Forecasting using - Rob J. Hyndman · ma1 ma2 ma3 intercept 0.2542 0.2260 0.2695 0.7562 s.e. 0.0767...

Transcript of Forecasting using - Rob J. Hyndman · ma1 ma2 ma3 intercept 0.2542 0.2260 0.2695 0.7562 s.e. 0.0767...

Forecasting using

9. Non-seasonal ARIMA models

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Forecasting using R 1

Rob J Hyndman
Outline

1 Non-seasonal ARIMA models

2 Estimation and order selection

3 ARIMA modelling in R

Forecasting using R Non-seasonal ARIMA models 2
Autoregressive modelsAutoregressive (AR) models:

yt = c+ φ1yt−1 + φ2yt−2 + · · ·+ φpyt−p + et,

where et is white noise. This is a multiple regressionwith lagged values of yt as predictors.

Autoregressive modelsAutoregressive (AR) models:

yt = c+ φ1yt−1 + φ2yt−2 + · · ·+ φpyt−p + et,

where et is white noise. This is a multiple regressionwith lagged values of yt as predictors.

AR(1)

Time

0 20 40 60 80 100

78

910

1112

13

AR(2)

Time

0 20 40 60 80 100

1618

2022

24

AR(1) model

yt = c+ φ1yt−1 + et

When φ1 = 0, yt is equivalent to WN

When φ1 = 1 and c = 0, yt is

equivalent to a RW

When φ1 = 1 and c 6= 0, yt isequivalent to a RW with drift

When φ1 < 0, yt tends to oscillate

between positive and negative

values.

AR(1) model




equivalent to a RW




values.

AR(1) model




equivalent to a RW




values.

AR(1) model




equivalent to a RW




values.

Moving Average (MA) models

Moving Average (MA) models:

yt = c+ et + θ1et−1 + θ2et−2 + · · ·+ θqet−q,

where et is white noise. This is a multiple regressionwith past errors as predictors. Don’t confuse thiswith moving average smoothing!

Moving Average (MA) models

Moving Average (MA) models:

yt = c+ et + θ1et−1 + θ2et−2 + · · ·+ θqet−q,

where et is white noise. This is a multiple regressionwith past errors as predictors. Don’t confuse thiswith moving average smoothing!

MA(1)

Time

0 20 40 60 80 100

1718

1920

2122

23

MA(2)

Time

0 20 40 60 80 100

−4

−2

02

4

ARIMA models

Autoregressive Moving Average models:

yt = c+ φ1yt−1 + · · ·+ φpyt−p+ θ1et−1 + · · ·+ θqet−q + et.

Predictors include both lagged values of ytand lagged errors.

ARMA models can be used for a huge range ofstationary time series.

They model the short-term dynamics.

An ARMA model applied to differenced data isan ARIMA model.

ARIMA models







ARIMA models







ARIMA models







ARIMA models







ARIMA modelsAutoregressive Integrated Moving AveragemodelsARIMA(p,d,q) model

AR: p = order of the autoregressive partI: d = degree of first differencing involved

MA: q = order of the moving average part.

White noise model: ARIMA(0,0,0)

Random walk: ARIMA(0,1,0) with no constant

Random walk with drift: ARIMA(0,1,0) with const.

AR(p): ARIMA(p,0,0)

MA(q): ARIMA(0,0,q)







AR(p): ARIMA(p,0,0)

MA(q): ARIMA(0,0,q)







AR(p): ARIMA(p,0,0)

MA(q): ARIMA(0,0,q)







AR(p): ARIMA(p,0,0)

MA(q): ARIMA(0,0,q)







AR(p): ARIMA(p,0,0)

MA(q): ARIMA(0,0,q)

US personal consumption


US consumption

Year

Qua

rter

ly p

erce

ntag

e ch

ange

1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

−2

−1

01

2
US personal consumption> fit
US personal consumption> fit


Forecasts from ARIMA(0,0,3) with non−zero mean

1995 2000 2005 2010

−1.

0−

0.5

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0


Forecasts from ARIMA(0,0,3) with non−zero mean

1995 2000 2005 2010

−1.

0−

0.5

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

plot(forecast(fit,h=10),include=80)
Understanding ARIMA models

If c = 0 and d = 0, the long-term forecasts willgo to zero.If c = 0 and d = 1, the long-term forecasts willgo to a non-zero constant.If c = 0 and d = 2, the long-term forecasts willfollow a straight line.If c 6= 0 and d = 0, the long-term forecasts willgo to the mean of the data.If c 6= 0 and d = 1, the long-term forecasts willfollow a straight line.If c 6= 0 and d = 2, the long-term forecasts willfollow a quadratic trend.


Forecast variance and dThe higher the value of d, the more rapidly theprediction intervals increase in size.For d = 0, the long-term forecast standarddeviation will go to the standard deviation ofthe historical data.

Cyclic behaviourFor cyclic forecasts, p > 2 and somerestrictions on coefficients are required.If p = 2, we need φ21 + 4φ2 < 0. Then theaverage cycle is of length

(2π)/ [arc cos(−φ1(1− φ2)/(4φ2))] .Forecasting using R Non-seasonal ARIMA models 12
Outline




Forecasting using R Estimation and order selection 13
Maximum likelihood estimation

Having identified the model order, we need toestimate the parameters c, φ1, . . . , φp, θ1, . . . , θq.

MLE is very similar to least squares estimationobtained by minimizing

T∑t−1

e2t .

Non-linear optimization must be used.

Different software will give different estimates.




T∑t−1

e2t .






T∑t−1

e2t .






T∑t−1

e2t .



Outline




Forecasting using R ARIMA modelling in R 15
How does auto.arima() work?

A non-seasonal ARIMA processy′t = c+ φ1yt−1 + · · ·+ φpyt−p

+ θ1et−1 + · · ·+ θqet−q + et.where y′t has been differenced d times. We need toselect the appropriate orders: p,q,d


A non-seasonal ARIMA processy′t = c+ φ1yt−1 + · · ·+ φpyt−p

+ θ1et−1 + · · ·+ θqet−q + et.where y′t has been differenced d times. We need toselect the appropriate orders: p,q,d

Hyndman and Khandakar (JSS, 2008)algorithm:

Select no. differences d via unit root tests.Select p,q by minimising AICc.Use stepwise search to traverse model space.


Step 1: Select current model (with smallest AIC) from:ARIMA(2,d,2)ARIMA(0,d,0)ARIMA(1,d,0)ARIMA(0,d,1)

Step 2: Consider variations of current model:• vary one of p,q, from current model by ±1• p,q both vary from current model by ±1• Include/exclude c from current model

Model with lowest AICc becomes current model.

Repeat Step 2 until no lower AICc can be found.

Modelling procedure


8/ arima models 177

1. Plot the data. Identifyunusual observations.Understand patterns.

2. If necessary, use a Box-Cox transformation tostabilize the variance.

Select modelorder yourself.

Use automatedalgorithm.

3. If necessary, differencethe data until it appearsstationary. Use unit-roottests if you are unsure.

4. Plot the ACF/PACF ofthe differenced data and

try to determine pos-sible candidate models.

5. Try your chosen model(s)and use the AICc to

search for a better model.

6. Check the residualsfrom your chosen model

by plotting the ACF of theresiduals, and doing a port-

manteau test of the residuals.

Use auto.arima() to findthe best ARIMA model

for your time series.

Do theresidualslook like

whitenoise?

7. Calculate forecasts.

yes

no

Figure 8.10: General process for fore-casting using an ARIMA model.
Seasonally adjusted electrical equipment


Year

Sea

sona

lly a

djus

ted

new

ord

ers

inde

x

2000 2005 2010

8090

100

110

1 Time plot shows sudden changes,

particularly big drop in 2008/2009 due

to global economic environment.

Otherwise nothing unusual and no need

for data adjustments.

2 No evidence of changing variance, so

no Box-Cox transformation.

3 auto.arima suggests an ARIMA(3,1,1)

model.Forecasting using R ARIMA modelling in R 20

> fit summary(fit)Series: eeadjARIMA(3,1,1)

Coefficients:ar1 ar2 ar3 ma1

0.0519 0.1191 0.3730 -0.4542s.e. 0.1840 0.0888 0.0679 0.1993

sigma^2 estimated as 9.532: log likelihood=-484.08AIC=978.17 AICc=978.49 BIC=994.4


6 ACF plot of residuals from ARIMA(3,1,1)

model look like white noise.

Acf(residuals(fit))

Box.test(residuals(fit), lag=24,

fitdf=4, type="Ljung")




Acf(residuals(fit))






Acf(residuals(fit))





Forecasts from ARIMA(3,1,1)

2000 2005 2010

5060

7080

9010

011

012

0


Forecasts from ARIMA(3,1,1)

2000 2005 2010

5060

7080

9010

011

012

0

> plot(forecast(fit))
Prediction intervals

Prediction intervals increase in size withforecast horizon.

Prediction intervals can be difficult to calculateby hand

Calculations assume residuals areuncorrelated and normally distributed.Prediction intervals tend to be too narrow.

the uncertainty in the parameter estimates has notbeen accounted for.the ARIMA model assumes historical patterns willnot change during the forecast period.the ARIMA model assumes uncorrelated futureerrors







Non-seasonal ARIMA modelsEstimation and order selectionARIMA modelling in R

Forecasting using - Rob J. Hyndman · ma1 ma2 ma3 intercept 0.2542 0.2260 0.2695 0.7562 s.e. 0.0767...

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Transcript of Forecasting using - Rob J. Hyndman · ma1 ma2 ma3 intercept 0.2542 0.2260 0.2695 0.7562 s.e. 0.0767...