Le Qujbinekanî Rêzimanî Kurdî
103
ەكانی لە قوژبن كوردی رێزمانی
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لە قوژبنەکانی ڕێزمانی کوردی
Transcript of Le Qujbinekanî Rêzimanî Kurdî
لە قوژبنەكانی رێزمانی كوردی
پڕۆفیسۆر د. وریا عومەر ئەمین
لە قوژبنەكانی رێزمانی كوردی
هه ولێر 2015
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17
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@@Thesis Aspects of the verbal construction in Kurdish.. (1979) Amin , W.O Presented to the University of London. Published by Kurdish Academy. Series No. 114. Hawler.
@T@M@@ómòìa‹‚@a‡àòŠbmì@ãóÜ@Šbu@ãóØóî@üi@óîbbî@ãó÷@ŠZìì@@@@I@@μàó÷@ŠóàíÈ@bîŠìQYYQH@Ša†Šbî†bä@ŠóÙi@óÜ@ìbÙÜ@õìbäaN@Š@@@H×a‹ÉÜaI@õóàbäˆûTVTW@@õQUOTOQYYQN@@@JNñŠbÙîŠbè@üi@†a‡Ìói@ñüÙäaŒ@ðíØ@ð’ói@õH†óàó«@ñŒbÌ@ŽßóîóÐI@bnüàbà@üi@‘bqí
çbØòìbšŠó@ @1 – Amin , W.O. (1979) Aspects of the verbal construction in Kurdish. Thesis Presented to the University of London. Published by Kurdish Academy. Series No. 114. Hawler.
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18
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‹§a@Ó‹¢@Þ—nîì@Û‹znîpreposition@N@@ZËŠb›¾a@À@ÞÉÑÜa@æàŒ@çbØ@aˆg@@
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@Þ—nîì@Û‹znî NÞÉÑÜa@Š‰¡ NóÙÜa@óÍÝÜa@æà@käb§a@a‰éi@âÙznm@Üa@μäaíÕÜa@çbïjnÜ@óÜìb«@szjÜa@a‰è@@
@@
19
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Abstract
In Kurdish language two different sets of personal suffixes are identified .. Set (A) (m – t – i: - ma:n – ta:n – ya:n ) and set (B) (m – i:t – 0/ a:t / e:t - i:n – n – n).
They perform two different tasks in opposite tenses, as shown in the following diagram:Z@
@@@@@To transfer a Morphosyntactic construction in which the subject,
direct object and indirect object are expressed by personal suffix pronouns:
1 – The subject personal suffix pronoun is deleted. 2 – The present stem of the verb is taken. 3 – The passive marker ( -r ) is added. 4 – If the tense of the verb was in past:
a – The past tens marker ( - a: ) is suffixed to the stem of the verb.@@
b – The indirect personal pronoun suffix, which is from set (B), will be replaced
by its counterpart from set (A) and will move to attach the preposition.
If the tense of the verb was in present:
a – The present tens marker ( - e ) is suffixed to the stem of the verb.
b – The direct personal pronoun suffix, which is from set (A), will be replaced by
its counterpart from set (B) and will move to attach the verb stem.@@This paper is an attempt to show the rules that govern this
phenomenon. @
Tense@@Function Present Past
B A Subject
A B Object
20
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24
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25
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26
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27
QT
çbØòŽîìaŠóq@ @Q@@HônïåïüÜüqI@õóbåŽïq@üi@@Polosynthetic @Z@óÙi@òŠbmì@ãó÷@õ‹îó@@
@@@@@@@@È@bîŠìíàó@Šó÷I@μàRPPW@ñ†ŠíØ@H@N@Žõíä@õŠóìíä@NÃ@NóïïnïåïüÜüq@ôÙŽïäbàŒ@ˆSVN@@@ß@óÜQUQ@–@QUS@ŽïnØ@õ@‘aŠb÷@@H@ôäaìóäbàŒ@ôäbØóØünïq@I@ôjRPQQ@@òŠbiìì†@•
NòìómüiìbÝi@@R@÷@õ‹îó@@@óZóÙi@óäaìbšŠó@ã@@
@@@@@@È@bîŠìíàóI@μàc@ŠQYYU@ˆ@NŽõíä@õjå’ûŠ@NÃ@Na‡î†ŠíØ@ðäbàŒ@óÜ@ôÝŽïÜ@HQSV@ßVV@–@VYN@@ß@óÜ@RYS@–@SPP@@@@@‘aŠb÷@@HôäaìóäbàŒ@õ‹m@ôØóîüb÷I@ôjŽïnØ@õRPPY@@ìbšŠói@•
NŽõìóØò†@@@S@M@@ZóÙi@óäaìbšó@ãó÷@õ‹îó@õ†ŠíØ@ôäbàŽîŠ@õóäóîý@ãó÷@ôäbØbbî@@üi@@
a) - Waria Omar Amin(1979) Aspects of the verbal construction in Kurdish.
University of London. 2nd publishing 2011.by Kurdish Academy.@@@@@@H@l–@@@I@μàó÷@ŠóàíÈ@bîŠìQYXVN†a‡Íi@NìbÙÜ@õìbäaŠ@ôäbàŽîŠ@H@@@H@tM@@@________@@IRPPPˆ@NŽõíä@õjå’ûŠ@NÃ@N@ÛóïìaŠói@HQTV@@ßQV@–@RPN@@
T@M@@@ß@óÜ@Šbu@ãóØóî@L@@óîò†Šbî†@ãó÷QR@@@ˆ@òìbšŠó@õU@@@@@ôäbØbbî@ì@a‹Ø@•óÙ“Žïq@oò†Na‹Ø@çb“ïä@@
@@çbØòìbšŠó@ @
1 - Carr, F. (1993) Phonology.Macmillan Press. London.
2 - Chomsky, N.A. (1965) Aspects of the theory of syntax.
Cambridge, Mass. MIT Press.
3 – Katamba, F. (1993) Morphology. Macmillan Press. London.
4 - Waria Omar Amin (1976) Some fundamental rules of Kurdish
syntax structure. University of London. Published by Kurdish
Academy (2011)
5 - ______________ (1979) Aspects of the verbal construction in
Kurdish. University of London.
@@
28
QU
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@@
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ì@käb§a@NkïØaÜa@ë‰è@À@pýb¨a@Éi@À@‹éÅî@ñ‰Üa@íáÍÜa@kj@çbïjm@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
29
QV
@@ABSTRACT@@
In Kurdish sentence verb agrees with the subject NP in number
and person. Two sets of personal suffixes perform these tasks. Set (A) (m – t – i: - ma:n – ta:n – ya:n ) and set (B) (m – i:t – 0/ a:t / e:t - i:n – n – n). Apart from subject agreement , the personal suffixes occur as object also, in opposite tense. Their function are shown in the following table:
In applying transformational rules an ambiguity is created in some circumstances due to the application of some phonological rules. This paper which is entitled (Morphophonosyntax) , is an attempt to explain this phenomenon.
@@
Tense Function Present Past
B A Subject A B Object
30
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31
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32
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3 - Amin, W.O.(1979) Aspects of the verbal construction in Kurdish.
SOAS .London University. Published by Kurdish Academy. 2011
Publishing series No. 114. @@@@@ 4 – Fromkin, V. et al.(2003) An Introduction to Language. Thomson.
USA.
@@
44
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45
Abstract
Morphosyntactic Construction as a Source for Word Formation in Kurdish.
All human languages@exhibit rules of word formation. Some of these rules are universal and some are specific. New words are continuously added to the vocabulary of languages in a variety ways. General linguistics has identified many rules of word formation.
Words may be added to a language by the presses of Derivational Morphology, Coinage, Compounds,@Borrowing, Blending, Back Formation, Acronyms …etc. All are among the rules by which new words are formed and added to a language.@
Through out this research it is found that Kurdish language exhibits a previously unmentioned type of morphological rule by which new words are formed through the Morphosyntactic processes construction.
This paper introduces this new found specific aspect of Kurdish language.
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@@Abstract
The Unification and reordering of the Kurdish Alphabet
Professor Dr. Wirya Omar Amin Kurdish Grammar books, in presenting the Kurdish Alphabet, separate vowels from consonants. Consonants and vowels are separated for the sake of linguistic analysis and pedagogical purposes. In grammar, dictionary making and index arranging the letters of an alphabet are merged and presented in one order. This work is an attempt to merge all Kurdish consonants and vowels and order them according to the general linguistic principles.
58
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ì@a‡yaì@b5¹@Šbn¯bÐ@I@óÝá§a@À@óï�b�ýa@‹–båÉÜa@kïm‹m@íè@ÞÈ–@@@ßí�ÉÑà–@HÞÉÐN@@
@@@ó��qþrÜa@‹��–båÉÜa@óïäb���äfia@pb��ÍÝÜa@Ê��ï»@À@ó��ÝávÝÜ@‘b���ÿa@s��ïy@æ��à@Þ��ÈbÑÜaIS@–@@ßí��ÉѾaO@–@@Þ��ÉÑÜaV@@@ón���@Ûb��åéÐ@‹��éža@s��ïy@æ��à@b��àa@NH
@�–båÉÜa@kïm‹m@˜²@báïÐ@óîíÍÜ@@Ãb¹c@ón�@Ûbåè@çc@ñc@Nbéjïm�Ü@pýbánya‹@ZðÝî@báØ@ì@óÝávÝÜ@óqþrÜa@óï�b�ÿa@@
@@
óïi‹ÉÜa@@óÍÝÜa VSO @ÞÉЖ@@ÞÈbÐM@ßíÉÑà@@óïØ�Üa@óÍÝÜa@@ SOV @ÞÈbЖ@@ßíÉÑà@M@ÞÉÐ@@
óî�ïÝÙäýa@óÍÝÜa@@ SVO @ÞÈbЖ@@ÞÉÐM@@ßíÉÑà
bîŠbÙ�ïÜbè@@ OVS @ßíÉÑàM@@ÞÉЖ@@@@ÞÈbÐ
óåîŠíic@@ OSV @ßíÉÑàM@@ÞÈbÐ@M@ÞÉÐ@@ð�bØýbà@@ VOS @ÞÉÐ@M@@ßíÉÑàM@ÞÈbÐ
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٧
µjm@@æà@béÝm@bà@ì@Û�jåî‹Ì@ó�aŠ†@æà@tb�¢c@@@@@@æ�à@ô�áÅÉÜa@ó�ïjÜbÍÜa@çb�i@@Þ�ÉÑÜa@ðmdî@NßíÉѾa@ÞjÔ@ÞÈbÑÜa@béïÐ@‹éÅî@�bÉÜa@pbÍÜ@b�àg@@@@ó�ÍÝÜbØ@ó�à‡Õ¾a@À
@óïi‹ÉÜaìc@@óî�ïÝÙäýa@óÍÝÜbØ@ßíÉѾa@ì@ÞÈbÑÜa@µiìc@@À@��‚ÿa@@@ó�ïØ�Üa@ó�ÍÝÜbØ@N@béïÐ@‹éÅî@�Üa@pbÍÝÜa@bàcNa‡u@òŠ†bä@ðéÐ@ÞÉÑÜa@ÞjÔ@ßíÉѾa)١(
@@ð�áåÜa@Òïå—nÜa@õízåЋ—Üa Morphosyntactic
@@@@@@@@pbÍÝÜa@æà@¹@Ûbåè@@@@@ó�áÝØ@Šb��c@À@ó�ÝàbØ@Þ�»@óÌbï–@béïÐ@æÙº@@@@Þ�ÈbÑÜa@ì@HõcŠI@Þ�ÉÑÜa@æ�à@çíÙnm@óïi‹ÉÜa@óÍÝÜa@À@HâénîcŠI@óÝ»@þráÐ@Nò‡yaì
@æà@ËíåÜa@a‰è@NHâèI@ßíÉѾa@ì@HbäcINñízåЋ—Üa@kïØ�Übi@ôá�î@kïØ�Üa@@@@@@@@@@
@ÞÙ“i@ì@ÂáåÜa@a‰è@æà@óÙÜa@óÍÝÜa‹rØc@@ÞÈbÑÜa@béïÐ@߆bjnî@sïyNa‡ïÕÉm@báØ@ÞÉÑÜa@æàŒ@�Íni@báèŠì†@ßíÉѾa@ìÀ@µjïØ�ÜaZ@@
Q@–@âåïjäbîò†@@@@@@HâèaŠcINR@M@@NH�äì‹î@aíäbØI@Nâïåïjäbîò†@@@@
@@@Q@M@@@@@ò†M@@@@çbî@–@@@@�åïiM@@ã@@@@@@@ËŠb›à@HâèaŠa@I@@@@@@@@@@ âè@@@@@õ‹î@@@@@bäa@@
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ßíÉÑà@@@@@ÞÈbÐ@@
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ÞÈbÐ@@@@@@@@ßíÉÑà@@ ٢ - @@ò†M@@çbî@@–@@@�ïåïiM@@@@@@@ãbà@Hðäì‹î@aíäbØIðš
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@õcŠ@@
ò‡yaì@óáÝØ@@ óÙÜa@@ æäbàìíjïåïi@@pbáÝØ@óqþq@@ óïi‹ÉÜa@@ âèbåîcŠ@‡Ô@båØ@@pbáÝØ@óÉiŠc@@ óî�ïÝÙäýa@@ We had seen them
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Z@çc@õ‹ä@@@@@@@ò†@@@ÞibÕî@@@ò†@@
@@@@@çbî@@ÞibÕî@@çbî@@@@@@HÞÉÑÝÜ@ðšb¾a@Š‰u@I@µi@@@ÞibÕî@@�ïi@HËŠb›¾a@Š‰uI@@@@@@ã@@ÞibÕî@@@ã@@@@
æà@ÂáåÜa@a‰è@À@@@@Þ�ÈbÑÜa@߆b�jnî@ËŠb›¾bi@ðšb¾a@Š‰u@Þî‡jni@kïØa�ÜaþÈbÐ@ßíÉѾa@ì@ýíÉÑà@ÞÈbÑÜa@kÝÕåî@sïy@LbáéîŠì†@ßíÉѾa@ì@)٢(N@@
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
”àaí�a@@@Q@M@@ßìc@@Òïå��—mð��5¹@@ó��ÙÜa@ó��ÍÝÜ@ó��ÍÝØ(SOV) @óÕ��–ý@ó��î@(
Agglutinative) @@@öb��u@À@ib�nØð@@ãí���í¾aSome fundamental rules of
Kurdish syntax structure. London 1976
@@óå���@ç‡��åÜ@À@Ší��“å¾aQYWV@N@@ì@ó��ÍÝØ@ó��ÙÜa@ó��ÍÝÜ@Òïå��—m@ßìc(
Polysynthetic )@@@@@@@óïÙïnïrå��ïÜüi@ó�ÍÜ@ó�ÙÜa@I@ãí��í¾a@ðÜb�Õà@À@öbu@óî@H@@@@@Ë@‡î‡§a@kmbÙÜa@@óݪSV@@óå�RPPWHN @@@@
R@M@@@I@âÔŠ@Š‡—¾a@‹ÅäcUNH@@@@
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٩
Š†b—¾a@@1 – Amin, W.O. (1976) Some fundamental rules of Kurdish
syntax structure. London
2 - --------------- (1979) Aspects of the verbal construction in
Kurdish. 2nd ed. Kurdish Academy Publications. Hawler. 3 – Greenberg, J. H. (1963) Some universals of grammar with
particular reference to the order of meaningful elements. In universals
of Language (ed.) Greenberg, J.H. Cambridge. Mass. MIT Press, PP.
58 – 90.
4 - Katanba, F. (1993) Morphology. Macmillan. London.
U@M@@@@@I@µàc@‹áÈ@bîŠìQYXV@H@ìbÙÜ@õìbäa.Š@ôäbà�Žî.ŠININININ@@@@Þ—n¾a@�á›Üa@‡ÈaíÔÞ—n¾a@�á›Üa@‡ÈaíÔÞ—n¾a@�á›Üa@‡ÈaíÔÞ—n¾a@�á›Üa@‡ÈaíÔHHHH@@N@N†a‡Íi@N@óÙÜa@‹“åÜa@ì@óÐbÕrÜa@Ša†@@
V@M@@����������������������@@IRPPW@HóïïÙïnï�åï�üÜüq@ôÙŽïäbàŒ@õ†ŠíØ@@@@õŠó��ìíä@NÃ@Žõíä@ˆ@NSVN
83
١٠
Abstract
Kurdish Language Typological classification
Professor Dr. Waria Omar Amin
Baghdad University
Classifies languages according to their grammatical and
structural features. It aims at finding out the common properties and
structural diversity of the languages. First typological classification
was proposed by Wilhelm von Humboldt (1768 – 1835) in the early
9th century. He established three main types of languages based on the
morphological grounds, which where Agglutinative, Fusional and
Isolating. Now Linguistic typology includes all the levels of analysis
Morphology , Syntax and Phonology. Pioneered by Greenberg ,
Linguistic typology was interacted with Language Universals.
This work is an attempt to give a brief account of this branch
of Linguistics and classify Kurdish language typologically on the
Morphological , Syntactic and Morphosyntactic levels.
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1
Kurdish as an Ergative langua
@ðº†bØó÷@õŠbÄü�–@@ˆQ@@õ�ïÝ�åï÷@ô’ói@õRPQS@@ßTYMUR
Introduction : This paper is a section taken from the dissertation
entitled (Aspects of Verbal Construction in Kurdish) which was
presented to SOAS London University 1979, PP 135-138. It is the first
attempt to analyze Kurdish language theoretically within the
Chomsky's TG framework. This part of the work shows that northern
Kurdish dialect is an ergative system, and it presents its rules
accurately for the first time.
*******
To see whether Kurdish is an ergative language, we have first to
be familiar with the term ergativity.
In an accusative language, the surface subject is marked, in an
identical manner in the transitive and intransitive sentences, while the
object of the transitive sentence may be marked for the objective case
as in Persian*
In an ergative construction, the surface subject of the intran-
sitive sentence and the object of the transitive sentence are marked in
an identical manner, while the subject of the transitive verb may be
marked for ergative case. i.e. There is a morphological identity
between the subject of an intransitive verb and the object of a
transitive verb, as in Basque. The following diagrams show the
difference between these two kinds of systems respective.
Ergativity may be realized by case marking on NPs, in which
the subject NP of the transitive verb is marked for the ergative. The
intransitive subject and transitive object occur in the nominative, as in
Georgian in an Aorist group of tenses.
Ergativity may be realized by verbal agreement. In such a
language -the -transitive object and. the intransitive subject agree with
their verbs in number and person, as in Pashto.
It may be realized by both case marker on NPs and verbal
agreement, as in Punjabi.
As the analysis presented in the body of the thesis shows, such
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2
surface structure properties which specify ergativity cannot be found
in Southern Kurdish. However, according to the definition of
ergativity, which states that: "the subject of an intransitive verb
becomes the object of a corresponding transitive verb"1 ' Kurdish is an
ergative language in the past tense within the verbal construction. The
personal suffixes which occur with intransitive verbs having a subject
function, occur with transitive verbs in verbal construction to function
as an object in the past tense.
V S
e - nû - în. we sleep
Impf sleep we
V S O
bînî - ît - în. you saw us
see Past you we
On the other hand, the verbal agreement in the past tense in
Northern Kurdish is the one noted as typical of ergative languages.
An intransitive verb agrees with the subject.
em dbîn - în. we see
we see 1P1
A transitive verb agrees with the direct object.
wî em dît - în. he saw us
he we see Past 1P1
Northern Kurdish has two sets of independent personal
pronouns and one set of personal suffixes. They are:
Set No 1 Set No 2 Personal suffixes
min ez -m I
te tû -î you
wî, wê ew -φ /-t, -ît(1) he, she
(1) As in Southern Kurdish, the two sets of personal suffixes which differ only in
the 3rd singular could be treated as a single set since the two 3rd singular forms
are distributed complimentarily. The variation between (t) and (it) in the present
tense is due to the phonological environment
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3
me em -în we
we hûn -n You(p1)
wan ew -n they
The pronouns of set No 1 occur with the transitive verbs only
(as a nucleus). They function as a subject in the past tense and as a
direct object in the present tense. The verb never agrees with them.
When they function as a subject the verb agrees with the object of the
sentence and vice versa*
The pronouns of set Ko 2 always agree with the verb whether
functioning as its subject or direct object of the sentence.
They function as a subject of the intransitive verb in the past
and. as the subject of the transitive and. intransitive in the present*
They function also as a direct object of the transitive verb in the past.
The following table and diagram illustrate the functions of the
pronouns and. the nature of their agreement with the verb.
Past
Pres
S 0 S 0
vt 1 2 2 1
vi 2 2
@@@ @@ @@ @@ @@ @@ @
@ @@ @
87
4
ómŠíØ@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
@@@ß@ó��Ü@ó���bi@ãó��÷QSUQSUQSUQSU@@@@–@QSXQSXQSXQSX@@@@@@ó��i@ó��Ø@òìa����Šòì@òìó��îóàbä@ìó��÷@õ@ôäb“ïäìbäAspects of the Verbal Construction in Kurdish @@@@@@@@@@@ô-Üb��@ó�Ü@ì
QYWY@@ôvŽïÜíØ@ói@•óÙ“Žïq@a†SOAS @@@@@@@Nòìa‹�Ø@çò‡�äóÜ@õü�ÙäaŒ@ó�i@Šó�@õ@@@@@ì@ìb��ÙÜ@òìb��äa:Š@@ôïÅïmó����÷@ô䆋؊b��Ø@ôàón���ï�@Šb��u@ãó��Øóî@ü��i@a‡��îbïm@@@ó���Ø@ó����bi@ôäbîb���’NììŠ@ó��mb‚ò†@ììŠó����@ôí���Ø@õŠaŒòíŽï���’@ôäb��Øa†íu
@ô-Üb�@óÜ@õü‚@Ûòì@õóîóàbä@ãó÷@õ†ŠíØ@õbïﺆbÙ÷RPQQ@@ò�−Œ@‹Žîˆ@óÜQQT@@@@Nòìómû†‹Ø@ìb-Ýi@oŽï�Ðü÷@ói@a†@@
@@@ @@ @
@˜Ýƒn�¾a@ @@™@æà@Þn�à@szjÜa@a‰èQSU@M@QSX@@@@@@óàí��í¾a@ëaŠín؇�Üa@ó�yì‹�c@æà
Aspects of the Verbal Construction in Kurdish @@@@@@@@@ç‡åÜ@óÉàbu@¶a@óà‡Õ¾a–@óïÔ‹“Üa@pb�aŠ‡Üa@óïÝØ@@@@@ì@ì@ì@ì@ãbÈ@óïÕî‹ÐÿaQYWY@@@@ó�ÍÝÜa@çb�i@s�ybjÜa@µjî@béïÐN
@��Ô@µj��îì@ð��ÑïnØ‹îa@ãb��Åä@óïÜbá��“Üa@ó��ÙÜa@ì@óÝ��—n¾a@‹÷bá��›Üa@Þ��áÈ@µäaí@@@@ó�yì‹�ýa@ë‰�è@p‹�“ä@óÙÜa@óﺆbØÿa@çc@‹Ø‰Übi@‹î‡§a@æàN@béïÐ@óÝ—Ñå¾a
@óå�RPQQ@@Þ�Ý�m@o¥@ìQQTQQTQQTQQT@N@@
88
1
Models of Generative Grammar
@‡’Š@æàa@óïi‹m@óïÝØ@Hˆbn�ýaI@óݪ–@@Ë@N†a‡Íi@óÉàbuRPS@@ORPQR@@™Q@MQR
The publication of the Chomsky’s Syntactic Structure in 1957
introduced the theory of Generative Grammar. It marked the start of a
great revolution in Linguistics. Generative grammar refers to a
particular approach to the study of syntax. It is an explicit description
of the ideal speaker – hearers intuition. The theory centers on a very
simple but essential observation (the native speaker of any language is
able to produce and understand utterances he has never heard
before).It attempts to give a set of rules that will correctly predict
which combinations of words will form grammatical sentences.
Generative Grammar aims at describing the native speaker's tacit
grammatical knowledge, which reflects his infinite productive
capacity, by a system of rules that specify all of the well-formed or
grammatical, sentences of a language .
The hypothesis of generative grammar is that, language is a
structure of the human mind. Its goal is to make a complete model of
this inner language Chomsky has argued that the properties of a
generative grammar arise from an "innate" universal grammar, it
could be used to describe all human languages.
Chomsky believed that there would be considerable similarities
between languages' deep structures, and that these structures would
reveal properties, common to all languages, which were concealed by
their surface structures.
Generative Grammar, since its inception in 1950s, has been
constantly and dynamically developing and has had a profound
influence on linguistics. Its tremendous affects are still being worked
out. Chomsky himself and so many linguists throughout the world
have been contributing in these developments. It has undergone
numerous revisions.
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1 - Syntactic Structure (1957)
In 1957, Noam Chomsky published Syntactic Structures, in
which he developed the idea of Kernel sentences.
Kernel sentence is a basic irreducible set of simple structure
produced by the Phrase Structure Rules of a grammar. The output of
these rules is a Kernel string. The (SS) model contains obligatory and
optional transformational rules. Kernel sentence is derived from the
string by a series of obligatory transformational rules. . Examples of
such sentences are;
John is a teacher.
John speaks
John bought the book.
The cake is nice
Marry bought the cake
According to this model different types of sentences ,(Negative ,
Interrogative, Passive..etc.), simple and complex, were derived from
these kernels by successive optional transformational Rules.all the
following sentences are related in that they are derived from the same
underlying string.
1 - The girl bought a house. (simple active, declarative )
2 – The girl did not buy a house.( Negative)
3 – Did the girl buy a house? (Interrogative)
4 - Didn’t the girl buy a house?( Interrogative – Negative)
5 - The house was bought by the girl. (Passive)
6 – The house was not bought by the girl.(Passive – Negative)
7 – Was the house bough by the girl? (Passive – Interrogative)
8 - Wasn’t the house bought by the girl?(Passive - interrogative
– Negative)
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of these sentences the first (a simple active, declarative sentence )
is defined by Chomsky in Syntactic Structure as a kernel sentence.
Compound sentences in which two clauses are coordinated (The
student borrowed the book and went home) and complex sentence in
which one sentence is subordinated to another (The cake which
Marry bought is nice) are generated by means of conjoining and
embedding transformations respectively.
In Syntactic Structure model, syntax consisted of three kinds of
rules:
1 - The phrase structure rules created the deep structures of
sentences. ordered the parts of a sentence into linguistic categories and
provided the lexical forms for nouns, verbs, prepositions, and
adjectives.
2 - transformational rules operated on these deep structures to
produce the surface structures of the language. By these
transformational rules (Negative , Interrogative, Passive..etc.), simple
and complex, were derived from these kernels by successive optional
transformational Rules.
3 - Morphophonemic rules changed lexical forms where
necessary ( e.g. go + past = went).
This diagram shows how the grammar outlined in syntactic
structure:
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2 - Standard Theory (1965)
In 1965 Chomsky published his Aspects of the theory of Syntax
in which he summarizes the development of TG theory from its
beginning to 1965 and formalizes the version of the theory which is
generally referred to as the standard theory. The most radical changes
are:
1 - The notion of Kernel is abandoned and identified the
underlying constituents of sentences as deep structure.
2 - Deep structures are generated by phrase-structure rules, and
surface structures are derived from deep structures by a series of
transformations
3 – Semantics is an integrated part of the theory.
4 – The recursive property of the grammar is accounted for in the
Phrase Structure Rules.
The main difference between SS model and Aspect Model is the
insertion of (semantic component) into the theoretical framework of
TG grammar.
The core aspect of Standard Theory is the distinction between
two different levels of a sentence, called Deep structure and Surface
structure. The two representations are linked to each other by
transformational grammar.
Deep structure is an abstract level of structural organization in
which all the elements determining structural and semantic
interpretation are represented. Chomsky modifies his theory in such a
way that deep structures are generated in two stages:
First a simple set of Phrase Structure rules generate Phrase
Markers in which the terminal positions are empty slots for the lexical
items to be inserted in the second stage . such PM are referred to as
pre -lexical structure. The following is an example for Phrase
Markers:
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In the second stage the empty places are filled with complex
symbols consisting of morphemes plus their syntactic and semantic
features by the rules of lexical transformations. The PS rules and
lexical transformations jointly constitute what is called the BASE
component of the grammar. For example a deep structure for the
sentence (The girl bought the bird) will be:
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This diagram shows how the grammar outlined in the ASPECT
theory:
3 - Extended Standard Theory (EST) (early 1970s).
By 1972 more revisions in the model took place and this led to a
renaming of the standard theory to The Extended Standard
Theory.This new insight generative grammar was presented by Ray
Jackendoff. He proposed that( transformations should be applied
without having to mention semantic information such as referentiality
within a table of coreference, the use of index markers, etc. This could
be done, by changing the kind of information allowed in the deep
structure in the Standard Theory.)
This introduction of abstract elements into the deep structure of
sentences marked an important turning point in linguistic theory. It led
to the emergence of GB Theory.
4 - X-bar theory (1970)
X-bar theory was developed by R. Jackendoff and Chomsky
in1970. It is a theory about the internal structure of syntactic
constituents proposed as an alternative system to traditional account of
Phrase Structure and Lexical categories. The theory claims that there
are certain structural similarities among all phrasal categories of all
languages. It attempts to identify universal syntactic features common
to all human languages presupposed in (1965) model.
When Chomsky developed his model of transformational
grammar he argued that all languages should have similar parts of
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speech and there are universal phrase structure rules that operate
across all languages. The universal parts of speech in the earliest
model of his grammar were few in number (N, Det, AUX, V.) but
with the passage of time they were expanded to include other lexical
and phrasal categories as follows.
Lexical Categories (N- V- Aux – Adj – Adv – Det – DEG –
Conj – PRO – Q)
Phrasal Categories ( S – NP – VP – AP – PP – ADVP – QP)
In the Aspect framework the most basic point was that a sentence
consisted of a NP and a VP, (S --- NP VP). Each element could be
further rewritten as following:
A noun phrase consists of a determiner such as (a) or (our),
an adjective, and the head noun our small room (NP --- Det Adj N).
A verb phrase consisted of a verb and other elements, some
optional, some depending on the nature of the verb: such as went or
play chess or gave her a flower. (VP ---- V NP).
Linguists noticed that other kinds of categories were needed
between lexical and phrasal categories. Intermediate categories such
as Very beautiful or very beautiful girl in the phrase the very
beautiful girl have no status in Aspects PSR. This new proposed level
is called the X-Bar category.
In this theory three levels of categories are specified(Phrasal
category XP), (X-bar category X – bar) , and (Lexical category X).
XP dominates a specifier and X-bar.
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X-bar, in turn, dominates the head of the projection (XP - X-bar -
X) X and one or more complements of X. The subject is usually
assigned to the specifier position.
In X-Bar Theory branching is always binary. So the top-level XP
branches into X' and the specifier. The lowest X' branches into X and
something else, which is called the complement. This gives the
following basic structure:
The last rule in X-Bar Syntax is the recursive rule that allows
X-Bar to duplicate itself. The recursiveness of constituents within a
phrase marker is a fact about natural language and the theory must
account for this generative capacity within the grammar.
The XP consists of the X plus its various qualifiers, and the
XP is semantically of the same nature as its head X: for example, my
little red book is like book, and slept well all night is like slept. The
XP is called a projection of its head.
5 - Revised Extended Standard Theory (REST) (1973-1976)
The Revised Extended Standard Theory was formulated between
1973 and 1976. It contains:
2 - Restrictions upon X-bar theory.
2 - Assumption of the COMP position.
This diagram shows how the grammar outlined in the Revised
Extended Standard Theory:
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6 - Generative Smantics (late 1960s).
Generative semantics is an approach within the generative
grammar initiated in late 1960s, by John Ross, Paul Postal, James
McCawley. and George Lakoff.
GS proposes that the deep structure of a sentence is equivalent
and sole input to semantic representation , from which the surface
structure can be derived using only one set of rules that relate
underlying meaning and surface form rather than separate sets of
semantic and syntactic rules.
This approach necessitated more complex underlying structures
than those proposed by Chomsky, and more complex transformations
as a consequence. the approach was appealing in several respects.
1 - it offered a clear insight for explaining synonymity.
2 - the theory had a pleasingly intuitive structure: the form of a
sentence was quite literally derived from its meaning via
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transformations.
This diagram shows how the grammar outlined in the Revised
Extended Standard Theory:
Generative semantics approach is outlined in the following
diagram
7 - Government and binding (1980)
Government and binding is a theory of syntax developed by
Chomsky in the 1980s. It assumes that sentences have three levels: D
– Structure , S – Structure and Logical form. S – structure is derived
from D – Structure and logical form from S – Structure by a single
transformation called MOVE ALPHA. Many subtheories overlap with
itnamly X – Bar, THETA, CASE, BINDING,CONTROL and
GOVERNMENT theory The name refers to two central of these
subtheories
1) - government, which is an abstract syntactic relation. The
main application of the government relation concerns the assignment
of case.
Abstract case is taken to be universal. Some languages have
rich morphological case marking and others show very limited
morphological case marking, , all these presumed to have full systems
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of abstract case that differ only in the morphological realization. In
GB, abstract case is assigned to NP's by case assigners, namely verbs,
prepositions, and INFL. Verbs and prepositions are said to assign
accusative case to NP's that they govern, and INFL assigns nominative
case to NP's that it governs. The government relation makes case
assignment unambiguous..
2) - binding, deals with the referents of anaphors, pronouns, and
referential expressions. GB distinguishes three types of NP.The
applicable rules are called Binding Principle A, Binding Principle B,
and Binding Principle C.
Principle A: .. reciprocal and reflexive NPs, whose reference is
bound by a preceding NP in the same clause, e.g. John bought himself
a new car, where himself refers to John, or The girl washes herself,
where herself refers to the girl.
Anaphors are bound within a specific syntactic domain, they
have a local antecedent which c-commands them within their
governing category.
Principle B: Personal pronouns, which can be interpreted
anaphorically or deictically . e.g. Kate still thinks she was right where
she can refer either to Kate or another person not mentioned in the
sentence.
Personal pronouns are not bound within their governing
categories; they can be bound only by elements outside of the
governing category
Principle C: All NPs which do not fall into (A) or (B), e.g.
proper nouns, labels, traces.
8 - Principles and Parameters approach (1979)
The Principles and Parameters( P &P) approach is a
theoretical framework within generative linguistics presented by
Chomsky in his paper Lectures on Government and Binding in 1979.
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According to this theory the syntax of a language is described in
accordance with general principles (i.e. abstract rules or grammars)
and specific parameters (i.e. markers, switches) .This theory stresses
on the point that the grammatical principles underlying languages are
innate and fixed, and the differences among the languages are
characterized in terms of parameter settings in the brain. This
indicates the fact that a child learning a language needs only acquire
the necessary lexical items (words, grammatical morphemes, and
idioms), and( the appropriate parameter settings),
The central idea of principles and parameters is that a person's
syntactic knowledge consist of two aspects:
1 - A finite set of fundamental principles that are common to all
languages;
2 - A finite set of parameters that determine syntactic variability
amongst languages.
Within this framework, the goal of linguistics is to identify all
of the principles and parameters that are universal to human language
(Universal Grammar). As such, any attempt to explain the syntax of a
particular language using a principle or parameter is cross-examined
with the evidence available in other languages.
9 - Minimalist Program (1993)
The "Minimalist Program ( MP)", has been developing inside
Generative Grammar since the early nineties. It started in 1993 with
the publication of a paper by Chomsky entitled (A minimalist
program for linguistic theory) . It aims at the further development of
ideas involving economy of derivation and economy of representation.
Chomsky presents MP as a program, and not as a theory, the
Minimalist Program works on the assumption that Universal Grammar
constitutes a perfect design in the sense that it contains only what is
necessary to meet our conceptual, physical and biological needs. This
approach proposes the existence of a fixed set of principles valid for
all languages.
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References
Akmajian, A. and F. Heny (An Introduction to the principles of
transformational syntax. MIT Press. Cambridge Mass.
Bierwisch, B. (1971) Modern Linguistics – Its Development,
Methods and Problems.Mouton.
Chomsky, N. (1957) Syntactic Structures). Mouton
-----------------. (1965). Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. MIT
Press.
----------------- (1995). The Minimalist Program. MIT Press.
Crystal, D. (2003) A Dictionary of Linguistics and
Phonetics.Blackwell
Huddleston, R. ( 1976) An introduction to English
Transformational Syntax. Longman.
Jackendoff, R.S. (1972) Semantic interpretation in enerative
Grammar. MIT Press. Cambridge.
------------------- (1977). X Syntax: a Study of Phrase Structure.
Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press.
Jacobsen, B (1978) Transformational Generative Grammar.
NORTH - HOLAND
Lyons, J.(1977) Chomsky. Fontana. Collins. Glasgow.
Radford, A. (1981). Transformational syntax: a student’s guide
to Chomsky’s Extended Standard Theory. Cambridge.
Radford, A. (1997) Syntax – A minimalist Introduction.
Cambridge University Press.
Reinhart, T. 1983. Anaphora and semantic interpretation.
London.
Smith, N. and d. Wilson (1979) Modern Linguistics – The results
of Chomsky’s Revolution. Penguin Books.
*Thanks are due to Mr. Faisal Ghazi Muhammad of the Kurdish
Department University of Baghdad for his help.
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