7.1. PLANT MACROFOSSILS FROM TOFTANESJOANNA BENDING

METHODS AND OVERVIEWSamples for plant macrofossils were sieved over a stack of 10mm, 5mm and 300μm test sieves and the identifi -able material extracted by hand under a low power bin-ocular microscope. Both charred and non-charred items were recovered. Charred material was recovered from 28 of the 30 samples analysed, and non-charred from 29 of the 30 samples. The common plant macrofossil constitu-ents of the matrix were moss, fragments of wood, twigs, charcoal, charred twigs, seeds, charred seeds and charred seaweed. Samples from occupation layers tended to be more diverse in terms of the presence of these types (with fi ve or more of eight types considered being present in each sample) than those from external areas, abandon-ment debris and pre-landnám deposits. There are, how-ever, exceptions to this, notably samples 1761 (from the abandonment of the settlement), 2752 (from the fi replace) and 1475 (from the fl oor), which are taken from internal areas of the settlement, but exhibit a low diversity of con-stituents. Plant nomenclature follows Jóhansen (2000) where relevant.

Preservation of plant material was considered to be good as delicate items such as Juncus (rush) seeds and Poaceae (grass) seed coats were often preserved well enough to be identifi ed to species. Potential human food-stuffs include Hordeum (barley) grain, Corylus avellana (hazel) nuts, Empetrum nigrum (crowberry), Brassica spp. (cf. cabbage family, including several crop plants, some with edible seeds) and possibly Carum carvi (cara-way). Non-charred seeds tended to be common in each sample, with species such as Montia fontana ssp. fontana (blinks) members of the genus Carex (sedge family) and Juniperus communis (juniper) occurring most frequently. Charred material included nodules of peat/dung (although it was not possible to differentiate between dung and peat pellets in the samples), wild seeds, cereal grain, leaves, chaff, wood, twigs and seaweed. Leaves, seed capsules, twigs and fragments of wood were also preserved, both charred and non-charred. Chips of worked wood (i.e. fragments of wood with cut marks) were non-charred.

The 19 samples that could be located spatially on a plan of the site are represented as pie charts based on the habitat association of the taxa in Fig. 125. Pre-lándnam samples tended to contain taxa associated with wet con-ditions or water, including Sphagnum (peat moss) and Hippuris vulgaris (common mare’s tail). In the occupa-tion deposits, although there is no strong patterning, but it would appear that samples located in Building I and the central area of House II were more mixed in composition than those from either end of House II, the outside areas and the abandonment layers [Fig. 126]. The samples tak-en from around the fi replace (2265 and 1399) contained less Montia fontana ssp. fontana and a lower proportion of outfi eld types than the other fl oor deposits.

Some of the contexts categorised as ‘abandonment’ by the excavators are very similar archaeobotanically to those from occupation deposits from the same area of the excavation. The summary of the habitat associations of the seed assemblage mentioned above [Fig. 125] and a consideration of the contribution of the major constitu-ents of the matrix of the sample [Figs. 126-127] show that some samples from occupation and abandonment deposits located near to each other have a similar com-position (1597 and 2925, and to a lesser extent 1016 and 1963). This is also apparent in a correspondence analysis (Gauch 1982) of the samples from Toftanes, where these two pairs of samples are placed close to one another on the basis of their species composition [Fig. 128]. In the following analyses, samples will be grouped by phase and structure: pre-landnám, Building I, House II, phase 1, House II, phase 3 and from the outside yard area, in-dependently of the excavator’s assignment to occupation and abandonment phases.

INVESTIGATION OF SOURCE OF CHARRED MATERIAL IN THE TOFTANES SAMPLES To establish the signifi cance of the charred material re-covered from the site, it was necessary to investigate the source of the material, and to establish whether the ma-terial was part of the non-charred assemblage that had become charred, or was charred in another location and mixed with the non-charred material.

Of the 30 samples analysed, 22 contained charred

7. ENVIRONMENTAL MATERIAL

130

NUTRIENT-INTERMEDIATE-RICHDISTURBED(RUDERAL-ARABLE)VARIOUS(TENDSRUDERAL-ARABLE)

NUTRIENT-INTERMEDIATE-RICHUNDISTURBED(HAYFIELD)VARIOUS(TENDSHAYFIELD)

NUTRIENT-RICH

MOISTOUTFIELD-NUTRIENT-INTERMEDIATE-POOR

OUTFIELD - NUTRIENT-POOR

WET-WATER-NUTRIENT-INTERMEDIATE

WET-WATER-NUTRIENT-POOR

MONTIAFONTANA

1760

1622

1582 1995

2654

1963

1962

1597

2653

2734

2665

1923

2265

1551 & 1475

1471

2752

1623

1621

1964 2422

1016

2147

5 Metres

N

House I

House XI

House XII

House II

5 Metres

N

House II floor west

House II drain

Between I and II

House II, phase 3

Outside House II

Pre-landnam

House II

18th century

SPHAGNUM

N.B. WHITE CIRCLE - LESS THAN 50 SEEDS

1016

1963

1597

2925

2711

1682

2147

1964 2422

1995

1582

2219 2052 570

1399

2265

2752

1475

2653

2654645

1622

1761

2665 2734 1641

595

3951400

Fig. 126. Plan of Toftanes showing samples as pie charts based on the non-charred seed component of the sample. Taxa are categorised by the habitat association category or as Montia fontana ssp. fontana. Taxa which could not be assigned a habitat association category are not included in the counts. Samples located with arrows indicate approximate location based on context description. Samples with similar seed composition in spite of different

archaeological phasing are marked with red circle.

Fig. 125. Keys for graphs in this chapter a) Toftanes settlement areas and phases, and b) habitat associations of taxa.

Acta Archaeologica

131

012345

moss

wood (fra

gmen

ts)

wood (tw

igs)

charc

oal

charc

oal (t

wigs)

seed

seed

(charr

ed)

seaw

eed (ch

arred

)

mosswood (fragments)wood (twigs)charcoalcharcoal (twigs)seedseed (charred) seaweed (charred)

5 Metres

N

House II floor west

House II drain

House II, phase 3

Between I and II

Outside House II

Pre-landnam

House II

18th century

1995

2422 1964

1963

2147

1016

1582 2265

2752

1399

2654

2653

1622

2925

1597

645

2711

1682 1761

595

395

1475

1400

2665 2734 1641

570 2052 2219

Fig. 127. Plan of Toftanes with bar charts indicating major constituents of the bulk sample matrix (the y-axis represents the 5 point scale presented in Table 3). Samples located on plan based on position in section drawings. Samples located with arrows indicate approximate location based on context

description.

5.20.1-

5.10.1-

570

645

1016

1399

1400

15821597

1622

1761

1963

1995

20522265

2422

26532654 2665

2711

2925

SAMPLES

Pre-landnam

I - Floor

II - Floor

II - Drain

II - Fireplace

II, phase 3 - Floor

Outside

Abandonment

Fig. 128. Plot of results of correspondence analysis of Toftanes samples. Samples are categorised by excavators’ context descriptions. Only samples with more than 50 seeds were included in the analysis. Samples 595, 1641, 1682, 1760, 1964, 2147 and 2219 were excluded from the analysis as they had unusual compositions. They would have had extreme values in the analysis and appeared as outliers in the plot, so the patterns above would not be

visible. Only taxa present in more than 10% of samples were included in the analysis.

Toftanes. A Viking Age Farmstead in the Faroe Islands

132

material (73%) [Table 3]. The most commonly occurring types were undifferentiated wood (20 samples - 67%) and charred nodules of peat/dung (17 samples - 57%), wild seeds (12 samples - 40%), cereal grain (11 samples - 37%), seaweed (6 samples - 20%). Juniperus communis leaf (2 samples - 7%) and Calluna vulgaris (heather) leaf (1 sample - 3%) were also present.

Charred wild seeds and seaweed were only present in samples taken from within the buildings or from the drain associated with the eastern end of House II. Charred ce-real grain occurred in low quantities in samples from ex-ternal areas but was predominantly recovered from inside the buildings. This suggests that the wild seeds and sea-weed are likely to have become charred within the build-ings, and that charred material from the buildings was not dumped in the yard in any great amounts. Charred cereal grains found in the outside area may have been carried on feet from the interior fl oors, or may indicate that cereal grain was brought in from another area in the farmstead where it had been in proximity to fi re (e.g. after drying). Charcoal and charred nodules of peat or dung are present in the outside area. This may be due to the general ubiqui-ty of these types (they may be more common than charred seeds as they are purposefully burned for fuel, and there-fore more commonly available to be incorporated into the deposits in and around the settlement), or the removal and discard of spent fuel from the house.

The proportion of charred seeds in the 16 samples var-ied from 100% (sample 2752) to 0.05%, but was less than 5% for the majority of samples [Fig. 129]. Charred cereal grain was the most common type (11 samples), and most (10) samples contained only one or two types of charred seeds. Charred seed types occur slightly more frequently in the same samples as non-charred versions of the same type - of the 58 occurrences of charred seed types identi-fi ed to genus or above, 31 (56%) occurred in conjunction with non-charred seeds of the same type. This suggests the charred component of the samples does not originate entirely from the same source as the non-charred com-ponent, although some of it may do so, i.e. the charred assemblage is not (only) made up of material present in the area being charred in situ (e.g. by lamps or fi re which charred seeds present in the fl oor, roof or walls).

Charred seed types from a range of habitats were present, including species associated with bogs, heath or rocky areas in the outfi eld, and both disturbed and un-disturbed nutrient-rich habitats. Of the types recovered,

the seeds of Empetrum nigrum, Corylus nuts and cereal grain could have been brought onto the site as food re-sources. The combination of seeds from foods and cereal grain with taxa associated with various habitats make it unlikely that the charred assemblage came to the site from one source (i.e. it is not solely the refuse from cereal grain drying, peat burning or another single activity that brought plant material into proximity to fi re).

Correspondence analysis was used to see whether there was any pattern in the charred component of the samples. Twenty-three samples each with more than 30 seed items, and all 52 charred and non-charred seed types occurring in more than 10% of the samples were included [Fig. 130]. Samples 595 and 2752 were not included as sample 595 had an exceptionally high proportion of Se-laginella selaginoides (lesser clubmoss) megaspores and sample 2752 contained less than 30 quantifi able items, and they were clearly different from other samples. Their presence in the analysis would have resulted in outlying samples in the plot, which would have obscured the scat-ter of the other samples. The samples containing over 10% charred seeds were located on both the positive and negative arms of the fi rst axis, and along the positive arm of the second axis. Samples with a smaller charred seed component (samples 2147, 1622, 1963, 2645 and, to a lesser extent, 1400) were also located in this zone. The analysis grouped the charred types with low positive and negative values on the fi rst axis, and on the positive arm of the second axis [Fig. 130].

The charred seed assemblages in the samples differ - 1964 (at the positive end of the second axis) contains cereal grain and various wild seeds from nutrient-rich habitats, sample 2653 only Stellaria media (common chickweed) and sample 2654 only seeds of Poaceae. The charred seed types in samples 2653 and 2654 occur also as non-charred seeds in the samples. In sample 1964, three of the eight charred seed types occur independently of non-charred material, indicating that they may have become incorporated in the sample via a different tapho-nomic path to the non-charred assemblage.

Regarding the vegetative material [Table 3], charred Calluna vulgaris and Juniperus communis leaves only occur with non-charred leaves of the same type, indicat-ing that they may have arrived as part of the non-charred assemblage and become charred once the material had been deposited in the settlement (although the low densi-ty of charred material recovered compared to non-charred

Acta Archaeologica

SAM

PLE

NU

MB

ER39

357

059

564

510

1616

2216

4116

8217

6017

6119

6319

6419

9520

5221

4722

1922

6524

2226

5326

5426

6527

1127

3427

5229

25N

UM

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OF

SAM

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red

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red

1 1

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no

n-ch

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2 1

3 13

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4 1/

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15/

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7 1/

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2/5

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5/1

218

0 7/

9 7/

8 6

21

Car

ex c

f. ec

hina

ta

non-

char

red

1/4

1

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12

2 6/

7 32

1/

106

1/8

7 1

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1/3

5

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4 22/2

71

1/2

17

Car

ex fl

ava-

type

char

red

8 1

Car

ex fl

ava-

type

non-

char

red

2 3/

4 1

1/2

1 1/

2 1

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8

1/4

2 2

2 2

5/6

1 1/

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Car

ex c

f. fl a

va (4

side

d)no

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d1

Car

ex n

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-type

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red

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non-

char

red

4 2/

3 4

1/2

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22 2

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3 1

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cf.

pilu

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n-ch

arre

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kes

non-

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1C

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cf.

rost

rata

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rost

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non-

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5/24

1 1/

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ex sp

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1 5/

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cf. C

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ae in

det.

non-

char

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1/2

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Cer

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eras

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non-

char

red

187

1/4

20 1

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135

1/8

4

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4 4

3/8

1 1/

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cf. C

eras

tium

sp. (

spik

y)no

n-ch

arre

d2

1cf

. Cer

astiu

m sp

p.no

n-ch

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201

Cer

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rain

char

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3 1/

2 1

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1/2

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cf. c

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l gra

inch

arre

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3cf

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/Car

duus

non-

char

red

2 3

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1/4

3

Cor

ylus

ave

llana

L.

char

red

1

Tabl

e 3

SAM

PLE

NU

MB

ER39

357

059

564

510

1616

2216

4116

8217

6017

6119

6319

6419

9520

5221

4722

1922

6524

2226

5326

5426

6527

1127

3427

5229

25N

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BER

OF

SAM

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0.5

3.00

0.8

2.40

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50.

50.

51

0.5

10.

50.

50M

ULT

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1 1

1 1

1 1

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1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

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1C

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vella

nano

n-ch

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Cyp

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inde

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pe 2

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. Des

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1

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char

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1Em

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m n

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mno

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d1

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1 5

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sp(p

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Gal

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1 1

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104

1/8

1

1 5

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cf. G

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sp(p

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1 2

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d96

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2 1

8 1/

2 32

4

40

2 3

3/8

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6 5

10

2/3

20 7

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101

1/2

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cf. G

ram

inea

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n-ch

arre

d4

8 2

4H

ippu

ris v

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ris L

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n-ch

arre

d25

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5 1/

3 5

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9 1/

8 6

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deum

sp.

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char

red

1 1

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led

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dch

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Hul

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det.

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2 9

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stra

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d ba

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1H

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pul

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1/8

1

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1/2

8

1/2

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48 1

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11H

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16

64

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96

8

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d 1

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1Ju

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buf

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d80

64

2

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ncus

cf.

cong

lom

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usno

n-ch

arre

d1

1Ju

ncus

trifi

dus L

.no

n-ch

arre

d16

23

3

Junc

us tr

ifi du

s/bu

foni

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n-ch

arre

d 1

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1Ju

ncus

sp.

char

red

1/8

2

Junc

us sp

.no

n-ch

arre

d17

02

1/4

360

1/2

21

272

40

882

2/5

29 7

/13

8 3/

4 10

4 92

6

64

1/10

730

92

16

135

1/4

804

13/2

739

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4 43

23

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todo

n au

tum

nalis

L.

non-

char

red

1Lu

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sp(p

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n-ch

arre

d 3

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1/2

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8

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4

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16

28 3

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56

1/2

14

cf. L

uzul

a sp

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n-ch

arre

d8

16

8 3

Lych

nis fl

os-

cucu

li L.

non-

char

red

1/4

1

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12

2 1

1/2

4

2/5

1/4

1

/3

17 1

/9

12

SAM

PLE

NU

MB

ER39

357

059

564

510

1616

2216

4116

8217

6017

6119

6319

6419

9520

5221

4722

1922

6524

2226

5326

5426

6527

1127

3427

5229

25N

UM

BER

OF

SAM

PLES

C

ON

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TA

XA

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LK V

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(litre

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0.5

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0.8

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50.

50.

51

0.5

10.

50.

50M

ULT

IPLI

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O1

1/2

1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1/8

1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1/8

11

1cf

. Lyc

hnis

fl os

-cuc

uli

non-

char

red

1/1

01

Men

yant

hes t

rifol

iata

L.

non-

char

red

1 1

cf. M

enya

nthe

s trif

olia

tano

n-ch

arre

d4

1 3

Mon

tia fo

ntan

a L.

char

red

1 9

2M

ontia

font

ana

non-

char

red

357

1/4

4 65

8 3/

4 21

9 1/

2 10

4 24

2

1 43

3 3/

5 14

2 2

168

362

30

15

1/2

38

2/5

16

2/3

99 5

/6

148

17/2

71

388

1/2

25

cf. M

ontia

font

ana

non-

char

red

11

2Po

a an

nua

L.no

n-ch

arre

d32

38

4

5/8

5Po

a an

nua

non-

char

red

2 8

3cf

. Poa

ann

uano

n-ch

arre

d8

6 2

cf. P

oa a

nnua

non-

char

red

1Po

a cf

. nem

oral

isno

n-ch

arre

d16

12

4

Poa

cf. p

rate

nsis

non-

char

red

4 4

2Po

a cf

. pra

tens

is/tr

ivia

lisno

n-ch

arre

d1

3/4

1Po

a sp

.no

n-ch

arre

d1

Poa

sp. (

blun

t end

)no

n-ch

arre

d1

2 12

4

Poa

sp. (

not a

nnua

)no

n-ch

arre

d7

4 3

Poly

gona

ceae

inde

t.no

n-ch

arre

d1

1Po

lygo

nace

ae sp

. (th

in

wal

led)

non-

char

red

3 1/

4 40

5

1/1

0 1

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5

Poly

gonu

m a

vicu

lare

L.

non-

char

red

2 1

2Po

lygo

num

sp.

char

red

2 1

/4

2Po

lygo

num

sp.

non-

char

red

16

3Po

lygo

num

Typ

e ?D

non-

char

red

1 1

2Po

lygo

num

Typ

e 12

non-

char

red

2 21

2

2/3

1/1

61

2 25

5

1/2

9Po

tent

illa

cran

tzii/

erec

tano

n-ch

arre

d2

25

1 5

/26

1 1/

2 9

2 1/

2 4

5/6

8 5/

276 1/

161

13

Pote

ntill

a cr

antz

ii/er

ecta

/pa

lust

risno

n-ch

arre

d2

2 2

Pote

ntill

a pa

lust

ris (L

.) Sc

op.

non-

char

red

5/2

71

Pote

ntill

a sp

.no

n-ch

arre

d0

Prun

ella

vul

garis

L.

non-

char

red

1/2

4

3cf

. Puc

inel

lia sp

char

red

1R

anun

culu

s acr

is/re

pens

char

red

1/8

1

Ran

uncu

lus a

cris

/repe

nsno

n-ch

arre

d10

3/

4 4

5 24

64

20

1

2 1

1 1/10

4 1/

4 1

1/4

1 17

Ran

uncu

lus fl

am

mul

a/re

ptan

sno

n-ch

arre

d3

1/2

26

1/2

1

1/2

4 29

4

1/8

1

1/2

1/2

1

1/2

2 1

1/2

2 5/

121

17

Ran

uncu

lus s

p.no

n-ch

arre

d1

1 8

5/5

2 1

/8

1/2

1

1/2

1

3/16

11cf

. Ran

uncu

lus s

p.no

n-ch

arre

d1

1R

hina

nthu

s gro

enla

ndi-

cus/

min

orno

n-ch

arre

d8

1 1

1 5

cf. R

osac

eae

sp. (

im-

mat

ure)

non-

char

red

1

SAM

PLE

NU

MB

ER39

357

059

564

510

1616

2216

4116

8217

6017

6119

6319

6419

9520

5221

4722

1922

6524

2226

5326

5426

6527

1127

3427

5229

25N

UM

BER

OF

SAM

PLES

C

ON

TAIN

ING

TA

XA

BU

LK V

OLU

ME

(litre

s)1.

000.

50.

50.

50.

50.

51

0.5

2.00

0.5

0.5

3.00

0.8

2.40

10.

50.

50.

51

0.5

10.

50.

50M

ULT

IPLI

ED T

O1

1/2

1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1/8

1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1/8

11

1R

umex

ace

tosa

/long

i-fo

lius

char

red

1 1

2 4

Rum

ex a

ceto

sa/lo

ngi-

foliu

sno

n-ch

arre

d1

1/2

18

1/2

3 48

4

14

1/2

1 5

/24

10 1

/2 1

2

Rum

ex c

f. ac

etos

a/lo

n-gi

foliu

sno

n-ch

arre

d2

1 2

Rum

ex a

ceto

sella

L.

non-

char

red

1R

umex

cris

pus/

obtu

si-

foliu

sch

arre

d1

Rum

ex c

rispu

s/ob

tusi

-fo

lius

non-

char

red

1 1

Rum

ex c

f. cr

ispu

s/ob

tu-

sifo

lius

non-

char

red

2 1

1 3

Rum

ex sp

.ch

arre

d2

5 4

4R

umex

sp.

non-

char

red

24

1/4

367

6 1/

6 4

48

1/8

7

10

1 65

5/

6 3

1/3

1 1

5/9

1/6

18

1/2

19

Rum

ex sp

. (ru

nty

<1m

m)

non-

char

red

96

16

2 1

5R

umex

sp. (

runt

y)no

n-ch

arre

d8

4 3

Rum

ex sp

. with

leav

esno

n-ch

arre

d46

16

2 26

7

5R

umex

trig

onou

s cor

ech

arre

d2

1/2

3

cf. R

umex

non-

char

red

1 2

Rum

ex/P

olyg

onum

non-

char

red

1/2

2

5 2

4Sa

gina

inte

rmed

ia/n

o-do

sa/s

ubul

ata

non-

char

red

48

1/2

26

6 8

8 48

0 26

4

8 3

8 40

4/

5 12

3 19

/27

16

73 1

/2 2

0

Sela

gine

lla se

lagi

noid

es

(L.)

Bea

uv. E

x M

art.

&

Schr

ank

non-

char

red

8 24

7 1/

3 21

1/

3 92

16

1/

1013

1/

3 1

4 4

8 8

1/8

1/2

15

Sper

gula

arv

ensi

s L.

char

red

8 13/1

61

1/2

5/2

84

Sper

gula

arv

ensi

sno

n-ch

arre

d8

5 4

1/2

9 6

4/5

4 17

5/6

2

9Sp

ergu

la-ty

peco

re c

harr

ed 1

/8

2Sp

ergu

la-ty

peno

n-ch

arre

d4

2 1

/3

22

29/4

85

Stel

laria

med

ia (L

.) V

ill.

char

red

7/1

614

3

Stel

laria

med

iano

n-ch

arre

d6

1/2

2 10

12

3/4

11

2

28

3/20

29 1

0/13

3 3/

4 12

34

2

9 1/

4 6

20

5/6

38 1

/4

2 1/16

7 22

cf. S

tella

ria m

edia

non-

char

red

1/2

8

2 5

/12

1 7

Tara

xacu

m sp

.no

n-ch

arre

d 1

/2

1V

iola

can

ina/

palu

stris

non-

char

red

2 1

2 5

/24

1/2

5

Vio

la ri

vini

ana

Rch

b.no

n-ch

arre

d3

1 1

1/2

1

/3

5V

iola

sp.

non-

char

red

2 1

2 1

1 1

8cf

. Um

belli

fera

ech

arre

d1

1Tr

igno

us se

ed in

det.

non-

char

red

4 1

Seed

inde

t no

n-ch

arre

d8

4 3

Seed

inde

t (in

ner c

ore?

)no

n-ch

arre

d 1

/2

1/8

2

cf. s

eed

char

red

1 1

SAM

PLE

NU

MB

ER39

357

059

564

510

1616

2216

4116

8217

6017

6119

6319

6419

9520

5221

4722

1922

6524

2226

5326

5426

6527

1127

3427

5229

25N

UM

BER

OF

SAM

PLES

C

ON

TAIN

ING

TA

XA

BU

LK V

OLU

ME

(litre

s)1.

000.

50.

50.

50.

50.

51

0.5

2.00

0.5

0.5

3.00

0.8

2.40

10.

50.

50.

51

0.5

10.

50.

50M

ULT

IPLI

ED T

O1

1/2

1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1/8

1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1/8

11

1TO

TAL

29

65

4/5

280

1/4

2041

1/

445

2 1/

634

2 61

0 1/

361

7/9

93

2196

3/

755

2 1/

566

5/

834

2 1/

656

8 75

83

4/

596

3 5/

621

0 3/

712

3 1/

656

0 5/

912

63

8/9

607

1/3

9

3/8

591

Stig

ma/

Stam

enno

n-ch

arre

d18

9/

161

Cal

luna

vul

garis

L. s

eed

caps

ule

non-

char

red

45

2 1

3

Type

6 n

ode

char

red

1 1

2R

achi

s/cu

lm (g

rass

)ch

arre

d2

2?G

rass

nod

ule

from

root

/jo

int

non-

char

red

1 1

Cul

m n

ode

char

red

1 1

Cul

m n

ode

non-

char

red

1 1

Cha

ff (g

rass

)no

n-ch

arre

d1

Cor

ylus

nut

shel

lno

n-ch

arre

d1

Vio

la se

ed c

apsu

le

segm

ent

non-

char

red

1 2

Salix

bud

non-

char

red

1 1

Cal

luna

vul

garis

leav

esno

n-ch

arre

d1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 12

Cal

luna

vul

garis

leav

esch

arre

d1

1Ju

nipe

rus c

omm

unis

L.

twig

(seg

men

ts)

non-

char

red

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 10

Juni

peru

s com

mun

is le

afno

n-ch

arre

d1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 12

Juni

peru

s com

mun

is le

afch

arre

d1

1 2

Gra

ss n

ode

non-

char

red

1 1

cf. P

olyg

onac

eae

leafl

et/

scal

eno

n-ch

arre

d1

Cul

m n

ode

char

red

1Le

athe

r stri

pno

n-ch

arre

d1

1H

air/fi

bre

non-

char

red

1 1

Egg

shel

l mem

bran

eno

n-ch

arre

d1

2B

ival

ve p

ereo

stra

chum

non-

char

red

1 1

Mos

sno

n-ch

arre

d3

1 2

4 2

5 Sp

hag-

num

3 1

1 3

2 1

1 1

1 1

5 Spha

g-nu

m

4 5 Sp

hag-

num

19

Peat

nod

ules

char

red

5 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 17

Peat

nod

ules

non-

char

red

5 1

?1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

21?s

eaw

eed

char

red

1 1

1 1

1 6

Snai

l she

ll op

ercu

lano

n-ch

arre

d1

Ston

esno

n-ch

arre

d1

1 1

1 4

?hor

nno

n-ch

arre

d1

Iron

pan

frag

men

tsno

n-ch

arre

d1

1W

ood

ratin

gno

n-ch

arre

d1

1 1

1 3

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

21C

harc

oal

char

red

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 20

138

5 Metres

N

House II floor west

House II drain

House II, phase 3

Between I and II

Outside House II

Pre-landnam

House II

18th century

1582

2265

2219 2052 570

1963

2147

1016

1964 2422

1995

1399

6451475

2752

2653

16821761

2654

2711

1622

2925

1597

2665 2734 1641

1400 395

595

Fig. 129. Plan of Toftanes with samples represented as pie charts showing the charred (black) and non-charred (white) seed component. Samples located with arrows indicate approximate location based on context description. All seeds are included in the counts.

5.10.1-

0.35.0-

5.15.1-

0.40.1- algen

caech

cafla

canig

capil

caros

ch casp

caryo

cerassp

ch cergr

cirscaa

cyp2e

emp

galspch gram

gram

hipphypjuncab

juncbufjuncsp

junctrif

luzsp

lychfc

mentrifmontfont

poaa

poanp

polysp

poly12

potce

pruvulg

ranar

ranfr

ransp rhin

rumal

ch rumal

rumco

rumsp

ch rumsp

rumsmall sagi

indet

selsel

sperga

ch sperg

stmed

ch stmed

viocp

vior

viosp

1964

2653

1399 2147

1622

1963

2654

1400

2265 2422

1597 645

2925

1995

Fig. 130. Graphical representation of results of canonical analysis on samples from Toftanes. All samples containing more than 30 counts were analysed, and all taxa present in more than 10% of samples. a) showing samples represented as pie charts categorised by charred (black) and non-charred (white) seed component. Samples with a charred seed component are labelled with their sample number; b) Charred types are labelled in bold script and with

black triangles, non-charred types are labelled in italics with white triangles.

Acta Archaeologica

139

material indicates that this does not appear to have hap-pened frequently). Charcoal occurs in the same samples as non-charred wood in 89% of the samples (this is based on unidentifi ed wood and twigs, as the level of identifi ca-tion for the non-charred wood was sometimes poor), and charred peat/dung nodules occur in 94% of the same sam-ples as non-charred ones. Wood and peat/dung are both likely to have been used as fuel. Although they would generally have been burned to ash, the close proximity of these materials to fi re on a regular basis would have meant that some material was likely to charred and there-fore to survive archaeologically. Although they may have become charred in a similar way to the leaves discussed above, it is likely that the high percentage of their occur-rence in conjunction with non-charred material is a factor of their widespread presence at the site (86% and 77% of samples containing charred material). Charred and non-charred wood and peat/dung nodules may occur together simply because they are all present in a high number of samples, and may not necessarily originate from a com-mon source. The only identifi cation category to occur independently of non-charred material is seaweed. This is highly likely to be due to preservation - non-charred seaweed is very unlikely to survive, even with very good levels of preservation. Fragments of burnt bone were also recovered from two samples, but they were too small to be identifi able. These may represent another fuel at the site or waste from cooking.

THE NON-CHARRED ASSEMBLAGEThe non-charred seed assemblage was analysed by cor-respondence analysis. All charred seed types were ex-cluded from the analysis, as were types which could not be assigned to habitat association categories. Sam-ples were not included if, after removing the charred and unassigned types, they contained less than 30 items (samples 393, 1475, 1682, 1964, 2147, 2219, 2734 and 2752 were not included for this reason). All seed types included were present in at least 10% of the analysed samples. This resulted in 19 samples and 33 types and the plot [Fig. 131] shows several samples with a high score on at least one axis due to a high proportion of Hippuris vulgaris in sample 1641, and Selaginella selaginoides in samples 595 and 1760. These were excluded from subse-quent analyses to allow more detailed investigation of the remaining samples. Samples were categorised by archae-ological context, and plant macrofossil types by habitat

association; the results are represented as pie charts. The classifi cation of Montia fontana ssp. fontana, the most commonly occurring seed type, is problematic. It may have originated from a number of sources, including as a component of turves or in ruderal communities around the settlement. The correspondence analysis plots M. fon-tana ssp. fontana in association with taxa which tend to occur in a range of habitats, especially those that tend to be present in hayfi elds, although this may just be an indi-cation that all are commonly occurring species.

The majority of samples were situated in a single spread drawn out along the fi rst axis [Fig. 132, but also see Fig. 131]. The fi rst axis differentiates at the positive end the samples with a higher contribution from types as-sociated with the less fertile soil conditions of the outfi eld and the nutrient-poor or nutrient-intermediate wet soils or water [Fig. 132]. Most of the samples have low or nega-tive values on the fi rst axis, and tend to have a greater contribution of taxa from nutrient-rich habitats such as ruderal areas and hayfi elds. The pattern of samples on the second axis seems to distinguish the ruderal component which is more signifi cant at the positive end. Samples 570 (outside area between Building I and House II) and 1400 (House II, phase 3, fl oor) are located at the positive end of the second axis, due to the high proportion of Alo-pecurus geniculatus (water foxtail) and Juncus bufonius (toad rush) in 570 and J. bufonius in 1400.

The samples located at the positive end of the fi rst axis (samples 2711, 2665, 1622, 2653 and 2654) and the second axis (samples 570 and 1400) were excluded as they were responsible for the most signifi cant differ-ence between samples in the previous analysis. Alopecu-rus geniculatus, Hippuris vulgaris and Rhinanthus minor (yellow rattle) were also removed as they were present in less than 10% of the remaining samples. The analysis was then repeated. Samples 1399, 1963 and 2265 were dif-ferentiated from the rest of the samples by high positive values on the fi rst axis [Fig. 132]. They had a higher pro-portions of taxa occurring in various habitats but tending to occur in hayfi elds and lower proportions of M. fontana ssp. fontana than other samples [Fig. 133].

Various kinds of non-charred vegetative material were present in the Toftanes samples. The matrix of sev-eral samples (1682 from outside Building I, and 2665 and 2734 from the pre-occupation deposits) was dominated by Sphagnum. This may have been naturally present in the area, although it would be unusual to build a house

Toftanes. A Viking Age Farmstead in the Faroe Islands

140

on an area of land wet enough for Sphagnum to grow ex-tensively.

Samples taken from the interior of the buildings, es-pecially from the fl oors, contain the greatest diversity of vegetative material. Wood and twigs were generally pre-sent in the fl oors, but they only dominated the matrix of sample 1995. Twigs and fragments of dwarf shrubs which would have grown locally, Calluna vulgaris, Salix sp. (willow), Juniper communis and possibly Betula (birch) sp., were recovered both charred and non-charred, whilst non-native types, Picea/Pinus (spruce/pine) and possi-bly Quercus (oak) sp., were found non-charred. Several pieces of J. communis and both of the non-native taxa exhibited cut marks. This seems to indicate that, whilst local wood resources were used as fuel (as well as for

other purposes that did not involve contact with fi re), non-local types were not. Wood and twigs were present in the majority of samples in similar quantities. The richest sample in terms of wood content was located in Building I (sample 1995), and contained a concentration of twigs (predominantly non-charred Calluna vulgaris, with some charred C. vulgaris and J. communis) and moss. This could indicate storage of resources before use, their ac-cidental incorporation into the fl oor due to use in the area, deliberate incorporation to level the fl oor or absorb liq-uid, or the collapse of roof material (some of which may have been charred by lamp fl ames or sooty deposits on the thatch (cf. Letts 1999) during abandonment.

The leaves, seed capsules and twigs of Calluna vul-garis and the leaves and twig segments of Juniperus

Fig. 131. Graphical representation of results of canonical analysis. 19 samples and 33 types were included in the analysis. Samples containing less than 30 items were excluded (samples 393, 1475, 1682, 1964, 2147, 2219, 2734 and 2752) as were seed types present in less than 10% of the samples.

Samples are marked with circles and types with crosses. Hipp indicates Hippuris vulgaris, selsel indicates Selaginella selaginoides.

Acta Archaeologica

141

a)

b)Fig. 132. Graphical representation of results of canonical analysis on samples from Toftanes. Only samples containing more than 30 items were analysed, and the outlying samples from Fig. 131 (595, 1641 and 1760) were excluded. All taxa present in more than 10% of samples were included. a) plot of samples categorised by archaeological context. See Fig. 125 for key; b) plot showing samples represented as pie charts based on the seed

component of the samples, with taxa categorised by their habitat association category. See Fig. 125 for key.

Toftanes. A Viking Age Farmstead in the Faroe Islands

142

a)

b)

Fig. 133. Graphical representation of results of canonical analysis on samples from Toftanes. Only samples containing more than 30 items were analysed, and the outlying samples from Fig. 131 and 132 (570, 595, 1400, 1622, 1641, 1760, 2653, 2654, 2665 and 2711) were excluded. All taxa present in more than 10% of samples were included. a) plot of samples categorised by archaeological context. See Fig. 125 for key; b) plot showing samples represented

as pie charts based on the seed component of the samples, with taxa categorised by their habitat association category. See Fig 125 for key.

Acta Archaeologica

143

communis are almost entirely confi ned to samples from within the buildings. They are likely to have been brought to the site from the dwarf shrub heath attached to twigs, and indicate that the twigs were not stripped of their leaves and other attachments prior to being brought into the settlement. They may have been brought to the site for construction, fl oor-lining or other purposes within the settlement. Leaves, seed capsules and twigs of Calluna vulgaris and Juniperus communis are less frequent in the abandonment phase of House II, which may indicate that their use was more often associated with occupa-tion, rather than the construction of the building itself, although the presence of a juniper rope with a weight at-tached, interpreted as a roof weight, may be evidence of its use in construction (Larsen 1991).

The fl oors contain evidence for the use of other re-sources at the site. Charred and non-charred nodules of peat/dung were present in most samples, and dominate the matrix of samples 393 and 1475. In areas poor in other sources of fuel, sheep dung was widely burnt (e.g. Miller & Smart 1984).

7.2. WOOD REMAINS FROM TOFTANESKJELD CHRISTENSEN

INTRODUCTIONDue to excellent conditions for the preservation of wood the excavations at Toftanes produced abundant wooden fragments and objects [Note 41]. Approximately two hundred of these were of excellent quality and sent for conservation to the Watterlogged Wood Conservation Department of the National Museum of Denmark. In con-nection with the conservation, the objects were identifi ed by Nancy Eskildsen.

A special group of wooden objects was that of juniper ropes. These fi nds were conserved during the excavation in Leirvík, and were preliminarily published by Larsen (1991).

A grant from the Danish Research Council for the Hu-manities in 1996 allowed the present author to examine a further 150 samples from Toftanes [Note 42].

The results of the investigation are presented in Tables 4 and 5. An anatomical differentiation between Picea sp. and Larix sp. is diffi cult (Philips 1948; Bartholin 1979), and not attempted here; if necessary, it can be performed

later, as a small sample is preserved from all the investi-gated objects.

In the following the information on the present ap-pearance of the tree-species in the Faroes is based on Ostenfeld & Gröntved (1934), unless otherwise stated. Information on pollen fi nds is based on Jóhansen (1982; 1985), information on wood fi nds on Jóhansen (1985) and Malmros (1990; 1994). Information on driftwood derives from Ingvarson (1903), Scott (1951), Graham (1952), Dickson (1992) and Eggertson (1993). The ques-tion of import of wood has been discussed by Stummann Hansen (1988; 1996b) and Small (1969; 1970).

LOCAL SPECIESOf the identifi ed coniferous trees/shrubs, only juniper grows in the Faroes (cf. chapter 4.6.12). The samples from Toftanes are regarded as being of local origin.

Of the deciduous trees dwarf-willow (Salix herba-cea L.) and the low shrub species tea-leaved willow (S. phylicifolia L.) and gray willow (S. glauca L.) grows naturally in the Faroes. On the other hand no tree-form willow-species (for instance bay willow, S. pentandra L, and crack willow, S. fragilis L) grow here, and according to palynlogical investigations this was also the situation in the Viking Age. The samples of willow all derive from house posts or stakes and were unlikely to derive from the local shrub vegetation. It must therefore be assumed that these samples are from tree trunks which have come to the Faroes from the outside.

Hazel does not grow naturally in the islands today but was probably there in the Viking Age. Hazel nuts have been found on most Viking Age sites in the Faroes, and a hazel trunk with chipping marks in the lower end was found at Argisbrekka. As hazel nuts do not spread with ocean currents, Malmros (1994) concluded that hazel was cultivated in the islands in the Viking Age, although on a small scale, as the species is not represented in pollen diagrams. Three samples of hazel were identifi ed in the material from Toftanes. Two of these were small, three-year old twigs from the same context number. The third piece was a fragment of a c. 3 cm thick, nine-year old trunk or branch. Thus the fi nds from Toftanes would seem to substantiate the assumption that hazel grew in the Far-oes in the Viking period.

The European aspen (Populus sp.) does not grow naturally in the Faroes today, and wood from this species seems not to have been identifi ed in the islands previous-

Toftanes. A Viking Age Farmstead in the Faroe Islands