth should take acircuit but be allowed to spend a portion of his timein holding revival services elsewhere. This was putto the vote and carried by a large majority.Questioned by a glance from her husband in a pewbelow as to her acceptance of this compromise, MrsBooth rose in the gallery and declared herdetermination not to do so. At the foot of the gallerystairs they met and embraced, and together they

went out, homeless and without any obvious meansof support, to do God's bidding. Their previousexperience had shown that such a plan as thatproposed was unworkable.

In his letter of resignation, William Booth said,'Knowing that the future will most convincinglyeither vindicate or condemn my present action, I amcontent to await its verdict.'

The idea which now occupied the Founder's mindwas to extend his revivalism to all the churches ofhis native land. William and Catherine Booth thensaw soul-winning results more striking than any theyhad known before. During a great Cornish campaignIasting for 18 months, no fewer than 7,000 personsprofessed conversion.

A call came from Cardiff, and here some of theirmost successful meetings were held in a circus.Salvation campaigns, accompanied by remarkableresults, followed in many other centres. It was whileconducting special services at WaIsaIl that WiliiamBooth became convinced that the working classescould more effectively be influenced by men andwomen of their own class who shared their lives andspoke their everyday speech than by preachers whoaddressed them in the conventional language of thepulpit.

In 1864 it was decided that Mrs Booth shouldconduct meetings independently of her husband, andshe was soon leading stirring revival services of herown.

But wherever they turned, they encountered theopposition of denominational officialdom, and wereforced more and more to the use of undenominationalhalls and secular buildings for religious meetings.

For further reading:Edward Bishop: Blood and Fire! (Longmans, 1964)Jenty Fairbank: William and Catherine llooth-God'sSoldiers (Hodder and Stoughton, 1974)Richard Coll ier: The General next to God(Fontana/Collins, 1974)David Bennett: William Booth and The SalvationArmy (Marshall Pickering, 1986)

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The Christian Missioll

IN 1865, Mrs Booth was invited to conduct a briefmission in Rotherhithe, London. What she saw of thepoor people, and particularly of the work done bythe Midnight Movement to restore fallen women,made an overwhelming appeal to her heart. Sheconcluded at once that here was the sphere for whichshe had prayed and longed ever since the conferencein Liverpool which had resulted in William Booth andherself withdrawing from Methodism. The Boothsdecided. therefore. to make London their centre. MrsBooth intended to work in the metropolis and herhusband to continue his revival campaigns up anddown the country, or in London as opportunity mightoffer, both working through existing agencies.

On Sunday 2 July 1865 William Booth-who waswaiting upon God to open his way to the unchurchedmasses-conducted the first of a series of services ofwhich he had been invited to take charge, in a tenterected on a disused burial ground in Whitechapelby the East London Special Services Committee.These were so successful that the workers pressed

William Booth to give himself up to East London andstay there as their leader. Years later he said:

When I saw those masses of poor people, so manyof them evidently without God or hope' and foundthat they so readily and eagerly listened to me,following from open-air meeting to tent' andaccepting, in many instances, my invitation to kneelat the Saviour's feet there and then, my whole heartwent out to them. I walked home and said to mywife:'O, Kate, I have found my destiny. These are thepeople for whose salvation I have been longing allthese years. As I passed by the doors of the flaminggin-palaces tonight I seemed to hear a voice soundingin my ears, "Where can you go and find such heathenas these, and where is there so great a need for yourlabours?" And there and then in my soul I offeredup myself and you and the children to this greatwork. Those people shall be our people, and theyshall have our God for their God.'

How did Catherine Booth resPond?

I remember (she wrote) the emotion that thisproduced in my soul. The devil whispered to me,'This means another departure, anothe.r start in life''The question of our support constitutes a seriousdifficulty. . . .

Nevertheless, I did not answer discouragingly.After a momentary pause for thought and prayer,I replied. 'Well, if you feel you ought to stay, stay.We have trusted the Lord once for our support, andwe can trust him again.'

Scarcely had their decision been arrived at beforethe divine seal was set upon it. A letter came froma wealthy merchant inviting Mr Booth to call uponhim. The result of the visit was a substantial cheque

for the support of the work and a promise of moreto follow.

The Founder's first thought was to conduct amission only, sending the converts to the churches.But to this there were three main obstacles: (1) Theywould not go where they were sent; (2) They werenot wanted when they did go; (3) He soon found thathe wanted them himself-to assist him in winningothers of their class. Hence, he felt compelled tofound a separate agency-The East London ChristianRevival Society, later to become The East LondonChristian Mission.

The extraordinary courage and tenacity of WilliamBooth were never exhibited more finely than in theearly days of the Mission. He and his followers werefaced with an almost boundless hostility andindifference. It was like preaching in Hell, for theatheism of East London in those days was an atheismwhich hated the very name of God. Churches andchapels were cold and hostile. But, calling the openair their cathedral, the missioners proclaimed thegospel of love to the vilest, and never once lost heart,although their processions were obstructed, whilstboisterous drunkards and blaspheming infidelsthronged the open-air meetings.

Before long some of the Christian helpers who hadbeen working at the tent went back to the missionswith which they had formerly been connected. Someobjected to William Booth's holiness teaching. Nota few grew weary of the ceaseless open-air meetingsand processions, with the mobbing and mockery ofthe crowd, or objected to his use of the penitent form.But converts and others who became interested in

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the mission and were stirred to join in its activitiestook the place of the workers who withdrew.

The tent having blown down, meetings were heldin a dancing saloon, where girls and youths dancedthrough Saturday night until the small hours, afterwhich William Booth's eager followers and convertscarried in seats for the Sunday meetings. Speakingof those days the Founder said:

We had wonderful meetings in th:ir, room. I put in. many a hard Sunday's work, regularly giving three

and sometimes four open-air addresses, leading threeprocessions and conducting three indoor meetings.The bulk of the speaking in all these services fell onme. Ilut the power and the happiness of the workcarried me along, and in that room the foundationwas really laid of all that has since come to pass.

While the Founder conducted campaigns in theEast End of London Mrs Booth held serviceselsewhere, including the West End. IIer ministryproved to be peculiarly acceptable to the educatedclasses, and she was not slow to avail herself to theutmost of the opporLunity not only to bless their soulsbut also to lay before them their resl:onsibility forfurthering the work among the godless masses.Several of her campaigns were followed by theestablishment of branches of the Mission.

William Booth invented plan afterplan to gain andhold the interest of the turbulent crowds of EastLondon, adding building after buildirrg, of a roughsort, to those already occupied.

He held meetings and organised his forces now inan old woolshed in Bethnal Green, now in a disusedchapel, in a stable off Whitechapel Road, acarpenter's shop in Old Ford, a shed in Poplar, a

covered skittle alley in Whitechapel, a little roombehind a pigeon shop in Shoreditch. In 1867, theengagement of the Effingham Theatre, one of thelowest resorts of London, helped to lift The EastLondon Christian Mission into a position of fame andinfluence with the unchurched masses of EastLondon.

In 1868 the Mission's first formal statement ofincome and expenditure, duly audited, waspublished; it was endorsed by a leading firm ofaccountants. Ever since, balance sheets have beenpublished by the movement every year, and theaccounts checked by public auditors.

At about this time a disreputable drinking saloon,The Eastern Star, was acquired and fitted up as anadministrative centre for the work. This, the firstofficial headquarters of the movement, wassuperseded in April 1870 by the People's Market inWhitechapel-a building which, after being for 11years the headquarters of The Salvation Army,became the headquarters of its British Men's SocialWork. The establishing of this headquarters-at a costof 53,577 (which, according to the minute books ofthe committee, included more than 51,500 foralterations)-gave William Booth and his work a newfooting.

Meetings were held daily at noon outside the newheadquarters. On Sunday nights it was not unusualfor 10 different bands of speakers to stand at variouspoints along the Whitechapel Road. Now turned fromdarkness to light, numbers of notorious characters,well known in the neighbourhood, formed the mainstrength of the mission force, and went out fearlesslyevery night to face the godless crowds for their

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Master's sake. These converts, though pelted withgarbage and often subjected to violence, arrestedittention by the gladness of their test;imonies, theirjoyful faces testifying that they had becomeindependent of the false happiness and emptypleasures of the world.

The training of converts and of the Christianworkers who threw in their lot with the Founder was'from the very first, regarded by him as a vital partof his work. Few of his critics had any idea of theprofoundly spiritual teaching he gave his people. Assoon as they were converted they must urge othersto repent of sin; but they must also seek thesanctification of their own souls. Two holinessmeetings weekly had already been established ineach of the mission halls. Bramwell Booth, eldest sonof the Founder, began his ministry as a holinessteacher in the weekly meetings at Whitechapel andexercised a wide influence. A few years later 'Days

with God', held in many of the great cities ofEngland, attracted crowds who wished to share thesecret of the Army's spiritual strength'

These holiness meetings, and that teaching ofholiness (says George Scott Railton, who in 1873 hadbecome the secretary of the Mission, responsible<iirectly to William Booth), were the root and secretof all the success of the ArmY.

Never can I sufficiently thank God (wrote one of theMission's benefactors in 1873) that there is oneMission in dear old England where 'holiness unto theLord' stands to the forefront of all teaching.

In October 1868 the first number of the Mission'snew magazine, The East London Evangelisf, waspublished. A month earlier, the Mission had been

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persuaded to take over a mission with a hall and smallschoolroorn in Norwood and, a year later, it similarlyaccepted responsibility for the Edinburgh ChristianMission. This extension of its field of operations ledto the dropping of East London from the name of theMission, and the changing of the title of its periodicalto The Christian Mission Magazine. Neither Norwoodnor Edinburgh became permanent stations, and athird outside trast London, established at Croydon atthe close of a campaign conducted there in 186g, alsohad to suspend operations for several years becauseof leadership problems. But extensions elsewherespeedily followed. Mrs Booth, addressing audiencesin various towns, set up a station of The ChristianMission wherever this was feasible. Converts of theMission in London, passing on to other towns, becameactive soul-winners, established meetings and askedWilliam Booth for leaders. Evangelists were sent totake charge of these places, all the Mission stationsbeing organised under the jurisdiction of the head-quarters in London.

In 1875 the stations had become too numerous tobe visited by Mr Booth save at intervals. Admini-strative details he committed to George Scott Railton(secretary of the Mission) and later to his eldest son,Bramwell Booth, while he reserved to himselfdecisions in regard to the more important questions.

The Founders sought to organise their efforts withthe same accuracy and care as are displayed in themanipulation of an army or navy. They believed inthe application of business principles to religion.

Does anyone object (said Catherine Booth) that thisis reducing religion to mere machinery? I answer, No!It is but providing a machinery through which the

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Spirit of Christ can operate. It is only reducingsentiment to practice. . . . We must have forms andmethods, and the more intelligently platrned and themore wisely adapted the better they will succeed.Haphazarrl, fitful, unorganised, unreliable actionfails everywhere, no matter how good the cause inwhich it is engaged.

William Booth hoped at first to weld the Missioninto a self-governing organisation. To this end, in1870, a representative conference was called; thisadopted rules making conference the controllingbody, and was followed, in 1875, by the executionof a deed poll giving legal effect to these rules.However, the same elements which had hamperedthe conferences of other bodies made theirappearance in The Christian Mission.

The conviction forced itself upon the leadingmembers of the Mission that the system ofgovernment which they had been endeavouring totransplant from Wesleyanism was unsuited to thework they had in hand. Moved to do so by adeputation of missioners, the Founder called, inJanuary 7877, ameeting of the conference committee(the body which dealt with business betweenmeetings of conference), increased on this occasionby the inclusion of all the evangelists of the Mission.This meeting adopted measures abolistring conferencerules, which action was confirmed by the annualconference in the following July. By this actionWilliam Booth was placed in full and sole commandof The Christian Mission.

For further reading:All the titles given under Chapter 1

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The Salvation Army foundedTHE Christian Mission Magazine of September 1878stated that the Mission 'has organised a salvationarmy to carry the Blood of Christ and the Fire of theHoly Ghost to every corner of the world'. Thisexplanatory addition to the name of The ChristianMission was the result of a consultation in the monthof May regarding the wording of the Mission's annualreport and appeal. The term suggested was 'volunteer

army', but upon this being objected to on the groundthat members of the Mission were 'regulars', WilliamBooth substituted for 'volunteer' 'salvation'.

A 'War Congress' in August 1878 had confirmed thechange in the organisation of the Mission by revoking(in accordance with provisions included therein) the1875 deed poII and substituting for it a new deed ofconstitution dated 7 August 1878. Under this latterdeed the doctrines which had been included in allprevious documents were repeated and confirmed,the General Superintendent (soon to be simply 'the

General') became the sole director of the work and

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the sole trustee of Mission property, and he was given

the power of nominating his successor. *

By the end of 1878 The Salvation Army hadreplaced The Christian Mission as the name for theorganisation, stations received the namr: of corps, thefirst flag was presented, and military titles wereadopted. Uniforms followed within two or threeyears, liberty being retained to make such alterationsas would keep the Army in touch with the masses.When The Salvation Army invaded India, forinstance, the bonnet and cap were discardecl for theoriental head-dress, and a colour was adopted whicheffectually distinguished salvationists as beingengaged in religious work.

Innovations so numerous and so sweeping excitedno little opposition. The Salvation Arm;'at once cameinto sharp and dangerous collision with publicopinion. But with laughing happiness, joyful boldnessand immense faith in the power of Christ, this armyof liberation challenged the world of sin and misery,and the rapid opening of district after district wasaccompanied by glorious cutbreaks of soul-saving.

The effect upon the world of this new phenomenonin religious enthusiasm was almost immediate. In JulylB79 The Saturday Review published an article whichincluded the following assessment:

The fortresses of Beelzebub are music-halls, pennygaffs, dancing rooms and the like; of these, in Londonand elsewhere, The Salvation Army has stormed noless than 100, and has turned these haunts ofribaldryinto places of divine service. . . . Most of our secrrlarefforts to raise the masses have simply failed becauseof their inability to set the hearts of the populace

* See Appendinfor the Ar"my's later constittu,ti,otut'Lhistory

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aflame. The strength of Mr Booth seems to be thathe unites two powers: he preaches doctrines that fillthe face of a believer with light and radiance, andhe is no less thorough in enforcing a complete reformof life.

Serious trouble with mobs now began to manifestitself. Self-styled 'skeleton armies' sprang up invarious towns and set themselves tcl break upprocessions of The Salvation Army. The Army'sattacks upon the evils of alcohol, and its rescue ofmen and women from the ruin so often associatedwith heavy drinking, incurred the wrath anddetermined opposition of the brewing industry. Riotsand disturbances of a violent kind occurred.

More serious than the attacks of the mob was theattitude of the police toward these law-breakers. In1881 the Founder was obliged to make a vigorousprotest to the Chief of the Metropolitan Police. Butit required a reprimand from the Home Secretary tobring the authorities to their senses.

In a L2 months' period, it is recorded, 669salvationists were knocked, kicked or brutallyassaulted, 56 buildings of the Army were stormed andpartially wrecked, 86 salvationists were thrown intoprison. From one end of the kingdom to the other,this effort to break up the Army was carried on ina shameless fashion under the very eyes of the law,the mob attacking salvationists, the police arrestingsalvationists, the magistrates sentencing salvationists.But these persecutions failed to dampen the courageof the soldiers of The Salvation Army.

The Eagle public house-to which the GrecianTheatre and dancing grounds were attached-wasnotorious in London as a centre of vice and criminal

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activity.Learning in 1882 that the prcllliseS、 vere for

sale, Vヽillialll Booth purchased an assignment of thё

underlease from the holder, and convel・ ted the

theatre into a citadel of soul一 saving.

No sool■ er had the Army taken possesslon than

ho、vling IIlobs besiesed the place by day and night.

Close on the heels of their mobbing came legal actiOn.

恥「11liam Booth had incurred the enlllity of the

po、verful drink trade,altld the、 vhole lnachinery of

the la、v恥 アas set in mo↓ lon to crush hiIIl,The lesal

dispute turned oll the question、 vhether anyone could

hold licellsed prelllises、 vithout offering alcOholic

drillk for sale.Not content、 vith corideml■ ing Tlle

Salvation Army to hand over the entire propelty(for

、vhich豊 20,000 had been paid)that it IIlight become

、vhat it had been before,the judge thOught proper

to lllake reflections upon the General's actiol■ which

、vere so reported and colnlnented upoll as

undoubtedly to make a very bad impression upon

many Hlinds、 Nothillg was said ofヽ アilliam Booth's

effolts to pluck this social cancer out of Lolldon life.

It was decided finally that The Eagle tavern should

be given tlp,but the Grecian Theatre and its dallcing

grOunds retailled by The Salvation Army. In thisnotorious place l,800 persons sought salvation、 、ア北hin

the first three lnonths ofits occupancy by the Army.

Through the 、 70rk there carried on tlle entire

character of the neighbOurhood became changed.

Opposition against The Salvation Army観 ℃W rather

than diIIlinished、 vith its adval■ce among the lnasses.

Although it、 vas sllpported durillg these difficult

years by a few、 vealthy enthusiasts,and ellcouraged

by persollages as enlinent as John Ruskin, 」 ohn

Bright, Archbishop Tait, Lord Coleridge and wlrs

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Josephine Butler, there was nothing at all in the1880s of that appreciation of the work by men of allcreeds and of no creeds which began in thesucceeding decade. But William Booth's purpose wasbeing achieved, and the miracle of conversion waswitnessed wherever salvationists fought the forcesof evil.

In 1882, when from all over the country cameprotests against the processions, bands and too-livelyspirit of the Army, Dr Lightfoot, Bishop of Durham,declared: 'Whatever may be its faults, The SalvationArmy has at least recalled us to this lost ideal of thework of the Church-the universal compulsion of thesouls of men. '

'The movement was new. We had no precedent togo upon, very little experience to guide us,' wroteGeneral Bramwell Booth of those days. 'Much ofwhat we did had to be done literally as an act offai th. '

But in every decision that he was called upon tomake, WiIIiam Booth kept in mind one great object.He laid every emphasis in his power on the centralnecessity of conversion. This was the heart and soulof his teaching-there could be no salvation for sinfulman without a new birth. Whenever The SalvationArmy unfurls the flag, its first object is to proclaimthis truth simply and with power.

In 1882, the work attracting more and moreattention, a committee was appointed by the UpperHouse of Convocation of the Church of England toconsider the possibility of an alliance with TheSalvation Army. There was a real desire to bring theArmy under the wing of the Anglican Church, butthe difficulties of any such union, from The Salvation

Army's point of view, were considered to be so greatthat the effort was eventually abandoned.

In the early years of the work the Founderrecognised the need for a much more precise formof adherence to the doctrines and methods of theorganisation on the part of its soldiers than he hadat first anticipated.

He therefore decided that every would-be soldiershoukl sign articles of war, a simply wordeddeclaration containing: (i) a profession of personalexperience of salvation; (ii) a pledge of separationfrom the world, and of loyalty to Jesus Christ; (iii)a pledge of allegiance to the Army, to be expressed,amongst other ways, by obedience to its officers; (iv)an expression of faith in the possibility of holy living;(v) a pledge of total abstinence from the use of allintoxicating liquors and baneful drugs (tobacco wasadded in 1976); and (vi) a promise to devote all leisuretime and spare energy and money to help forwardthe salvation war. In no other Christian church at thistime was any restriction placed, even upon itsministers, with regard to the use of alcohol.

The publication of Orders and Regulations fot'FieldOfficers also marked an important advance towardsconsolidation.

I think (said General Bramwell Booth) my father gavemore attention to the Orders and Regulations forField Officers than to anything else he wrote. Hisanxiety was to compile in that book a set ofregulations which would perpetuate T'he SalvationArmy, and preserve it from the mistakes andconfusions which have befallen so many othersocieties in the religious sphere. In that book youhave the Founder's spirit and the spirit whichanimates The Salvation Army.

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Much of the content of this book is now containedin Orders and Regulations for Officers.

This was followed in 1890 by Orders andRegulations for Soldiers, and in 1898 by Orders andRegulations frtr Social Officers. Other orders, for staffofficers, for training officers and for territorialcommanders, were followed, in time, by regulationsfor local officers, bands and songster brigades andalmost every other area of Salvation Army activity.

A system of reporting and inspection, whichenabled the General to know how far his instructionswere being obeyed, was devised and, as the workgrew, divisional and other staff officers wereappointed to supervise personally the work ofofficers. The Founder said: 'I should like. if I could.to get a return from every man and wornan in theArmy as to what they do for God and their fellow-men every clay.'

From 1891 until 1972, outreach into the communitywas augmented by the work of The Salvation ArmyAssurance Society, whose officers and agents visitedmore than 360,000 homes every week. They becamethe friends and spiritual advisers of many householdsand were able to lead whole families to Christ.

The society has now merged with the Wesleyan andGeneral Assurance Society.

For further reading (in addition to the titles givenunder Chapter 1):The Salvation Armv Year Book

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Women's place in the ArmyAT a time when women were generally regarded asinferior to men, the Founder of The Saivation Armyand Mrs Booth acted on their conviction that woman,if given equal opportunities with man, would proveto be his equal intellectually, morally and spiritually,and one of the leading principles upon which TheSalvation Army is based is the right of women to anequal share with men in the great work of publishingsalvation. This principle is founded upon the claimsand sanctions of the Rible on her behalf, and uponthe remarkable ability she possesses to manage thesalvation war and to influence the hearts andconsciences of the people for God. It was providedby the first Christian Mission constitution (1870) andhas been acted upon ever since that women shouldhave equal rights with men in the movement's workand government.

This equal responsibility of women with men forthe great work of publishing salvation had not beenrecognised for centuries until Catherine Booth sawclearly how great was the loss to the Kingdom of God.

Having in December 1859 written and publisheda pamphlet entitled Female Ministry (reprinted inPractical Religion), Catherine Booth soon committedherself to a lifelong championship of the cause shehad made her own. But few, apart from her intimatefriends, knew what it cost her, not only to take apublic part herself but to urge her daughters to dothe same, in the days when she, they and otherfemale salvationists were almost the only womenaddressing public meetings.

In the early days of the work in London, womenwon for themselves a significant place. The smallnessof the forces available, and the greatness of theopportunity for open-air work in the trast End ofLondon, almost compelled the leaders to encouragewomen to take part in the public speaking. It wassoon observed that they were particularly successfulin winning the attention and sympathy of theirboisterous audience.

As the Mission developed, women began, inaccordance with its constitution, to hold office in thevarious stations, and in so doing often had to faceopposition from some of the men-workers, who werebound by the prejudices and ignorances of the past.

Some time elapsed, however, before the Founderentrusted women with the responsibility of takingcontrol of mission stations. The placing of women inpositions which would involve their authority overmen was so entirely a new venture that the Foundershad hesitated. In 1875 it was decided to make theexperiment, and a woman evangelist (Annie Davis,later Mrs Ridsdel) was placed in sole charge of themission station at Barking. Her appointment proveda complete success, and from that time no serious

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hesitation was felt in giving women the control ofstations, or in sending them to establish the work inplaces where the Army was not yet known.

A further stage was reached in the evolution ofwomen's work when women were not onlyappointed to supervise the lay membership but wereplaced in commands giving them authority oversubordinate men officers. The work in France andin Sweden had been so successfully pioneered bycapable women in 1881 and 1882 as to make itobvious that there was no adequate reason fordebarring women from occupying the highercommands.

Woman thus won her place in the Army while shewas still knocking at the doors of the professions.There can be little doubt that salvationist womenhave played a part in the general emancipation ofwoman in both West and East. The women whomarched at the head of the little bands of despisedsalvationists throughout the closing 20 years of the19th century were accustoming the public mind tothe sight of a woman in command, taking an active,unshrinking share in public duty. They were openinga door through which women might carry themessage of love and life to multitudes who wouldnever receive it save from a woman's lips.

All women salvationists owe a deep debt ofgratitude to the Founder, the Army Mother and theirfamily and helpers, whr: won this position for womenin The Salvation Army; to General and Mrs BramwellBooth and the succession of other learlers who haveheld and consolidated the position; and to GeneralsEvangeline Booth and Eva Burrows, who have Sivenexemplary evidence of the rightness of the principle

by their own service in the Army's chief admini-strative role.

In 1907, Mrs Bramwell Booth inaugurated theHome League, an association of salvationist and otherwomen who meet weekly for fellowship and tobecome better home builders. This movement hasspread to all parts of the world, with a membershipof more than 100.000. and its influence is everreaching out to new fields and opportunities.

For further reading:Charles Ludwig: Mother of an Army (SalvationistPublishing & Supplies/Kingsway Publical,i<.rns, 1 988)Catherine Bramwell-Rooth: Catherine Booth(Hodderand Stoughton, 1970)Clifford Kew (ed): Catherine Booth-her continuingrelevance (SA International Headquarters, 1990)Catherine Booth: Practical religion (1884, reprintedSA, Atlanta (USA), 1986)

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The training of officersTHE very enthusiasm of the Founder's earlyhelpers-many of whom were illiterate-had led, insome instances, to extravagances which wereundesirable, and the Founder early felt the need ofproviding suitabie and adequate training for officers.While the evangelists were few in number and thestations near together, it had been possible for theIeaders personally to supervise their raw, untrainedhelpers, but as the work spread it became risky tosend inexperienced individuals to take charge ofdifficult and distant posts wilhout preparation.

How to provide a training and some measure ofeducation which should be real and przLctical, and notseparate the officers from the people they were toreach, was the problem to be solved. While by nomeans undervaluing knowledge, whether of apractical or doctrinal character, the Founder's greatdesire was to teach what was absolutely essential forthe war his officers were to wage, without burdeningtheir minds with knowledge which would have nodirect bearing upon their work.

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The first attempt at training officers was made inL879 at Manchester, when a few young men weresent there for training under the Ieadership ofBallington Booth. By May 1880 a training homeaccommodating 30 women cadets had been openedin Gore Road, Hackney (London), and was followedquickly by the establishment of a similar home formen.

In these homes (said the Founder at that time) wetest the genuineness of the candidate. They willserve as a 'strait gate' through which those wantingin the qualifications necessary for success wiII bediscovered, and returned to their homes. This willbe infinitely preferable to allowing them to drift intoa weary round of uselessness.

Within a year or so it became evident that moreextensive accommodation would be needed. A largeorphanage at Clapton, in north-east London, whichhad been abandoned for years, was purchased for515,000. A further 58,000 or 59,000 was spent uponalterations, the central quadrangle being convertedinto a fine auditorium, named the Congress I{all,capable of seating more than 3,000 people, while theorphanage buildings provided accommodation for thehousing and training of 400 cadets.

The property passed into The Salvation Army'shands in 1882, and between then and 1929, whenthe William Booth Memorial Training College atDenmark Hill was opened, many thousands of joyous,enthusiastic young salvationists were trained therefor Army service in all parts of the world. TheCongress Hall attached became the spiritualbirthplace of thousands of souls, and the scene of

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some of the Army's most notable gatherings. Thebuildings were sold in 1970.

The training given to candidates who have beenaccepted for officership has been free, and regardlessof class or nationalitY.

Beyond question, The Salvation Army has made forits own messengers unparalieled opportunities ofservice where none existed before. In the traininginstitutions, new outlets for love anrl energy havebeen discovered, and new methods of work put intopractice, which have influenced the whole Army.

For instance, the 'bitter cry of outcast London'penetrated into the London Training llome, with theresult that the Cellar, Gutter and Garret Brigade cameinto operation and laid the foundation of theeffective Goodwill work of the present day. A roomwas rented in one of the slummiest districts ofLondon; here batches of women cadets lived by turnfor a month, giving all their time to visiting cellarsand garrets, and winning their way, by force ofsimple love, into slum homes and slum hearts.

Men czrdets, too, lived in batches in a room in eastLondon, from whence they carried on Drunkards'Rescue Work. Early in the evenings they wouldencounter working men who were going into publichouses, and seek to induce them either to go straighthome or attend the Army meeting. During themidnight hours they would prowl about the streetsin couples, looking for drunken men, some of whomthey would take to their own room, sober with strongcoffee, and then endeavour to lead to the Christ whocould break every fetter.

Such midnight patrols are now a feature of TheSalvation Army's social work in many lands.

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Fresh avenues of work have opened to the Armyin different parts of the world, because cadets havebeen trained to cultivate imagination, vision andenterprise, and have been given opportunity tofollow the promptings of their hearts.

The development of a spirit of self-sacrifice and an'anywhere for Jesus' outlook has always marked thetraining work. Shortly after the opening of theClapton Home, 96 men cadets, out of 116 in training,responded to a call for volunteers for 'foreign

service'. Later, a woman cadet offered herself forservice amongst the lepers of Indonesia; she was thefirst western officer appointed for leper work.

The Salvation Army has never been bound by hardand fast rules. The founders realised that the bestmethods to obtain the supreme object of this trainingcould be discovered only by experience; varioussystems, therefore, had to be tried.

Following on the opening of the Clapton TrainingHome, !'lying Squadrons, composed of companies ofwomen cadets, visited various parts of the country,travelling in omnibuses or wagonettes. These werefollowed by Life Guards, parties of men cadets whowent on foot through some of the English counties,and cavalry forts-travelling wagons, in which cadetslived as they carried salvation to the villages andoutlying places. At one time the cadets were trainedat depots, worked from central divisions, where theylived and worked under charge of corps officers, andstill later in garrisons attached to the larger corps inLondon. In both these the cadets' time was dividedbetween lessons and field activities. The traininghome at Clapton formed the centre from which thesedepots and garrisons were directed and to which

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the cadets were brought for a final period of unitedintensive tuition before being sent out as officers.

In 1896 a new system came into operation at theLondon training centre, and in 1904 the period oftuition was extended from six to nine months' Cadetsfor all branches of service in the United Kingdom arenow trained in the William Booth Memorial TrainingCollege, London, where since 1960 they have had atwo-year course.

?he Founder described it as a first principle of theArmy 'that Americans must conduct the war inAmerica, that Frenchmen must evangelise France,that Indians must mission India and the like'. To thatend nearly every Salvation Army terri torythroughout the world has its own training centre, inwhich, apart from necessary local adaptations, thegeneral system is the same as that of the WilliamBooth Mernorial Training College.

Cadets from five Western European territories aretrained together at the School for Officers' Trainingin Basle, Switzerland, which was established in 1985.

The further training of officers for futureleadership was provided for by the opening of atraining lodge at Clapton in 1905' The presentInternational College for Officers (instituted as theInternational Staff College in 1950) continues to fulfilthis role, and various forms of in-service training areprovided in every territory.

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6

Extension to other landsFROM 1880 onwards, The Salvation Army becamemore confirmed in its obligation to assume aninternational character. It was no longer possible forthe Founder to close his ears to the calls which hehad begun to receive from 'the regions beyond' andthe next decade was to see an expansion into everycontinent of the globe.

Working in every country in harmony with theruling powers-no matter what the character of thegovernment-the Army has adapted itself to nationalcircumstances. Instead of endeavouring to forcesalvationists of every race into the same mould, ithas insisted only upon their acceptance of essentialprinciples and methods.

The first extension beyond the British Isles was toNorth America. lnl872 one of the most active of theChristian Mission workers settled in Cleveland. Ohio.USA. He and one or two like-minded friends formeda branch of The Christian Mission, and set to workon lines similar to those used so successfullv in

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London. Some time afterward, the leader havingreturned to England, the work ceased.

In 1879 Amos and Annie Shirley, a Salvation Armycouple from Coventry, England, emigrated t<rAmerica with their daughter Eliza, and beganmeetings of the Mission in an abandoned chair factoryin Philadelphia. A year later, in response to theirappeals for officers, the F-ounder dispatchedCommissioner George Scott Railton, with a party ofseven 'hal lelujah lassies'. The Army Motherpresented the outgoing officers with two flags, onefor the first New York and the other for the firstPhiladelphia corps. These were the first flags to behoisted overseas. Six years later, when, in 1886, theFounder paid his first visit to the United States, hefound 238 corps under the leadership of 569 officers,mostly American.

The work in Canada, begun in London, Ontario, bya convert from England, was officiatly opened in1882 by a party of officers sent from New York andin 1896 three officers unfurled the flag in Bermuda.

In the Caribbean, the work began ln Jamaica in1887 and spread to Barbados (1898), Trinidad (1901),Antigua (1903) and Cuba (1918). Later openings tookthe movement to the Bahamas (191]1) and Haiti(1e50) .

Also administered as part of the CaribbeanTerritory are the former colonial mainland states ofGuyana (1895), Belize (1915), Surinam (1926) andFrench Guiana (where the work, originallyestablished in the penal settlement on l)evil's Islandin 1933, was re-opened in 1980).

Elsewhere in Central America, Army officers areworking in Panama (from 1904), Costa Rica (1907),

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Mexico (1937), Venezuela (L972), Guatemala (1976),Columbia (1985) and El Salvador (1989).

Four officers, who knew no Spanish, establishedThe Salvation Army in Buenos Aires, Argentina, in1890 and in the same year operations spread toUruguay. An opening in Chile in 1909 was followedthe next year by extensions to Peru and Paraguay.Bolivia was added in 1920, Brazllin1922 and Ecuadorin 1985.

The Founder's hand was similarly forced in regardto work in Australia as in the USA. Converts of theArmy, John Gore, a railwayman from London, andEdward Saunders, a builder from Bradford, hademigrated from England to Australia. They met inAdelaide, where they estabiished a corps. When thework had taken root and an invitation had beenreceived to extend their operations to Syclney, Gorewrote to the Founder for officers, saying: 'We needyou as quick as fire and steam can bring you. Youmust come immediately.'

Early in January 1881 the Founder responded bysending Captain and Mrs Thomas Sutherland, whoset sail for Australia with the same cool confidencewith which they would have set out to take chargeof a corps in England. Without money, withoutinfluence, and in spite of riotous opposition on thepart of larrikins-the counterpart of the Englishroughs-these salvationists went forth, carrying theinspiring flag which now waves throughout theCommonwealth of Australia.

Work in Papua New Guinea (pioneered in 1956) isadministratively linked with the Australia EasternTerritory.

The flag was unfurled in New Zealand at Dunedin

in 1883 by two young officers sent from England,Captains George Pollard and Edward Wright. Withina year 10 corps were opened. Work among the Maoriswas organised in 1884, when social operations alsobegan with a home for ex-prisoners. From NewZealand came extensions to tr'iji in 1973 and to Tongain l9BB.

Scarcely had the Australian expedition beenlaunched, than preparations were tnade for thedispatch of a small contingent to France, whencepressing invitations had been received. This was thefirst extension to a non-English speaking land; andfor the first time a woman was appointed ascommander of a territory.

The presentation of the flag by the Army Motherto the small company of quite young women-theFounder's eldest daughter Catherine, LieutenantsAdelaide Cox and Florence Soper, lat;er to becomeMrs Bramwell Booth-was a memorable occasion inthe history of the emancipation of women. This flag,the first to be hoisted in continental Europe, wasunfurled in 1881, in a little hall situated in a poor andatheistic quarter of Paris.

Anything more demoniacal than the crowd that theArmy Mother faced in Paris in 1882, at the openingof a new hall, would be difficult to conceive.Referring to this meeting, her daughter, theMar6chale, subsequently wrote: 'How we got homeI can scarcely tell. It was a terrible time. Theyflourished their knives in our faces, and it was awonder they did not bury them in us. They followedus with cries of "Behold Jesus Christ! It is he! It ish e ! " '

Although the fight in France is still difficult, there

has been, since the First World War (1914-18), aremarkable change in public opinion, largely due tothe great extension of the Army's social operations,which have received the warm official approbationand support of some of the highest officers of theSta le .

From France the work was extended in 1882 toSwitzerland, where for some years the Armyencountered bitter and persistent opposition. Soldiersand officers were fined and imprisoned on the mosttrivial pretext, and left at the mercy of brutal mobs.The country, however, has long since manifested itslove and adrniration for The Salvation Army.

In 1886 the Army flag was planted in Germany inface of great opposition. The zealous efforts of thepioneer officers, who were succeeded by Commis-sioner Railton, at length met with success. During thetwo world wars, when communications were cut offbetween International Headquarters and TheSalvation Army in Germany, the German salvationistsremained true to international comradeship.

In 1BB7 pioneering officers opened fire in l)enmark,Italy and The Netherlands and it was from the lattercountry that work spread over the border intoBelgium in 1889, where its establishment provokedpublic riots. Its presence there was maintainedagainst tremendous odds and it was only after theFirst World War (when the Army gave humanitarianassistance to Belgian soldiers and refugees) thatgovernment and people became more favourablydisposed towa.rds its activities.

Meanwhile, Scandinavia was beginning to see thefirst evidence of the Army at work.

In 1878 Bramwell Booth had visited Sweden,

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hoping to improve his impaired health. Althoughordered complete rest, he found it impossible to resistinvitations to hold private meetings. A powerfulimpression was made, and a number of souls weresaved and sanctified. Among them was HannaOuchterlony, who was so inspired with t,he convictionthat The Salvation Army could accomplish a mightywork in her country that she visited England in orderto study the Army and to lay before its leaders theclaims of Sweden to have its work begun within herborders.

The Founder did not see his way clear to sendofficers at that time, but, undaunted by disappoint-ment, Miss Ouchterlony declared that she would bea Salvation Army in herself. Returning to Sweden,she commenced holding meetings with remarkableresults. Thinking that the encouraging prospectswould move the Founder's heart, she again visitedEngland in 1882, accompanied by one of herconverts. Her devotion and insistence deeplyimpressed the Founder, and Miss Ouchterlony,bearing the rank of major, had the satisfaction ofreturning to her country with a party of five officersfor the official establishment of the work.

Much opposition and even persecution wereexperienced. In several places the authoritiesprohibited meetings after eight o'clock in theevening, and a number of officers who, forconscience' sake, would not obey, were thrown intoprison. But the work prospered, the persecutioncausing many who had not hitherto favoured theArmy to become its warmest friends.

In 1888 Norway was opened (though it was notuntil 1895 that the Norwegian Parliament granted

freedom to conduct open-air meetings) and from herethe Army's work in Iceland was launched in 1895,and in the Faeroe Islands in 7924.

A Finnish woman-Miss Hedwig von Haartman-who was engaged in work among the poor ofHelsingfors, heard about the Army while in Londonand offered herself for service. After being trainedin London she was sent, in 1889, to assist in openingup the work and Iater was appointed to the commandof the forces in Finland. Notwithstanding seriousopposition during the early years, the work prosperedand has steadily developed.

After the initial explosion of activity, territorialadvances in Western Europe slowed considerablyover the next century. There was an opening inAustria in 1927 , and war-related work in Malta andGibraltar, but further expansion had to wait until197I, when Spain and Portugal were added to thelist of Army commands.

In the first half of the 20th century, it seemedEastern Europe offered a more promising field forevangelism and pioneer parties were despatched toRussia (1913), Czechoslovakia (1919), Latvia (1923),Hungary (1924), Estonia (1927) and Yugoslavia(1933). Corps and social institutions were opened anda number of notable converts were won, butcommunications were broken through war orgovernment restrictions and by 1950 all officialcontact with International Headquarters wasforbidden.

But many officers and soldiers remained faithfulsalvationists, some living to see restrictions lifted andthe work re-opened following the political changesof 1990 onwards.

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India was the Army's first missionary field in theEast. Frederick St George de Lautour Tucker, anAssistant Commissioner of the Indian Civil Service,had already imbibed the missionary spirit when oneof the first editions of The War Cry came into hishands. The little paper was like a truntpet call to hissoul. Straightway he applied for lear,'e, set sail forEngland and attended the next meeting of TheSalvation Army at which William Booth wasspeaking. The meeting over, he sought out theFounder, volunteered for service in India, and aftera preliminary rebuff and some enforced delay, duringwhich his study of the work of the Army wasextended and his conviction of his own call to throwin his lot with it was intensified, he was accepted asan officer.

The wise and statesmanlike views of the Founderin regard to the evangelisation of native racesharmonised with the convictions of Mr Tucker.Accordingly, it was decided that officers appointedto work in India should adopt national dress, follownational customs and in everything seek to bring TheSalvation Army into as close correspondence with thecultural traditions of India as the nature ofChristianity would allow.

Major Tucker, with Captain Bullard and two otherassistants, was commissioned in 1881 to beginoperations in India. Soon after landing in Bombay,three of them, including Major Tucker, were arrestedand thrown into prison. For six months active;persecution by government officials followed ever),effort at open-air work in cities or towns. Finally,owing to the persistence of the salvationists, the rightwas established, not only of The Salvation Army but

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of the entire Christian community in India, to marchin procession and to hold open-air meetings.

From India the flag was carried to Ceylon (now SriLanka) and to Lahore (in what is now Pakistan) in1883. Cruel persistent persecution was experiencedfor some time, but the work gradually extended, andthe Army (which also moved into Bangladesh in 1970)is now widely recognised as an agency for good.

Rurma (now the Union of Myanma), opened byofficers from India in 1915, was constituted aseparate Salvation Army command in 1928. The workcontinues to thrive despite a ban on reinforcementsfrom overseas.

The Salvation Army was introduced into Indonesiain 1894 as an outcome of the work in TheNetherlands. In addition to evangelistic work, anextensive medical programme is carried on.

In 1895 the Army carried its flag to Japan. For someyears progress was slow, but gradually public opinionbecame more favourable. Following an earthquakein 1923, salvationists gave valuable assistance andthis opened more widely the door of opportunity.Of several outstanding Japanese who were attractedto the Army, the most distinguished was Commis-sioner Gunpei Yamamuro, whose book Tfte CommonPeople's Gospel has sold over three millioncopies.

In 1940 the Army was compelled, like otherChristian bodies, to sever its international links. Anew name and style had to be adopted and militarytitles and uniforms discontinued. Despite all this,Japanese salvationists remained faithful to theirvocation and continued to win souls for Christ. In1946 they reverted to their former title, and work

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goes on as in the first 45 years of salvationist activityin Japan.

The officers who pioneered the work in Korea in1908 were confronted with disturbed socialconditions and an embittered national mentality, butthe message, faithfully proclaimed, resulted in soulsbeing saved. Training of Korean officers commencedcarly. At first only married cadets could be trainedfor officership, husband and wife taking the samecourse, but later suitable single men-and women-were commissioned as officers, a significantdeparture in a country where hitherto women hadbeen kept in seclusion.

During the war, The Salvation Army in Korea wasaffected similarly to that in Japan. Officers ofnationalities other than Korean had to be appointedelsewhere, but those who remained continued theiractivities for the good of the people. There wasfurther disruption during the civil war of 1950-1953,but in latter years the Army in Korea has experiencedremarkable growth.

Work was commenced in North China in 1916, infulfilment of the Founder's dying charge to his sonand successor. In 1918 a training garrison was openedandThe War Cry issued. From the first many Chineseresponded to the gospel and were converted. In 1936officers settled in Canton to pioneer The SalvationArmy in South China. Many converts were won. Dayand night schools were established, also a large boys'home.

In 1951, all missionaries were compelled toIeave the country and the work was left under thedirection of Chinese officers. For many years, nocommunication was permitted with International

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Headquarters, but in the 1980s restrictions wererelaxed a little and some overseas visitors wereal lowed to make contact . In 1990, dur ingInternational Congress meetings in London, one ofthose faithful Chinese officers, Major Yin Hung-shun,was admitted to the Order of the Founder.

In the crown colony of Hong Kong, however,the work continued, and evangelistic, relief andprison work has been greatly appreciated bythe authorities. Work in Taiwan was re-establishedin 1965.

The Army's activities in Singapore began in lg3b(later spreading to many parts of Malaysia) and in thePhilippines in 1937.

In Africa a party of three officers (Major andMrs Francis Simmonds in charge) opened fire inCape Town in 1883 and activities rapidly extendedthroughout Cape Colony and to the OrangeFree State, the Transvaal and Natal. In 1888the Army's work was pioneered in Kaffrariaand Natal and in 1891 it was extended toZululand.

Today salvationists, increasingly under Africanleadership, are helping to evangelise their fellowsthroughout most of the continent: in Zimbabwe(1891), Mozambique (1916), Nigeria (1920), Kenya(1921), Ghana (L922), Zambia (L926), Uganda ( 1 93 1 ),Namibia ( 1 932 ), T anzania ( 1 93 3 ), Zair e (1934), Congo(1937), Malawi (L967), Angola (1985) and Liberia(1e88).

The form their service takes varies from countryto country and, as elsewhere in the world, embracesmedical, educational and rehabilitation programmesin addition to corps work.

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For further reading:John Waldron (ed): Pioneering Salvationists (SA, NewYork, 1987)Several histories are also in print relating to the workin individual countries.

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7Early years of the social

servicesTHE Founder started his campaign in order to savesouls for this world and the next, but both he andhis workers quickly realised that the appallingtemporal circumstances of a vast number of peoplemade their salvation most unlikely unless regard werepaid also to their material needs. In the early daysof The Christian Mission, shops were opened inShoreditch and elsewhere in East London at whichthe poorest could buy pennyworths of bread, soup,meat and coffee.

ln 187 4 a drunkards' rescue brigade, first organisedin 1870 in the Shoreditch Circuit of The ChristianMission by Mrs Collingridge, the Superintendent, wasadopted by Mrs Booth as part of the programme ofThe Christian Mission. From the first this brigade wassuccessful in reaching and reclaiming many of themost degraded, and the experiment was reproducedin almost every corps. The first home for womeninebriates was opened in 1887 in Canada, quickly tobe followed by similar homes in other lands. In New

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Zealandthe Army's social work included colonies formale inebriates on Rota Roa Island; and in Swedenon Kuron.

In 1883 the Army's first prisoners' rescue brigadewas organised in Melbourne, Australia, by ColonelJames Barker, and proved so successful that, beforeIong, magistrates in the city were giving delinquentsthe option of being sent to prison or to the Army'sprison gate home.

This raised the question whether the Army inEngland ought not to try to do something alongsimilar lines. While this was under consideration, aman who had spent 20 years in jail rnras convertedat an Army meeting. He had never done an honestday's work, having been brought up to live bythieving. His story made an impression on theFounder, who in 1884 established a home fordischarged prisoners, which offered such men ashelter and work in a wood-chopping shed untilbetter employment presented itself.

About 1887, officers were appointed in differenttowns of Great Britain to visit police courts andprisons, to help the women brought there'

The extensive social work on behalf of prisonersnow carried on by the Army in the United States hadits birth at Hartford, Connecticut, in 1885. Prisonvisitation and homes for discharged prisoners wereestablished in South Africa in 1886, and Armyofficers are now befriending and uplifting prisonersand ex-prisoners in many lands.

From the time when the Army Mother hadinterested herself in the work of the MidnightMovement her heart had been drawn to women whohad fallen into prostitution. She had found ways of

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helping individual women and of assisting theirrehabilitation. As early as 1868 the East LondonChristian Mission unsuccessfully tried to establish ahome in London, and other attempts were later madein Glasgow.

Touched by the helpless and pitiable conditions ofsome girls who had sought salvation at her corps, aWhitechapel salvationist had, for some years, thrownher own home open for their reception. Many hadasked to be admitted, and eventually, in 1884, theIeaders of the Army opened its first rescue home inHanbury Street, Whitechapel, with Mrs BramwellBooth in charge.

Most other homes of this kind had been closed towomen over 30, but from the first the Army decidedto have no age limit for admission. It also recognisedthat the remedy for this evil was not to be found incompulsion but in an inner spiritual reformation. Acondition of acceptance to the programme was awillingness to be helped.

The Iaw at that time gave girls of 13 and upwardsthe right to consent to sexual intercourse, howeverignorant they might be of the consequences. Suchignorance was, in fact, widespread and exploitationof young girls was rife. It was obviously necessaryto raise the age of consent and to adopt othermeasures which would provide gfeater protection forall young women.

Three times the House of Lords had passed a Billfor the amendment of the criminal law upon thispoint and as often the House of Commons hadblocked the proposal. A House of Lords committee,sittingfor 10 months to inquire into the 'white slavetraffic' (the procurement of girls for immoral

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purposes and their subsequent sale into brothels),declared that it 'surpassed in arrant villainy any tradein human beings in any part of the world, in ancientor modern times', yet a majority in bhe House ofCommons had refused to act upon the informationreceived.

Such was the position when, early one morning,a girl of 17 appealed in person to the Army's head-quarters in London for protection. She had been Iuredfrom a country home by an adverbisement and foundherself in a situation of great moral danger. An Armysong book which had come into her possession gaveher the address of headquarters and stre had slippedout of a back window at night and tramped to QueenVictoria Street where she told her story to the Chiefof the Staff, Bramwell Booth.

As a result, he determined at whatever eost to 'stop

these abominations, to rouse public opinion, toagState for the improvement of the law . . . and tomake a way of escape for the victims.' Investigationsinto the white slave traffic were immediately madeunder his supervision, and W. T. Stead-editor of ThePall Mall Gazette-was urged to set on foot a secretcommission of inquiry into the practice. It was adangerous venture-the two men risked thevengeance of vested interests and influential butcorrupt individuals.

Mass meetings in London and throughout theprovinces were arranged by William Booth, and Steadmade such appalling revelations in ?fte PaIl MaL(Gazette, under the title of The Maiden Tribute ofModern Babylon, that at last public sentiment wasstirred.

A petition, instigated by the Founder, with 343,000

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signatures, was deposited on the floor of the Houseof Commons by eight stalwart salvationists. The lawwas then amended with a speed rarely equalled inEngland's history, the age of consent being raisedto 16.

This triumph was followed by an unpleasantsurprise. The Government decided to prosecute, notthe authors of the recently-revealed atrocities, butthose who had been the means of calling publicattention to the existence of the evil! Mr Stead hadstated that it was possible in London, for five poundsor less, to procure a young girl, entrap her under falsepretences and remove her to a brothel under the veryeyes of the law. To prove this, with the assistanceof a converted ex-brothel keeper, Rebecca Jarrett,a girl named Armstrong had been procured. Care wastaken that she should not be morally harmed, butevery step of the alleged 'white slave' trail wastrodden without the slightest hitch, the girl beingfinally handed over to the protection of The SalvationArmy in Paris. Mr Stead, although he had proved hiscontention, had broken the law.

The trial, which lasted 12 days, ended in the imprisonment of Stead, Rebecca Jarrett and three otheraccused people and in the acquittal of BramwellBooth.

'The Armstrong case will crush The SalvationArmy!' pronounced a titled celebrity. Rather did itmake the Army known as the champion of theoppressed, a terror to evildoers and a nationalbulwark against the encroachments of vice.

There were other, less dramatic, ways in which thework amongst women developed. At that time, whenan unmarried mother came out of a hospital or

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workhouse, with her baby of two or three weeks oldin her arrns, no respectable situation was open to herand no institution would take her. The Armyrecognised the need for maternity homes in whichthe mother could remain with her baby for somemonths, at the end of which a suitable situation mightbe found for her. The first two of these homes-achain of which was later established throughout theworld-were opened in Chelsea and Ilackney(London). From the outset a very effective systemof after-care was established.

As a development of this service to unmarriedmothers, The Salvation Army has long had up-to-datematern i ty hospi ta ls in many lands, o f tenaccommodating married as well as unmarriedwomen, and with allied maternity and child-welfareclinics. The Mothers' Hospital in Clapton was formany years one of London's most importantmaternity hospitals.

Meanwhile, the needs of the poor and hungry hadnot been forgotten. The provision, from the earliestdays, of food, shelter and clothing was given a newimpetus by William Booth's eyes being opened in1887 to the numbers of men and women sleepingrough in London. 'Go and do something!' he ordered.Within weeks, a large shelter and food depot hadbeen opened in Limehouse, with others following inquick succession. The dock str ike of 1889accentuated the need, causing The Times to declarethat 'had it not been for this place of relief thedistress would have been much greater'.

In 1890, with these and similar needs pressing onhis heart, the Founder published his history-makingbookl In Darknst Ett gland and th,e Way Out, a volume

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that brought into public view seas of misery and evilabout which many, until then, were ignorant. Inlaunching this book William Booth appealed forfinancial support to enable the Army to carry out thecomplete scheme of social help outlined in its pages.By February 1891 5108,000 had been subscribed tothis fund, which by September of the following yearhad risen to S129,288.

Bramwell Booth and his staff immediately set towork to implement the Founder's schemes. Fooddepots and shelters, rescue homes and labourbureaux were set up in the great industrial centres,a farm was purchased in Essex and the entire socialwing of the Army was reorganised.

The Darkest England Scheme (said Harold Begbie)did immediately change and is still changing, for agreat number, social conditions that were evil andunjust. Its great success lay in the fact that it wasadministered by those who understood that thetransformation of humanity could only be wroughtby a subdual of men's will to the will of God.

Almost at once the writer of In Darkest Englandand the Way Out was recognised throughout theworld as the head of an international organisationwhich had set itself to handle some of the mostpainful and troublesome difficulties which beset thepath of the legislator. On his travels throughout theworld he was cordially entertained by men seriouslyattentive to the social dangers which threatencivilisation. The popularity which, for the first time,came to the Army in the early 1890s sprang from theconviction that salvationists everywhere deeply feltfor the outcast and needy and sought to help them.

Many suggestions made in the book have been

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taken up by government and philanthropic bodies,notably that of assisted emigration. When theFounder suggested setting up a bureau for providingsuch assistance, nothing of the kind was in operation,but following the establishment of this service in1903, more than 250,000 migrants were able to takeup a new life overseas.

In the section of his book which deals with 'the

regimentation of the unemployed' and outlines a planto establish labour bureaux by means of whichworkers might be transferred between the towns andprovinces of England, William Booth was able tostate, 'At present there is no labout: exchange inexistence in this country'; but The Salvation Armyhad already attempted work of that description.

Practically every one of William Booth's proposalsin In Darkest England and the Way Out, with theexception of that relating to the overseas colony, isnow an integral part of The Salvation Army's work.

From the day In Darkest England and the Way Outwas published until now, the history of the Army'ssocial work has been one of steady progress. Basedsolidly upon principles of permanence, the work hasproved its ability to benefit, materially andspiritually, those for whom it was inaugurated.

For further reading:Jenty Fairbank: Booth's Boots (SA InternationalHeadquarters, 1983)Frederick Coutts: Bread for my Neighbour (Hodderand Stoughton, 1978)Alison Plowden: The Care of Eliza enrntonq (BBC, 1974)William Booth: In Darkest England and the Way Out(1890, reprinted 1970 by Charles Knight)

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Developments in thesocial serviees

ORGANISED midnight work was commenced inLondon in 1902. Officers were set apart to patrolstreets in disreputable areas at night, and providedwith rooms to which they could take any girl whomthey could persuade to change her way of life.

In 1895 a home for young girls, some as young as11 years, who had been abused, was opened inLondon. Earlier still, the government of an Australianstate had sought The Salvation Army's help in caringfor neglected children and placed many in its care.The Nest was opened in London in 1901 for thereception of similar cases.

Famine conditions in India forced the Army toprovide for the orphan children of its own people.Other causes in other lands made similar worknecessary and today-although many Westerncountries have moved away from institutional carefor children-many thousands of boys and girls,otherwise unbefriended, remain in the Army'scharge.

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In 1895 carefully organised work was begunamongst members of the defence forces. Homes andhuts have been established for the housing,recreation and spiritual and moral well-being of;ervicemen.

In 1907 an anti-suicide bureau was inaugurated inLondon on behalf of persons contemplating self-destruction. Soon afterwards a standing order wasplaced in every police station in London empoweringthe officer in charge to hand over certain classes ofwould-be suicides to The Salvation Army and therebyavoid police proceedings. The Army's work hasdoubtless assisted in bringing about a change in thepublic mind, with the result that attempted suicideis now considered as calling for sympathetic remedialtreatment instead of punishment.

When The Salvation Army opened in Japan,licensed prostitution had been carried on there, girlsbeing openly sold to this trade. For the rest of theirIives, they were separated from the rest of thecommunity and kept under police supervision in aspecial quarter of each city. Although a law had beenpassed which allowed such girls as might wish toabandon their profession to do so, it was toocumbersome to provide a practical solution. Early inthe Army's work a rescue home was opened inTokyo. In 1900 a special number of the Japanese WarCry contained an explanation of the law, an appealto these enslaved girls to escape and an offer of helpto any who would apply to The Salvation Army.

A party of officers then went to the licensedquarters and distributed copies of the paper. As soonas the brothel-keepers became aware of its contents,they hired men to attack the War Cry sellers. When

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it became known that salvationists had beenattacked, reporters of the Tokyo and Yokohamapapers hurried to the scene. The whole Japanesepress then came out strongly on the Army's side andin favour of 'free cessation', as it was called.

Applications for help from girls and parents beganto pour in, but as soon as officers attempted to securethe liberty of individual girls, they were faced withdifficulties that seemed insuperable. The Army keptup the public agitation, however, with the result thatfor the first time in the history of Japan the CentralGovernment issued instructions for the completecontrol of this licensed system and proclaimed thatno woman who wished to leave the brothels mightbe retained for debt.

In India, entire tribes, estimated to numberbetween one-and-a-half and three million people,were dedicated to a life of crime and, under thecountry's rigid caste system, could not findhonourable work. Their raiding, usually done farfrom home, made it difficult to bring the offendersto justice. The Government of India, during manydecades, expended immense sums of public moneyin fruitless efforts to reclaim and assist these criminalclasses.

In 1908 Sir John Hewett, then Lieut-Governor ofthe United Provinces, impressed by the successfulresults of the Army's methods of social recovery inBritain and elsewhere, suggested that, as anexperiment, some 300 tribesmen then under policesupervision should be handed over to The SalvationArmy. At the end of the first year, the Governmentwas so satisfied with the success of the Army's effortsto reclaim these people that other settlements were

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organised in the Punjab, Madras, Bengal, Bihar,Orissa and the Andaman Islands.

Besides many industries, day-schools wereestablished in all the settlements, some of theteachers being recruited from the settlers andchildren themselves.

The success of this work resulted in a number ofthe settlements being closed, and their inmates freedby the Government and allowed to return to normalvillage life. No longer under police supervision, manyof them became respected members of society.

In Java (Indonesia), the Army was almost ignoredby Europeans and nationals alike until a great famineoccurred. Other means having been tried in vain, theGovernment asked the Army to undertake the reliefwork, promising to supply food and buildings. Fromthat time on, the advance of The Salvation Army inJava was assured.

Later on, in a small native hut, Lieut-Colonel (Dr)Wille commenced his far-reaching ministry tosufferers from eye diseases, and eventually theGovernment erected-as a memorial to WilliamBooth-an eye hospital at Semarang. Work amongstthe swarms of beggars was organised also as anoutcome of the famine relief.

Fifty years before the Army's arrival in Java theDutch Government had established a leper colony,placing it under the charge of the military. After thefamine The Salvation Armywas asked to take it over.So efficient was its reorganisation and managementof this, its first leper settlement, that a Romancatholic priest, on one of his visits to the colony,exclaimed, 'This place used to be a hell; now it is aheaven.'

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The Army first undertook settlement work forIndia's lepers in 1928, taking over a leprosarium inthe Madras region which was about to close for lackof workers and funds. Two leprosaria were lateropened elsewhere in India.

The Catherine Booth General Hospital, founded asa dispensary in 1896 and now comprising one of thefinest groups of buildings in the State of Tamil Nadu,was the first major expression of the Army's medicalmissionary work and a prototype of the 50 or sohospitals and 150 clinics and dispensaries nowoperating in India, Japan, Indonesia, Korea, Africaand elsewhere.

India was also a testing-ground for vocationaltraining centres for the handicapped, which becamea feature of the Army's work in many lands.Particularly noteworthy are the institutes for theblind in the Caribbean and East Africa and the specialunit for multi-handicapped children at Joytown, inKenya.

In Norway, in 1909, was opened the first of thoseeventide homes which are now a boon to aged menand women in many lands. Whole 'retirement

villages' are now managed by the Army in Australiaand elsewhere.

A Salvation Army officer was sent to FrenchGuiana in 1928, to report as to the possibility ofintroducing The Salvation Army among the convictsand ex-convicts of that last remaining French penalsettlement. On his return to France wide publicitywas given by the Army to conditions prevailing inthe settlement territory. With the sympatheticconsent of the French Government, six officerssettled in French Guiana in 1933, amongst 1,500

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ex-convicts who, though liberated, were condemnedby law to remain there for life, or for a period equalto that of their actual sentence.

Three centres were opened where these desolatemen could find helpful companionship, work,recreation and a new outlook; the officers incharge also regularly conducted meetings withconvicts still serving their term. As time wentor, it was possible for them to arrange therepatriation of numbers of the liberated menwho had done well under the Army's supervisionfor two years. Meanwhile in France, throughthe press and public platform, The SalvationArmy continued to denounce the evils of theconvict settlement system and especially theIaw by which ex-convicts were detained in FrenchGuiana for a period equal to that of their impris-onment-or for life if their sentence exceededseven years. The system has now been abolished.ln 1952 the last of the convicts returned to theirnative land, apart from several hundred libdrdswho, owing to infirmity, could not be moved fromFrench Guiana. Among those the Army remaineduntil no longer required.

While each decade has raised its own socialissues and certain evils have been successfullyovercome, some problems encountered in theArmy's early days remain problems today. Homeless-ness, unemployment, alcoholism and drug depen-dence still need to be tackled in the cities of theWestern world and imaginative programmeshave been developed in Europe, America andAustralasia to deal with these.

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For further reading:Caughey Gauntlett: Today in Darkest Britain(SA/Monarch Publications, 1990).Miriam Richards: It Began with Andrews (SP&S,LsTr)Henry Gariepy: Christianity in Action (SP Publica-tions, Wheaton (Illinois), 1990)

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Work among young peopleTHE supreme purpose of the Army's work amongyoung people has been from the beginning tobring the young to Jesus Christ and to develop themas active evangelists in the ranks of The SalvationArmy.

Even before the days of The Christian Mission theFounder had worked for the salvation of children.Bramwell Booth was converted at the age of sevenin a children's meeting conducted by his mother atWalsall. 'I discovered him,' she wrol;e at the time,'kneeling at the communion rail among a crowd ofIittle penitents, confessing his sins and seekingforgiveness.'

The Army's work for the salvation of children wasbegun in the earliest days of the Mission, and theFounder's elder children, when between 10 and 15years of age, took part in it. The objects of the workwere the same as in the present day: the immediatesalvation of children by faith in Jesus; and theorganisation and training to do work for the salvationof children.

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At one time an attempt was made to organise thework in Whitechapel with Bramwell Booth as the'young people's commissioner', but the right methodshad not been found. So disappointing were the resultsthat in lB77 the Founder ordered children's work tobe abandoned, telling Mission leaders that 'we havenot, as yet, any real plan for dealing with children'.

Following successful children's meetings com-menced by Captain John Roberts at Blyth, on 30 July1880, a fresh start was made in London in 1881, Iittleso ld iers l meet ings being held in Hackney,Whitechapel, Bethnal Green and Cambridge Heath.The police were unsympathetic and made little effortto check the open and violent opposition which wasencountered, but numbers of children wereundoubtedly saved, many of whom went on to givegood service in the ranks of The Salvation Army.

As the young people's work developed, the ideaof carrying on work for the salvation of the childrenby the children themselves was kept steadily in view.The Founder set out to raise a junior Army after thepattern and principles of the senior one thoughsubject, of course, to certain limitations.

In 1884 the Founderpublished abook, TheTrainingof Children, first printed as a series of articles in ?fteWar Cry in 1882.

You must (he wrote) make the children understandthat God expects them to do their share of thefighting and encourage them to do it. Beget withinthem the conviction that soul-saving is going to betheir life-work, and get them fired with the ambitionto go to their post and die there before they arebrought into contact with cold, freezing, unbelieving,half-hearted professors.

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The first General Orders for Little Soldiers'Meetings were published in The Little Soldier (1881)'and included the following:

Wherever thought desirable, a little soldiers'assembly may be held, and a separatel register ofmembers of the corps under fifteen be kept, theconditions of membership being the same as in thecase of adults. . . . A Captain may, if he thinks itdesirable, form a company of little soldiers, to becalled the second battalion of the corps, and to havea complete organisation of its own.

The General trusts that, under the blessing of God,the work amongst the children may grow anddevelop in every way until separate buildings andarrangements may become necessary. . . . He reliesupon the honour of the troops to see that no childis shut out of a meeting on account of poverty,raggedness or dirt, but that the greatest love and carebe bestowed upon the most wretched of the littleones.

About 1890, for the better instruction of children,they were divided into companies, each consistingof a limited number of children about the same ageunder the supervision of a company guard. CompanyOrders, later Living and Believing, consisting ofcarefully prepared weekly studies of an appointedportion of Scripture, were first printed in The WarCry. From 1905 to 1986 these were published in anannual volume. A series of International BibleLessons, published by the Missionary LiteratureSection of the Literary Department at InternationalHeadquarters, covers a three-year cycle of studies,and is used in certain territories.

In 1892 the band of love (later the junior legion)was inaugurated to provide a stepping-stone to bring

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children to the Saviour. A pledge was drawn up*lri"l could be signed even by unsaved children, bywhich they undertook not to touch intoxicants, notto smoke, swear, steal or gamble and promised to bekind to animals, to strive to speak the truth and tooffer a prayer morning and evening.

In January 1896, the young people's legion wascommenced to meet, in a similar way, the needs ofyoung people from 11 to 18. Its main object, inaddition to providing useful and interesting leisureactivity, was to save and make salvationists of thosewho came under its influence.

Following the success of Lord Baden-powell's scoutmovement, it was felt that if the principles ofscouting could be developed on Salvation Army linesa great deal of lasting good might be done byattracting boys from outside the movement whocould not immediately be linked up in the Army'sactivities for saved children, such as the youngpeople's bands and singing companies.

Therefore, in 1913, the life-saving scouts wereorganised. Lack of leaders during the First WorldWar was a setback; but in 1920 the organisationbegan to prosper. The motto, 'To save and to serve',marked the purpose of the organisation: to save theboy-body, mind and soul-and to train him to saveand serve others. In most territories the life-savingscouts have since been affiliated with the ScoutAssociation.

In 1915 Mrs Bramwell Booth inaugurated the sistermovements-the life-saving guards (now, in manycountries, guides). Junior organisations, entitledchums (cubs) and sunbeams (brownies), followed in1917 and L921.

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Scout and guide groups proved successful inbringing much new blood into The Salvation Army,and ln 1938, as an outcome of a worldwide youthcampaign, torchbearer groups were formed to attractolder young people-from 15 to 30 years-from non-Army circles. Mingling with young salvationists inhealihy social recreative interests, the eveningclosing with a simple religious service, those thusattracted were brought into contact with highstandards of life and citizenship. Many decided forChrist and entered publicly into a covenant asenrolled torchbearers.

Throughout the world, the changing expectationsof each generation have been matched by a continualadaptation of the Army's youth programmes, suitedto the culture and climate of the different countriesin which the movement is at work.

In 1979, for instance, The Salvation Army Boys'Adventure Corps (SABAC) was inaugurated in theUnited Kingdom to provide an outreach programmefor boys which aims to contact, hold and win themfor Christ and to active Christian service.

But William Booth's insistence on the training ofsalvationist children 'to do their share of the fighting'was never forgotten. The same year that saw theinauguration of the young people's legion broughtanother new order into being. Young people of 14years and over, who, being saved themselves, hada desire to become officers when old enough' wereorganised into junior cadet trrigades. Their trainingwas to be such as would equip them for seriousevangelistic work amongst ordinary people. Itincluded joining public-house brigades and selling IheWar Cry;open-air meetings; visitation of the poor and

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sick; carefully planned study of the Bible and of theArmy's doctrines, principles and orders andregulations; and instruction in various topicsaffecting the salvation war.

The junior cadets became known in February lgg7as corps cadets. In 1913 division into higher and lowergrades was introduced. These are still used in someterritories, as relating to lesson work, but in otherp laces the terms' in t roductory ' , ,e lementary ' ,'intermediate' and 'advanced', are applied. A coipscadet is eligible for consideration for the award bfthe Badge of Merit (or Graduate Corps Cadet Badge).

By 1897 Bramwell Booth, then Chief of the Sdff,came to feel that some further effort was needed tounite and organise young people to witness for Christand to work for others. He invited young folk aged16 or over from certain London corps to spend a daywith him in council. About 2b0 came. Their intenseinterest and responsiveness vindicated the ventureand young people's councils were established; tensof thousands of young people attend these gatheringsheld annually throughout the world.

A department dealing specifically with youngpeople's work was set up at headquarters, theFounder entering with enthusiasm into the newdeparture. Special regulations were issued,Directories (providing religious instruction forchildren) were published and officers appointed tothe divisions as young people's secretaries.

Today, William Booth's 'junior army'is a modern,well-organised force, its young soldiers following acarefully-planned programme of Christian educationand practical service.

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10Literature

UNTIL 1868 the Founder had reported the work ofThe East London Christian Mission in the columnsof various religious papers. This was, for manyreasons, unsatisfactory. The reports were not alwaysedited to his liking and there was no opportunity tocommunicate instructions or spiritual counsel to hisworkers.

The publication, in October 1868, of the firstnumber of The East London Evangelist gaveCatherine Booth, in particular, a paper in which toadvocate her advanced views about the privileges ofChristians and their duty to work for God. She andthe Founder were the magazine's first editors.Together they prepared and revised the proofs of TheEast London Evangelist, which was issued monthly.

William Booth's book, How to Reach the Masseswith the Gospel (published in 1870), interested andattracted George Scott Railton, who was to becomethe Army's first commissioner. An extremelyversatile penman, he compiled the bulk of its earlyliterature, while also serving as secretary to The

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Christian Mission, and gradually took over much ofthe editorial responsibiiity.

In 1870 The East London Evangelist became ?fteChristian Mission Magazine.In 1879 it was convertedinto ?/re Salvationist; and in December of that yearits place was taken by The War Cry.

The need had long been felt for a weeklynewspaper to inspire, educate and bring together allsalvationists in the spirit of holy warfare.

On the back page of the final number of ?heSalvationisf were the following words: 'To representthe work in more than 120 places within the pagesof a monthly periodical is no longer possible. Thereis only one resource, to commence a weekly paperand, therefore, over-burdened as we already are atheadquarters, we launch at once upon this freshenterprise, confident that the Lord of the Army willmake it a great success.'

The War Cry, launched at Christmas 1879 as ahalfpenny paper, was an immediate and phenomenalsuccess amongst religious papers. Beginning with asale of 17,000, in 12 months a circulation of 110,000was reached; Yet, from the first, the paper gave nospace to fiction or to outside advertisements. In manylands the circulation of The War Cry is larger thanthat of other religious periodicals, due mainly to thedevoted ministry of thousands of unpaid salvationistswho visit the homes and public-houses as a meansof spreading the gospel.

The printing of the first rrumber of The War Crycaused the Founder many perplexities and anxieties.He wrote:

Last night, nearly eleven, after varied attempts toprint, we condemned machine . . . as old iron. After

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frantic efforts all day had not got over 200 readablepapers off her. . . . She is now printing 1,400 an hourvery fairly . . . last night she did two and tore upthree and two more then stopped.Notwithstanding many discouragements, he

persevered until an up-to-date machine for The WarCry was purchased out of funds raised by publicsubscription. Other machines were added as occasionrequired.

The Army's print ing operations, primari lyestablished at Whitechapel for the production of ?fteWar Cry, have grown till now there are a dozen suchestablishments in different countries employed inproducing Army literature.

Publicationof The War Cry spread rapidly aroundthe world. James Barker, a compositor, while intraining for officership, set up ?he War Cry by dayand took his course at the Army's first traininginstitution by night. In 1882 he was appointed toAustralia. Within 15 months, from the Army's ownAustralian printing press, 66,000 copies of The WarCry (Australian edition) were being issued everyweek.

The first publication in a language other thanEnglish was the Gujarati War Cry issued in India ini882. Wherever the Army went, The War Cryfollowed-and sometimes, as in Denmark, even wentbefore!

The Salvation Army now issues nearly 150 differentperiodicals, serving the interests of all sections of themovement and written with one purpose-tobroadcast the great message, 'Salvation for all theworld. '

In 1881 The Little Soldierwas launched. Its London

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edition (later called The Young Soldier and, morecolloquially, the IS) is the oldest publication of itskind in the world and still has by far the largestcirculation of any children's religious weekly.

All Army books aim at the salvation of the soul and,secondly, to make fighting saints on earth-men,women and children who, embracing God's will,boldly fight for the Lord Jesus Christ.

Books by William and Catherine Booth, reissuedfrom time to time, are still full of enlightenment anddivine power. Few books have been translated intomore languages than the Founder's Orders andRegulations for Soldiers, now revised and issuedunder the title Chosen to be a Soldier. The books ofGeneral and Mrs Bramwell Booth, and such earlywriters as Commissioner T. Henry Howard, still havemuch to say to inspire the 20th century salvationist.

Commissioner Samuel Logan Brengle's books havemet the spiritual needs of thousands, and are still indemand. Commissioner Gunpei Yamamuro's bookThe Common People's Gospel has already beenmentioned (chapter 6) and among more recentsalvationist authors is General Frederick Coutts,whose contribution to Army literature will enrich themovement for many years to come. Books of abiographical, evangelical, historical and devotionalnature continue to flow from the Army's presses andhave a vital part to play in maintaining the spirit ofsalvationism and the Army's usefulness in theinterests of the Kingdom of God.

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1 1Music

SALVATION ARMY music owes much to theFounder.

It owes much also to the group of gifted men in whomthe spirit of song is a native endowment (wroteGeneral Bramwell Booth), but it was the Founderwho foresaw the value of Army music anddetermined to stamp such music with the vital andjubilant note of salvationism. He wanted musicwhich would have the martial and jubilant characterof the Salvation Army spirit and would carry its ownmessage. He wanted the music to be The SalvationArmy itself worked out in melody.

The creative musical power which The SalvationArmy has evoked is one of the most striking facetsof its history. Most of the Army's instrumental musicis composed or arranged by salvationists, and thesame is true of its songs.

From the very first, singing was regarded as of vitalimportance in the Army's warfare. Before the dayof bands, the gospel message rang out in song in thepoorest and worst districts of London and elsewhere.

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Personal testimony, also, was effectively sung. Fromthe beginnings of the movement any convert whocould sing, even though indifferently, was likely tobe asked to sing a solo as well as to speak his witness.

In 1878 salvationists appeared for the first time inthe streets of Salisbury and were roughly handled bythe mob. Charles WiIIiam Fry, the leader of a villagemethodist choir and orchestra, who had trained histhree boys to play brass instruments, was invited toassist the persecuted salvationists. As a band of four,the Frys took their stand with the Army.

The Founder heard of the Fry family, and suggestedto the father that he should sell up his builder'sbusiness and give full-time service to the Army. TheFrys not only helped William Booth in his specialmeetings, but also went on visits to various parts ofthe country, everywhere winning great favour.Wherever they went, the desire to have a local bandwas stimulated. The soldiers began to search for anyamong themselves who possessed musical talent andto purchase instruments-often from a pawnbrokeror second-hand dealer. These instruments weresometimes so defective that they had to be tied upwith string or plugged with soap to stop leakages. Thefirst corps band was organised at Consett, CountyDurham, in 1879.

The spiritual forces which these newly-formedbands exercised, so deeply impressed the Founderthat he at once set to work to encourage every corpsto form a band. To that end he issued the followingorder in ?fte War Cry, early in 1880:

Whereas, during the late Welsh and Cornish councils,and before that time at Plymouth, Nottingham andelsewhere, we have proved the great utility of

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musical instruments in attracting crowds to our open-air and indoor meetings, we do here express ourdesire that as many of our officers and soldiersgenerally, male and female, as have the ability forso doing, shall learn to play on some suitableinstrument. And as in many instances the obtainingof an instrument is a difficulty, we shall be glad ifany friends who may have such instruments lyingidle will consecrate them to this service, and sendthem to Headquarters. This includes violins, bassviols, concertinas, cornets or any brass instruments,drums or anything else that will make a pleasantsound for the Lord.

This order had the effect of stirring up the interestof the whole organisation with respect to bands.Every kind of available instrument was pressed intoservice-violins, flutes, banjos, guitars, concertinas,as well as various forms of brass and reedinstruments. The general superiority of brassinstruments for Salvation Army use, especially in thenoisily-interrupted open-air meetings of the 1880s,became apparent and the formation of brass bandssoon absorbed most of the musical talent of manycorps.

Experience quickly proved the need for rules forthe formation, discipline and training of bands anda second order appeared in The War Cry dated24 February 1881:

GENERAL ORDER FOR BRASS BANDSIn order to prevent misunderstanding, and to securethe harmonious working of the brass bands with thevarious corps to which they are attached, thefollowing regulations are to be strictly observed:No one will be admitted or retained as a member ofthe band who is not a member of the Army.

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All instruments in every band are to be the propertyof The Salvation Army, no matter by whom they maybe purchased, or through whom they may bepresented.In no case are instruments to be used to playanything but salvation music, or in any but SalvationArmy service.In the event of any member of the band resigninghis position as such, he will leave his instrumentbehind him.

These rules still form the foundation of all bandregulations.

Early in the history of the Army's bands, the choiceof the music to be played presented a problem. Thetalents of Fred William Fry, the eldest son of the Fryfamily, who was a poet as weII as an arranger of brassband scores, were freely used. But the demand wasgreatly in excess of the supply and other Armymusicians began scoring pieces for their own bands.But, for the greater part, the bandmasters boughttheir music from outside publishers. Hence whenbands were brought together they had differentarrangements for common tunes and so massplaying-later such a great feature of Army musicfestivals-was not possible. Therefore, in 1883, theMusic Department was called into being.

Richard Slater, a former lecturer on atheism,converted at Regent HaIl in 1882, was a professionalmusician and seemed divinely sent to pioneer thisnew venture. His published songs number between500 and 600 and his band pieces between 400 and500. Bandmasters Fred Fry and Henry Hill wereappointed to assist him. AII three later becameofficers.

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In 1884 a singing brigade, formed at the traininghome, and known as The Singing, Speaking andPraying Brigade, toured the country. The music andwords of their songs were provided by the MusicDepartment, then located at The Congress Hall,Clapton. This group may be regarded as the parentof the songster brigades of today, although theFounder's preference for solo rather than choralsinging (which he felt was not flexible enough to beuseful in evangelism) meant that it was not until 1898that the first brigade was officially recognised.

A demand was, however, created throughout thecorps of Great Britain for the new songs which thissinging brigade so effectively rendered and they wereprinted in leaflet form and sold at a penny each. Inthis way original Army vocal music made its firstpublished appearance. Previously, new Army songshad been included in The War Cry, but always setto existing religious or secular tunes.

So far as its more permanent hymnody wasconcerned, the Army at first drew extensively on itsmethodist heritage. The Christian Mission had hada useful collection of revival songs and hymns withmusic, selected by the Founder, which later becameknown as Salvation Music.

A second volume, issued in 1883, was the Army'sfirst important publication in book form of originalSalvation Army songs with music-some of the tunesbeing popular secular airs.

One of the important tasks which immediatelyfaced the Music Department was that of preparingthe first band book. In this, 88 of the tunes mostpopular in Army meetings, many of them the well-known airs of secular songs, were arranged for bands

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in such a way as to provide suitable accompanimentfor the singing. This was published in 1884 andimmediately had a large sale. By the end of the sameyear, the department had also issued Band JournalsI t o 4 .

Then, with some doubt as to what the effect wouldbe, in May 1885 an order appeared in The War Crythat Army bands must henceforth use only musicpublished by the Army.

In 1885 appeared The Salvation Songster, acollection of original songs with music for soloists,and in the same year a useful compilation of thewords of some 400 choruses was published.

A great impetus was given to original Army musicduring the International Congress of 1886. There nowseemed a prospect of securing sufficient originalmusic with words from salvationists all over theworld to supply a monthly magazine. The MusicalSalvationist therefore made its appearance and hasever since helped to carry the gospel message to thepeople.

A music board was established in 1896, to exerciseselective control over the music rendered by Armybands, songster brigades and soloists. All the largerterritories now have their own territorial musiccouncil.

In order to provide a greater choice of songs forthe Army's various styles of meetings, the Founderdecided in 1897 to compile a large song book, withcompanion tune books for band and piano. Fromsome 2,500 songs a council of officers, under theFounder's direction, made a selection for the book,which was on sale by June 1899. Since then, the songbook used in English speaking countries around the

74

world has been replaced three times-in 1930, 1953and 1986.

By May 1900 a tune book with 303 tunes was onsale, followed within six months by the band book,with corresponding parts for the various instruments.Of these publications, too, new and greatly enlargededitions have been published since 1930.

The Young People's Song Book of The SalvationArmy made its appearance in 1963, to be replacedby Sing for Joy in 1986.

In May 1887 the deparbment published a small scalesheet, and tutors for each instrument used in Armybands were on sale by the end of 1891. Since thesebeginnings, theoretical, practical and technical bookshave been continuously supplied by the departmentand many have had a large sale.

In 1899, the Chief of the Staff-Bramwell Booth-keenly alive to the great possibilities for usefulsalvation service which the bands possessed, metbandsmen in council in Clapton. These councils havebecome regular events and so gteat are the numbersdesirous of attending that they have to be conductedin several centres. They are invariably preceded byunited band festivals.

Councils for bandmasters and songster leaders wereinstituted later, and a new departure came in 1921when the USA Eastern Territory held the first youngpeople's music camp. It was not until 1935 that thesebecame a permanent part of the youth programmein the USA and not until 1947 that the first suchevent was organised in Britain. Music camps are nowa regular feature in all parts of the world.

As in all other areas of evangelism, the Army triesto keep up-to-date in its musical expressions. In the

75

1960s, The Joystrings adapted contemporary popularmusic styles to Army use and for the next 30 years,Major Joy Webb was to devote her life to encouragingand developing this ministry. And in 1968 came thefirst of the Gowans/Larsson musicals, with lyrics andmelodies of a freshness and vitality which once againevoked the early spirit of Army music-making.

For further reading:Brindley Boon: PIay the Music, PIay! (SP&S, secondedition 1978)Brindley Boon: Sing the Happy Song!(SP&S, 1978)

76

L2Some unusual features

IN the course of the Army's development, severaldistinctive features have emerged. Some have sincebeen taken up by other branches of the Church;others continue to have a unique emphasis within themovement.

.One of the things which set the Army apart fromother evangelistic groups in the early years was theuse it made of uneducated, often illiterate, convertsto lead others to salvation.

It is nothing less than a miracle (wrote GeneralBramwell Booth) that we have Lreen able, out ofevery nation and from every class, to raise upworkers-people with the spirit to endure as well asto strive. In this is to be seen one of the greatachievements of the Army; we have turned thesufferers themselves into saviours and have made forour messengers an unparalleled opportunity'

Soul-winning and the development of convertswere the supreme objects of the Founder. The Armycame into being as a result of his love for the soulsof sinners and its mission was summed up in the

77

expression: 'Saved to serve.' Without personaldedication to soul-winning no one can be a goodsalvationist.

Every department of The Salvation Army isintended to assist in bringing men to know God andto open their hearts to Jesus Christ as their Saviour.Every officer is expected to bring this appeal forservice before those whom he is influencing and tolead them on to be not only saved from sin but alsosaved to serve.

The influence of The Salvation Army with regardto strong drink has been far-reaching. Thetemperance movement, which had been powerful inEngland, had begun to decline when God gaveWilliam and Catherine Booth courage to make totalabstinence a condition of soldiership in The SalvationArmy. The position taken up by the Founders wasclearly set forth by the Army Mother in her pamphlet,Strong Drink in Relation to Christianity.

We have no hesitation (she wrote) in affirming thatstrong drink is Satan's chief instrument for keepingthe masses of many countries under his power. Whatis to be done? How shall we deal with the drink? Weanswer in the name of Christ and humanity-dealwith it as with all other Satan-invented, Christ-dishonouring, soul-ruining abominations. Wash yourhands of it at once and for ever, and give a unitedand straightforward testimony to the world that youconsider it an enemy of all righteousness and thelegitimate offspring of Satan.

I submit that there is no other way for Christiansto deal with strong drink. All other ways have beentried and have failed. The time has come forChristians to denounce the use of intoxicating drinksas irreligious and immoral.

78

At one time it would have been thought impos-sible to recruit from all nations a people unanimouslywil l ing to be bound by a total abstinenceregulation.

Indeed, when in 1876 the Founder proposed tomake total abstinence a condition of membership, hemet with so much opposition that he had to besatisfied for a time with 'strongly urging upon theevangelists and office-bearers of the Mission the dutyof peisuading all members and converts to abstainfrom all intoxicating drink'.

Later, when the articles of war were introducedwith their declaration of faith and of salvationexperience and their pledges of separation from theworld, every salvationist became a pledged abstainerfrom all strong drink. The Army is still almost the onlyChristian organisation which makes total abstinencea condition of membership, and in 1976 the non-useof tobacco also became a condition of membership.

Through The Salvation Army tens of thousands ofthe victims of alcohol and other drugs have beenreached and reclaimed, made into sober men andwomen and useful members of society.

The self-denial appeal was an imaginative conceptwhich many since have imitated. At a gathering in1886, Commissioner John Carleton, profoundlystirred by a special appeal for money, wrote on a slipof paper which was passed to the Founder: 'By goingwiihout pudding every day for a year, I calculate Ishall save 50 shillings. This I will do and will remitthe amount named.'

With his usual keen perception the Founder sawrn this proposed act of sacrifice on the part of oneofficer a means by which the Army might inculcate

79

the spirit of self-sacrifice, raise money, and so beenabled to take hold of opportunities hitherto beyondits power.

The Founder read this message to the congregation.'There is an idea here,' he remarked. ,While we oughtnot to ask our people to do without pudding for awhole year, I see no reason why we should not askthem to unite in going without something every dayfor a week and to give the proceeds to help on thework. '

Shortly afterward the first self-denial week wasannounced for the United Kingdom alone andresulted in the raising of about Sb,000.

The Army was then working in no more than20 lands-the number currently stands at nearlyfive times that figure. Without the self-denialfund, many of these extensions would have beenimpossible. In all lands in which the Army is working,every salvationist and friend of the movementnow has an opportunity to join in an annual self-denial effort. Everywhere the Army has acceptedin spirit the Army Mother's dying challenge: 'The walmust go on. Self-denial witl prove your love to Christ.All must do something.'

Non-salvationists are often intrigued by the use ofthe term 'promoted to Glory'. The Founder wasconvinced that the custom, then almost universallyfollowed, of wearing black clothing heavily trimmedwith sombre cr€pe as a sign of mourning was opposedto the teaching of Christ. He believed that Christ isin deepest sympathy with our sorrows, but that hedesires to make these sorrows stepping-stones togreater faith in a loving heavenly Father and deepersubmission to his will.

80

In all his arrangements for times of bereavementthe Founder aimed to show how sadness couldbe alleviated and death turned into victory. Heintroduced the cross-and-crown badge to be wornon the left arm by those bereaved. For those whowould otherwise have worn 'mourning' dress, thisserved as a token of abiding affection for thedeparted but was also a positive declaration of faithand hope.

Every Salvation Army funeral is regarded asa valuable opportunity for comforting andstrengthening the mourners and for urging theunsaved to seek and find salvation. The first simpleedge-stone in Abney Park Cemetery which markedthe resting-place of 'Catherine Booth, the Motherof The Salvation Army', asked every passer-by,'Do you also follow Christ?' This was a model inmemorial stones, consistent with the highest teachingof The Salvation Army.

Memorial services were introduced, specificallyto challenge the Iiving with the witness of thosewho had themselves lived victoriously in Christ.The first of these was held on the first anniversaryof Catherine Booth's death, in the AgriculturalHall-then one of London's largest buildings. Itwas impossible for the speakers to be heard inso large a hall, but each part of the service wasindicated by large illuminated signs, so that theaudience of some 15,000 could join in all the songsand prayers. Scenes from Mrs Booth's life andmessages both from her writings and from those ofthe Founder were displayed on a great lanternscreen. A similar service was held in connection withthe promotion to Glory of the Founder himself.

81

Founders' Day (2 July) is now dedicated throughoutthe entire Army as a day of remembrance of allwho have 'fought a good fight and finished thecourse'.

The Army, almost alone among the churches, hasalso made a distinctive witness with regard to thesacraments.

For some years The Christian Mission baptisedinfants and also administered the Lord's Suppermonthly at all its stations. Gradually, however,William Booth was forced to the same conclusionsas George Fox and his followers who, beingconvinced that the sacraments were merely symbolsof spiritual truth, had laid them aside whilecontinuing to seek after the experience which thesesymbols represented. Very reverently he pointedhis people to the privilege and necessity of seekingthe substance rather than the shadow, andformulated certain rules for observance in TheSalvation Army.

Children of salvationists would no longer besprinkled with water, but rather presented by theirparents to God in a dedication ceremony. In place ofadult baptism, converts, after a period of testing andinstruction, would be accepted as soldiers of Jesusand The Salvation Army in a solemn 'swearing-in'

cerernony. Candidates for soldiership would publiclyprofess their faith in Jesus as their Saviour from sin,and declare their separation from the world, its sinsand its pleasures, and their devotion to the serviceof Christ, joining him in his seeking of the lost.

With regard to the Lord's Supper, William Boothcalled upon his soldiers to recognise that theirspiritual life was dependent upon a continuous

82

awareness of their union with Christ as Saviour andas the supplier of their every need. And at every mealhe would have them remember that Christ's bodywas broken for their salvation.

Salvationists would claim that his decisions havebeen abundantly justified. Throughout The SalvationArmy, in every land where it is in operation, therehas arisen a holy people united with Christ in spirit,Iiving in communion with him, hearing his voice,going forward at his command, and trusting him tosupply their needs.

For further reading:PhiI Needham: Community in Mission (SAInternational Headquarters, 1987)John Waldron (ed): The Pri,ui,lnge of All Beli.euers (SA,Atlanta (Georgia), revised edition 1987)WiII iam Metcalf: The Saluationist and theSacramenl"s (SA International Headquarters, 1965)Clifford Kew: Closer Com.munion (SA InternationalHeadquarters, 1980)

83

13

Characteristics ofsalvationism

THE Army's Founders set a pattern for theirfollowers, the essential feature of which maybe termed salvationism. From the early days ofThe Salvation Army 'the Army spirit' has beena characteristic expression in the vocabularyof the movement. It has been a way of indicatingthat certain qualities, convictions and principles havealways been accepted as desirable and necessary.

Among these are a willingness to witness, emphasison holy living, an active concern for others, a refusalto accept barriers of class, sex or race and a loyaltyto the aims and methods of the Army.

First, the Army provided, for all who would haveit, a free expression of the joy of the Lord. This hasshown itself in public testimony. From the beginningit has been an Army custom to call upon converts totestify-in the open air as well as in its halls. By thismeans not only have they themselves been helpedand strengthened, but countless souls have been wonfor God.

84

The uniform presents another way of witnessingfor Christ. The distinctive dress, or the SalvationArmy badge on plain clothes when uniform cannotbe worn, is also an invitation to people to avail them-selves of the help, in spiritual and material matters,which a salvationist might be expected to provide.

In an age when mass media techniques claim anincreasingly important role in communications, it isvital that the salvationist should not under-estimatethe ef fect iveness of one- to-one personalevangelism-through the spoken and written wordand by the witness of a consistent life-style.

Another characteristic of salvationism is faith inthe possibility of holy living. When the Army wasborn, John Wesley, the great revivalist and holinesspreacher of the 18th century, through whose writingsthe Founder himself was led into the experience ofholiness, had been dead for more than 70 years. Manyof his followers were beginning to neglect his teach-ing concerning holy living. God inspired the Foundersof The Salvation Army to raise again the banner ofholiness, and holiness meetings became from the firsta regular feature of Salvation Army activity.

Salvationism includes specific responsibility forothers, and the underlyingpurpose of Salvation Armyactivities is still to raise up, from ordinary people,soldiers of God who will take their places in thefighting line and form part of a great force attackingevil. This principle of attack has marked out theArmy from the early days when the Founder, inperson, Ied his forces into the hooliganism and sinof Whitechapel.

'A satisfactory meeting,' said the Founder, 'has

always meant a real fight, a regular struggle to get

85

something done; a real effort to get the devil out ofsome soul, young or old, rich or poor, to get God andgoodness in; or to make somebody fight for him whodid not fight before.'

One of the most striking aspects of salvationism isthe Army's insistence on the equality of woman withman in warfare for Christ. Against centuries ofprecedent, the Founders proclaimed the moral andspiritual equality of the sexes. At a time when womenwere in the background of public life, it wasremarkable that William Booth should open everyposition of The Salvation Army to women equallywith men.

In God's plan, the highest interests of men andwomen stand or fall together; it is a salvationist prin-ciple that, whenever any attempt is made to separatethese interests, i4justice must follow. The SalvationArmy emphatically declares that no Iaws can be goodin effect which profess to care for and guard theinterests of one sex at the expense of the other.

The spirit of the Army is also a spirit of inter-nationalism.

When, without any deliberate intention on theFounder's part, the work of The Salvation Armyspread beyond the land of its birth, it became clearthat salvationists could not live for one people alone,if they were to accept their part in the apostoliccommission: 'Ye shall be witnesses unto me . . . untothe uttermost part of the earth' (Acts 1:8).

While not everyone is called to go to other landswith the gospel, salvationists will never be narrowlynationalistic in spirit; they will be gladly willing tohelp Christ's cause beyond the borders of theirhomeland.

86

Modern migration patterns have meant a muchgreater intermingling of the races in many com-munities, and the ready acceptance of people ofdifferent racial origins is a natural extension of thatspirit of internationalism.

True salvationism also includes loyalty to God, toone another and to the Army.

Salvationists are a highly-pledged people, and salva-tionism demands of them loyalty to all their pledges.While The Christian Mission was still young, theFounders realised the need for some simple form ofpromise which would unite the members and preventunworthy people seeking admission among them.

As time passed and the Army developed, variousother promises or pledges were entered into by itssoldiers, local officers and candidates for officership.Loyalty to pledges, voluntarily made to God and theArmy in moments of high inspiration, bring unitywith the whole Salvation Army and strength to thepledgemaker.

To the convinced salvationist, The Salvation Armycannot merely be an optional method of serving Godand the people. No one is under any compulsion toenter the Army; but, having done so, nothing lessthan true salvationism will enable the soldier todischarge his obligations with satisfaction to himself,to his leaders, or to his Saviour.

For further reading:Chosen to be a Soldier (SA International Head-quarters, 1977)William Booth: Salaati,on Soldiery (1889, reprintedSA, Canada, 1980)John Coutts: The Saluati,oni.sfs (Mowbrays, 1977)

87

APPENDIX

Constitutional historyTHE 1878 Foundation Deed, unlike its predecessor,contained no provisions for subsequent amendment.Although a memorandum noting the change of nameto 'The Salvation Army' was added without difficultyin June lBB0, any substantial changes to its provisionscould only be implemented by an Act of Parliament.

By a supplemental deed dated 26 July 1904 a HighCouncil of the Army was constituted and meansprovided to bring about the removal from office ofany General permanently incapacitated throughmental or physical infirmity and to appoint a newGeneral should a successor not have been nominatedin due form.

The first High Council met inL929, and in 1931theBritish Parliament passed an Act giving the HighCouncil sole future authority to appoint the Army'sGenerals and ensuring that the properties and fundspreviously held by the General as the Army's soletrustee should be transferred to a Salvation ArmyTrustee Company.

In 1965 the supplemental deed of 1904 was variedto bring it more closely into line with the provisions

88

of the Act of Parliament and The Salvation Army Actof 1968 further amended the constitution.

Various other deeds poll had been executed relatingto specific areas: the social work (1891): the officers'pension fund (1910 and 1963); naval and militaryhomes (1919) and the William Booth MemorialTraining College (1921).

The Salvation Army Act 1980 sought to consolidatethese provisions, to facilitate dealings withgovernment and other bodies and to relieve theGeneral of routine business administration whichcould be more effectively handled by The SalvationArmy Trustee Company.

As a result of the re-organisation of the UKadministration in 1990 an additional trust, TheSalvation Army International Trustee Company, wascreated.

89

IILde文

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