Η ΚΑΛΛΙΕΡΓΕΙΑ ΤΗΣ ΦΙΣΤΙΚΙΑΣ Pistacia Vera KatsogiannosChristos2012__1

8/10/2019 Pistacia Vera KatsogiannosChristos2012__1

1/140

1

Pistacia vera

.

:

2012


2/140

2

. 3

1) . 5

2) . 8

3) . 19

4) . 23

5) . 27

6) . 29

7) . 37

8) . 40

9) . 41

10) . 45

11) . 56

12) . 64

13) -- . 73

14) . 77

15) . 93

16) . 105

17) - . 108

18) . 130

. 134

. 136


3/140

3

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17

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6/140

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2002 18

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4000-4500 -

350 -400 .

1.1

5 5,70 ,

4,80 /.

2009, 7

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2007 4.96 /

2008 5.95 /

2009 7.00 /

2010 4.80 /

2011 5-5.70 /

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( /966-7552.07 ) AGROCERT.

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8/140

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2.1

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P.vera ,

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9/140

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36000 85000 56000 94000

39000 35000 30000 60000


10/140

10

14000 36000 306000 33000

22000 32000 32000 32000

5000 5000 6000 7000

2000 1000 3000 -

.3 (m.t.)

:FAO Production Yearbook, vol. 54,2000

1998 16.636 442.369 508.170 1.035 2/3

/

1/3

1999 18.263 480.645 545.318 1.257

2001 20.937 555.136 617.521 1.223

2002 20.930 555.507 616.283 1.566

.4.

:FAO Production Yearbook, vol. 54,2000

2.2 ,

(Pistacia vera L.) Anacardiaceae.

Pistacia Zohari (1950-1952) 11.

.

P. Terebinthus L. ( , ) P. Lentiscus L. (,

) P. Mutica F. Et M.,

P. Atlantica Desf. (Med. Cheek List, Flora Europaea).

.


11/140

11

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45-95%, .

-15C 18C .

45-50% .

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Pistacia .

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6-10 . , , 10-20

10-20 .

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100 .

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( P. vera) :


12/140

12

. 1.Pistacia terebinthus( )

2-5 ,

. 7-13

, , .1,

.

.

.

600 :

i. ()

ii. ( )

iii. ()

iv. ( )

v. ()

vi. ()

vii. ()

viii. ()

Pistacia terebinthus.(.1).

( )

.

(P. terebinthus).


13/140

13

.

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. 2.Pistacia palaestina Linn( )

10 , 20 .

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P. Palaestina, .


14/140

14

3.Pistacia lentiscus( )

Pistacia lentiscus(.3)

, 1-5 , (4-10

) .

.

(Pistacia lentiscus var, chia),

, , ,

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. 4.Pistacia atlantica( )

20 ,

.

.

.

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15/140

15

. .4

. 5.Pistacia sinensis( )

15-20 ,

9-13 . . Pistacia sinensis (.5)

.

.

.

6.Pistacia Mexicana( )

. (18-25).

(.6).


16/140

16

. 7.Pistacia inutica( )

. . , ,

10 . (3-9).

(.7).

. ,

.

. 8.Pistacia vera( )

(.8). Zohary (1952)

Pistacia 2= 24

P. Lentiscus L. (n = 12), 2= 28 P. atlantica Desf. (n = 14) 2= 30

P. vera L. (n = 15), Jones (1950) P. vera L.

2= 32 (n = 16).

2.3 P. Vera


17/140

17

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18/140

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20-95%, .


19/140

19

3.

3.1

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> 5-9 ( .. 7 ),

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(Aschouri).

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22 mm,

11 mm.

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20/140

20

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(12 mm 11 mm)

(19 mm).

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22 mm ( ),

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21/140

21

3.2

,

Napoletana, Femminella, Natarola Agostara, Napoletana

(90% )

. Napoletana

,

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(. 1.P. terebinthus),

.

.

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20% .

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Bronte, Trabonella, Red Aleppo ..

.

, 10

3 5 Kerman.

Bronte

Trabonella ( ) , Red

Aleppo , Kerman ,

o () .

>

Kerman.

( P. atlantica )

.

: Ghazvin , Mondaz

, Owhadi , Ibrahimi , Shasti , Sefideh , Vahedi , Wohadi Imperiale de Damechan.

,


22/140

22

,

, .

. (

)

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( 15-20 )

.

.

Keri, Messaria, Aschouri, Olemi, Batturi, Aschouri

O .


23/140

23

4.

15 40

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24/140

24

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25/140

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26/140

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27/140

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28/140

28

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29/140

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6.

6.1 ) .

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(P. Palaestina) (P.

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( P. Khinjuk) . (

P. lentiscus), .

6.2 )

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30/140

30

.12. Pistacia terebinthus .

(.12) ,

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31/140

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32/140

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33/140

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35/140

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38/140

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39/140

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40/140

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47/140

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58/140

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59/140

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60/140

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63/140

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64/140

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66/140

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67/140

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69/140

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71/140

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73/140

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75/140

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76/140

76

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77/140

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14.

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14.2

Phytophthora

1952

(Kouyeas 1952). (Ershad 1971, Banihashemi

1995) (Macdonald & . 1992)

(Teviotdale 1995).

( 1973).


78/140

78

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.


79/140

79

Phytophthora .

Phytophthora nicotianae Breda de Haan, syn. P. parasitica

Dastur P. citrophthora (Smith & Smith) Leonian.

P. Citricola Sawada

Phytophthora

( 1973) .

P. Citrophthora, P.

Drechsleri Tucker, P. cryptogea Pethybridge & Lafferty, P nicotianae P.

megasperma Drechsler(Banihashemi 1995). P.

nicotianae(Ervin & Ribeiro 1996), P. Capsici LeonianP. Cryptogea(MacDonald

& . 1992).

P. citrophthora P.citricola .

Pistacia vera ( ) P. Terebinthus ( )

, P. vera , P. Terebinthus P.

nicotianae P. citrophthora P. Citricola Phytophthora sp.

( 1973 ).

,

P. terebinthus ,

. ,

P. citricola,

, ( 1968 ).

P. citricola P. terebinthus

.

Phytophthora

.

. .


80/140

80

,

.

, ,

.

.

.

,

. ,

.

.

, . P.

nicotianae

( Kouyeas 1952 ).

1. .

.

50-70 cm

.

2.

.

50cm

.

.

.

.

3. (

)


81/140

81

, .

450 + 900

+ 6.800 ml , 6-13-100.

,

,

.

.

.

:

1. .

.

( ),

, metham sodium ( Vapam )

.

.

2. (

).

:

,

2 .

.

.


82/140

82

14.3 Septoria

.19 .

Septoria , S. Pistaciae

Desm., S. Pistacina Allescher S. pistaciarum Caracciolo.

, (

Chitzanidis 1956 ). S. pistaciarum S. pistaciae

( Maas k . 1971, Young k Michailides 1989, Michailides 1991 ).

S. pistacina S. pistaciarum S. pistaciae

Apostolides ( 1952 ) P. lentiscus.

S. pistaciae (

Granata k . 1996 ). S. pistaciarum

Pistacia terebinthus, P. atlantica P. chinensis.

P. vera( Maas k . 1971, Young k Michailides 1989 ).

. S.

Pictacina . .20. Michailides ( 1991 )

S. pistaciae.

. Sarejanni (1935)

S. Pistacina .

Acrantus vestitus( Muls k Rey ).


83/140

83

S. pistaciae ,

.

S. pistaciae. ,

, 0,5-1,5 mm,

, ( Chitzanidis 1956 ).

Michailides ( 1991 )

1-4 mm,

.

S. pistacina.

. .

5 mm,

,

,

.

. .

.

.

,

.

S. pistaciarum.

, 1 mm.

, 2,5 mm

.

,

.

.


84/140

84

S. pistacina S. pistaciarum (

Chitzanidis 1956 ). .

, ( Chitzanidis

1956, & 1971 ).

.

.

S. pistaciarum 10C

(- & 1976).

20

C 25

C (- 1979).

.

.

S. pistaciarum

(- 1979).

. S. pistacina ,

30 S. pistaciarum 10

(Chitzanidis 1956). .

(- 1989).

. (- 1979).

,

(Chitzanidis 1956). Sarejianni (1935b)

S. pistacina :

. .

- (1979)

S. pistaciarum .

.

-

(Matheron & Call 1997).


85/140

85

14.4 Pileolaria terebinthi

.20

( Assawah 1969, Corazza & Avanzato 1985 ), (

Bhardwaj 1995 ) ( Cummins & Ling 1950 ).

Pistacia vera P. terebinthus. P. chinensis,

P. weinmannifolia ( Cummins & Ling 1950 ), P. saporte P. mytica ( Cuyot

1958 ), P. palaestina ( Cuyot 1967 ) ( P. lentiscus ),

Sydow & Sydow 1910.

P. vera 1936 ( Sarejanni 1936 )

P. terebinthus Pantidou & Henderson ( 1969 ).

P. lentiscus Bornmuller ( 1973 ).

( 1992 ).

. ( 1992 )

1991 95 %

, .

Assawah ( 1969 ) ,

.

( El Hariri 1969, 1992 ). 1981

( , ...).

(

).

.20 (Pileolaria terebinthi)


86/140

86

,

, ,

.

.

, .

.

.

.

.

. ,

, , 1 mm

.

, , 3-4 mm

,

.

.

.

.

maneb, mancozeb, .

maneb .

14.5

( Camarosporium pistaciae ) .21

&

. ( 1974 ).

. , . .


87/140

87

25 50 %.

, , , , , , , ,

.

.

.21.

. .

.

,

5 mm .

. ,

1-2 mm,

. .

,

.

. ,

, .


88/140

88

,

.

, ,

.

.

1938

, , ,

Phomopsis sp. ,

& . ( 1974 )

C. pistaciae.

Michailides & Ogawa ( 1986 )

Botryosphaeria dothidea ( Mong : Fr. )

Ces & de Not., ( Dothiorella sp. ). ,

, C.

pistaciae. Michailides & Ogawa ( 1986 ),

.

C. pistaciae .

1. ( ,

) .

( Michailides & . 1997b, 1999 ).

.

2. ( Palumbina guerinii )

,

.

.


89/140

89

.

: ,

.

,

.

iprodione, tebuconazole azoxystrobin (

Michailides & . 1997b, 2001).

.

.

azoxystrobin

.

C. pistaciae

.

2.2. Phomopsis sp., Camarosporium pistaciae

Fusicoccum sp. (Botryospheria dothidea)

.

Phomopsis sp. Camarosporiumpistaciae

Fasicoccum sp.

(Botryosphaeria

dothidea)

1938

&

.1974

Fusicoccum sp.

(Botryosphaeria

dothideaa)

,

.

.

)

Macrophoma

Fusicoccum

Dothiorella

11-32

x 5-11 m.

Macrophoma

Fusicoccum

Dothiorella.

17-27 x 5,5-9

m.

,

,


90/140

90

Macrophoma

Fusicoccum

Dothiorella

phaeophragmiae

phaeodictiae.

B)

4-12 x 2-5 m

()

hyalophragmiae

phaeophragmiae

.

.

.


91/140

91

.

.

.

.

.

,

1-2

mm.

.

.

/

.

.

,

.

.

.

,

.

.

.


92/140

92

(Pentatomidae)

(Tinea

pistaciae, syn.

Palumbina

guerinii)

(

)

(Palumbina

guerinii)

,

(

)

(Pentatomidae)

25C

5-37 C,

30C

6-36C,

27-30

C

.6 Phomopsis sp., Camarosporium pistaciaeFusicoccum sp. (

Botryospheria dothidea) .


93/140

93

15.

15.1

. ()

().

, .

.

15.2

.

.

.22

.

.

Macrolenes dentipes

Lachnaea .

.

M.dentipes

Pseudocoeloides rubricus, ,

, .

Pistacia. .


94/140

94

.22Macrolenes dentipes,

.23. Lachnaea

Chrysomelidae.

. 3.5-11 mm .

. ,, , .

.

.

,

.

.

.

. .


95/140


96/140

96

, ,

20 .

. Rosaceae.

. Pistacia P. vera.

:

.

.

.

.

. A.rosanus

.

: Habrobracon sp.

(Braconidae) Omorgus sp. Pimpla maculator(Ichneumonidae).

Teleiodesdecorella (Haworth 1812)

(Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae)

: Tinea decorella Haworth,

Gelechia Humerallis Zeller,

Teleia humeralis Zeller


97/140

97

Telfusa Humeralis Zeller

Adrosteia Humeralis Zeller

Anacampsis lyellela Humphreys & Westwood,

Lita incetella Duponchel,

GGelechia scabra Staninger,

15.4 Carpatolechia dumitrescui Capuse.

, ,

Archips rosanus (.25) .

,

.

.

.25.Archips rosanus

Sattler (1982)

, , ,

.

. Abies,

Quercus, Rhus, Cornus, Phillyrea Pistacia. O Goergiou (1977)

P. terebinthus & .(1994) P.vera

. Sattler (1982) .

Quercus sp.


98/140

98

.

:

. .

,

A. rosanus.

.

.

. Lhomme

(1946) Balachowsky (1966) .

.

15.5 Thaumetopoea solitaria Freyer 1838

( Lepidoptera :Thaumetopoeidae )

.26.Thaumetopoea solitaria

(.26) Anacardiaceae.

Pistacia ( Halperin 1983 ).

. .

, T. pityocampa.

.

.


99/140

99

. ,

.

,

.

60 . . . T. solitaria

.

15.6

.

(Palumbina guerinii) (Eurytoma plotnicovi)

.

( Lachnaea )

diazinon.

().

.

15.7

Agonoscena spp.

Pistacia,

Agonoscena, .

.

.24.

Agonoscena

Pistacia, : A. succinct ( Haeger 1856 ), A. targioni (Lichtenstein 1974), A. cisti

(Puton 1882), A. menozzii (Laing 1928), A. cisti (Hodkinson & Hollis 1981) A. pistaciae Burckhard & Lauterer 1989

(Hodkinson & Hollis 1981, Burckhard & Lauterer 1989).

Agonoscena

,

. A. succinta,

(Hodkinson & Hollis 1981)

Ruta. A. pistaciae A.

targioni(Burkhardt & Lauterer 1989).


100/140

100

A. pistaciae P.vera, (Lauterer &

. 1998 ), A. targioni P. lentiscus ( Ayutantis & .1953 ) P.

vera ( & . 1996), A. cisti P. vera ( &

1998, Souliotis & Tsourgianni 2000) P.lentiscus (Burckhardt

1987, Lauterer & . 1998). Georgiou (1977) P. vera A. menozii (=A.cisti).

(Davatchi 1958, Boselli 1929-1931),

(Mohammed & Sheet 1989, Mart & .1995).

, , (

, ...) ( & .1996,

& . 1997).

15.8 Agonoscena pistaciae Burckhardt & Lauterer 1989

(Homoptera : Psyllidae)

.

, .

. ,

.

,

, .

.27


101/140

101

A.pistaciae , , , , ,

, . , ,

.

: P. vera, P. terebinthus, P. atlantica, P.

mutica, P. palestina.

.

.

. ,

.

, ,

. ,

, , .

A. pistaciae 4-5 .

15.9

A. Pistaciae : , Psyllophagus spp.

Metaphycus spp. Chrysopidae

Coccinellidae. . Souliotis &

Tsourgianni (2000) Chrysoea Steph., Anthocoris nemoralis F.,Psyllaephagus pistaciaeFerriere Coccinellidae.

(Palumbina guerinii)

(Eurytoma plotnikovi) .

(cypermethrine

.) . .

,

. ,

diazinon triflumuron,

.

triflumuron .

,

.


102/140

102

15.10 Idiocerus stali Fieber 1824

( Hemiptera : Jassidae )

: Idiocerus pistaciae Anagnos

.

.28 .

. .28.

( 1935 )

Idiocerus pistaciae Anagnos.

I. Stali.

.26 .

.

0,1-0,5 mm.

.

.

. ( 1935 ) Davatchi ( 1958 ) .

, ,

( Davatchi 1958 ), ( Talhouk 1969 ), ( Gentry 1965,

Schneider 1958 ), ( Georgiou 1977 ), ( Gerini 1971, Mart &

. 1995 ).


103/140

103

Pistacia vera P. mutica P.

khinjuk ( Davatchi 1958 ).

.29.

(1935) Davatchi (1958).

Davatchi:

.

Pistacia Eleagnus angustifolius, Prunus armeniaca..

(Davatchi 1958).

.

(Davatchi 1958).

.

. 70 (Davatchi

1958). .

.

Davatchi . . ,

Jassidae. .

.

. ,

.

.


104/140

104

(Plumbina guerinii)

(Eurytoma plotnikovi) .

, diazinon.

.


105/140

105

16.

, .

150 . 25

. ,

,

( )

( )

( ).

,

, ,

. ,

,

( ). ,

. 5 50 %

.

, ,

(, .)

(, .)

.

, ,

( ),

,

, .

. (70 % )

,

( ). ,


106/140

106

,

7m x 7m. ,

.30 .

.30

(

) > ,

, ,

,

. , .

, ,

,

.

() , ,

.27,

.

. ,

, 10 %

,

(, ,

.). , ,

,

.


107/140

107

,

.

,

.31 .

.

, .

, .


108/140

108

17. -

,

,

.

.

.

.

17.1

,

,

. ,

,

, .

, ,

, ,

.

. ,

.

.

(

Michailides & Teviotdale 1994, Doster & Michailides 2002 ).

( 2 % )

, ,

,

, ( Pearson


109/140

109

1996 ). ,

, ,

,

,

,

.

Doster (2001)

: )

, ) ) .

. , ,

. ,

.

.

,

(

Doster & Michailides 2003 ).

, ,

, ,

(Doster & Michailides 1995 ).

(

5% ) ,

.

,

, , ,


110/140

110

. ,

, ,

( Pearson & . 1994 ).

, ,

, ( Pearson &

Slaughter 1996 ).

,

, .

( Doster & Michailides 2002 ).

17.2

Pistacia,

( P.vera L. ),

( ) ,

,

, .

(

).

( ),

( ), ,

( ) . ,

,

.

,

,

.

. (

),

,


111/140

111

. ,

.

.,

, .

( 1987 )

, .

.

, , ,

.

. ,

.

.

ethephon . Torabi ( 1980 )

ethephon ,

Fandoghi. , Crane & synergy. ( 1982 ), ethephon

kerman, , ,

, .

17.3

, (

) .

.

,

.


112/140

112

32. ().

-.(2011).

.32,

500 800 .

. , 38 %

. 2,65 , .

, ,

.

33. . - (2011).


113/140

113

(.33)

65 C 8 .30. ,

2-3 3-4 .

5-6 %.

8-10%.

40:100.

,

, ,

, .

.

2 6

,

,

, .

, .

7 % ,

, 40%.

.34 .( .)


114/140

114

.

,

,

.

( )

,

() .

28% .

38%.

.

. .34

.

.

,

.


115/140

115

35. .( -)

(Aktas and Polat, 2007). ,

,

.

peroxidation .

,

(Kashani Nejad et al., 2007). ,

.

.

.

(Aw), (moisture content),

.

2.

2.1Aw.

(Aw)

, ,

/

.

, /

(Anthony and Fontana, 2000). (Magan and Aldred, 2007).


116/140


117/140

117

,

Aw (P < 0.05),

,

.

,

.

.

(= ).

Pahlevan zadeh and Jafarian (2002)

15 35C (

). ,

(adsorption and desorption)

(sorption;).

2.3

,

. ,

,

. , ,

.

, ,

, turbulence.

,

70 .

.

. ,

.

(Kashani Nejad, 2009).

Kashani nejad and Tabil (2009)

(Ohadi ).

, , .

4.0838.40% (w.b.) 55%

.


118/140

118

Gazor et al (2005b) 1.5 2.5

m/s, 10%.

, 90C, peroxide

(;) 0.55meq/kg, .

37. . ( -

).

2.4

Kashani nejad et al. (2007)

Ohadi

(Page model) .

.

2.5

. (116-138C)

. ,

. Gazor et al.,

(2003) Kalehghouchi. , 75C 90C
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119/140

119

50%,

.

.

25%.

.

()

.

100C

100C 200C. , ,

,

.

(Yazdanpanah, 2005).

3.

. ,

(Nakhaei Nejad, 2007) :

1) ,

.

2)

3)

4)

5) , 4-6%.

:

3.1

2 3 cm

2 26,5 C (RH)

18%.

.
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120/140

120

38. ..

,

, , , , , . ,

, .

.

HACCP (hazard analysis critical control points) .

3.2

.35.

. Midilli and Kucuk (2003a)

(. 38).
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121/140

121

39.

40 60 C (200 808

w/m2 ) 1.23 m/ s 6 h.

Ghazanfari et al., (2003)

. 56C, 20C

.

36 h.

21% (wb).

6% wb, 1%

. ,

(Ghazanfari et al., 2003).

,

.

.

.

(Ghazanfari et al., 2003).
http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_BocHjyfkvFg/TRx2kw53RdI/AAAAAAAAARk/6jPVXHA1mHU/s1600/fig+5.jpg


122/140

122

3.3

.40 8

652C. 3 (Fig. 6 ) .

40. (Kashani Nejad, 2002)

3.4

( 4- Fig.

8 ) 10 . ()

( ) 45 40C, .
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123/140

123

41. (Rostami and Mirdamadiha, 2004)

3.5

( 42)

552C 8 .

42. (KashaniNejad,2002)

3.6

( 43),

.

80C 5,5 .
http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_BocHjyfkvFg/TRx6OgpEL_I/AAAAAAAAARs/r2P6Yt7yPmY/s1600/fig+9.jpg


124/140

124

43. (Kashani Nejad, 2002)

3.7

70C 5 .

44.

3.8

70C 4 ( 45)
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125/140

125

45.

3.9

, 10-12% 2.5-3 hours. ( 46)

46.

4.

Midilli (2001)

. ,

,

50 + 10 C 6 .

28 + 4 C .

29%
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126/140

126

.

Ghazanfari et al. (2003)

.

.

,

.

55C.

,

, , (case

hardening), . .

Gazor et al (2005a)

( 8).

.

( ) .

.

,

.

10 cm. Kashani Nejad et al.

(2002),

.

,

(value) peroxide thiobarbituric acid .

.

; (firmness).

(2.427%)

(3.272%)

.

.

.

.


127/140

127

.

. .

.

,

.

.

.

.

Rostami Midamadiha (2004)

(, , ). 4-6%

1.21mm

1.07mm .

.

47. .

.

.

.

, , 8,5, 15,1 and

38,5 1% , .

4-6%

10-12% (w.b.) .

4-6% (w.b.)
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128/140

128

.

,

. .

2 .

, () .

, ,

, , ,

,

.

.

(, , )

,

.

,

. 25-30 ,

.

,

, , ,

, , ( .

)

. ,

, ,

,

.

.

( ),

,

.

.


129/140

129

, ,

2 %

. ,

50 55 .

65

75% 4 8 C

.


130/140

130

18.

(aflatoxins)

.

(), ,

( ), ,

, .

( ..), (, .

. '

(Hepatitis B virus, HBV),

(hepatocellular carcinoma, HCC). HBV

1-DNA

p53.

HBV,

.

.

AFM1- .

24 .

. AFB1- .

90%

,

2-3 .

(1-2% )

. ,

..

Aspergillus spp. .

Aspergillus

(Denizel & synergy. 1976a, Mojtahedi & . 1979, Doster &

Michailides 1994b).

, .

,

.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allergyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allergyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaphylaxishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaphylaxishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaphylaxishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allergy


131/140

131

,

Aspergillus flavus A. Parasiticus

, .

( . , .. , .. )

. :

) Aspergillus spp.

,

)

,

)

A. Flavus

, ( Sommer &

. 1976). .

( Doster & Michailides 1994b ).

A. Flavus A. Parasiticus

, .

,

, .

,

. A. flavusA. parasiticus

.

Amyelois transitella(Thomson


132/140

132

& Mehdy 1978). Mahoney & Molyneux (1998),

,

. A. flavus

,

.

(Denizel & .

1976a).

() .

( Mojtahedi 1979). A.

flavus A. parasiticus .

,

, ...

.

. Sommer (1986)

,

,

,

. A. flavus A. parasiticus

17-42 C.

. A. flavus 4h

50C 2%0.

( Hussein & . 1986).

.

.

25-35 C ( Pettit 1984 ).

.

A. flavusA.

parasiticus

.

3-4 8-9 %


133/140

133

65%.

.

80%,

13 %( Denizel & . 1976b ).

65C 8 5-6 %(

1996).

7 %( Ferguson & ,1995).

.

( )

.

.

.

( Pearson & . 1999).

:

1. .

2. , .


134/140

134

, .

.

, ..

...

, .

.,

...

.

, ,

. ,

.

,

,

.

,

,

marketing , .


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