2006

2

3

[DO]

[ASR]

-- (: --) [shallow] () () . - -, , -. - , -- . , () (S-structure).

, () ( (), --) [anchor, anchoring, anchored] -. , (3) . , . . , , , () (): +, .

() [agrammatism] . , - . . , ( ) (paragrammatism) ( ). , , , .

[REST]

-- ( ()) [sister] . () .

() [sister] --

- () ( ) (: ) [A-binding, A-bar-binding]

() [unbounded dependency] - ( ) (1) (.. (1)). , , , -WH - . , , , , - , . ... , . , - . .

-- (--) [stray] - (.. , ) -

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, , . , , (. - ) ( (stray syllable adjunction)). H (stray erasure) - -. , - . , hymn/hymnal, /mn/ . , - /him.n/ (unsyllabified) /n/, ( ) .

-- ( ()) [opaque (opacity)] (1) - - , (1). (opacity) .

(2) , (1) . , They believe [each other intelligent] , each other - . each other - ( (1)), . , each other - They believe [each other to be intelligent] (they).

(3) , (referential opacity) ( ) - .

(4) - (2) . ( ), (opaque) (transparent). , - -. , - , , -, .

[MDP]

[SAAD] (5) ---

() [aerometry] , (electroaerometry). , - (electroaerometer), .

[CAP]

-- [unvoiced]

() (: ()) [postulates] . . , , (. --). - , Leonard Bloomfield () ( 1926) Bernard Bloch ( 1948).

-- [causative] (2). , - , (

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). , , .. - (= ). (.. , ), (non-causative) (.. , (-) , she makes him eat ). - , ( kill die ).

() ( (), ()) [accusative, accusativity, unaccusative] , ( ) . , -, Video hominem, *Video homo, hominem . - . -, , , - Dog bites postman , - . postman . - (Postman bites dog ), . - , .. He hit him , She saw her , The man whom I saw . - , . - . (unaccusative) -.

[ID]

() [small clause]

-- [non-headed]

[ECP] -

() ( ()) [sequence, sequencing] - . , (--- ), , . - , , (1) (.. , * ), - ( ) . (sequencing) , -, ( , , - ). - , - . - . - .

() [audible friction]

() (--, ()) [acoustic phonetics, acoustic, acoustics] , (acoustics), . , . -, . , . , -

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, , NH. , , - (.. -) . , , , , - , . , . , ( ) ( ) , - .

()/ () [acoustic feature/cue] , .. , , . . , - , . (acoustic cues). - JAKOBSON () Halle, .

() [loudness] (soft) (loud). - (intensity) ( (dB)) , . , - ( ) , - , .. - .

- .

- [apico-]

() [edge] , , . , (edge effects): - [+F], , [F], - , . , , - / . - (edge-marking parameter) : ( - ). (phrase edge prominence) , . , - ( ) - - .

-- [edge]

() (: ()) [tip] (2) . - , [r].

() (--, -) [apex, apical, apico-] ( ), -, [r] ( - (apico-dental)). (apical).

() (--) [acrolect, acrolectal] - .

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( ) . - .

() [acronym]

-- [ungoverned] (2)

[DA]

() [algorithm] , . . - , - . - .

() ( (), --, --) [grinding, grinder, ground] , , - . - . (ground nouns) (.. ), - .

-- [grinding]

() [Gods truth] 1950 , - -. - , - . , , - . , - .

-- [alethic] - . (alethic modality) , .. - , , (.. ) - . , - .

() [interaction]

-- [reciprocal] , , .. , . , , -, .

-[allo-] - - . , . , , , , , -, ., .. , , a . , - (allographs) . , , . ( ).

, , (allophones) . , , (. ). /t/, , ( eight ), , eighth , th

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([]) . , /t/. , - (. -). , (.. ). -, (allophonic variant) ( ). : . -.

, - /. -, . , : capcaps , loglogs , forceforces , mousemice , sheepsheep - . [s] caps, [z] logs, mice . (allomorphs) . -, (morpheme (morphemic) alternants).

-, ---. - - - . , - -, 1930. (allochrone) ( - , ), (allokine) ( - , -) (alloseme) ( , -). , -, - , - , , , .

-- (: --) [alienable] - (.. ). - , , - , (inalieable). - (alienable possession) , the boys book (-) the boys leg ( ).

() [chain] (2)

() (: ()), ( (), --) [chain] (1) , - - . ( - (speech chain)), , , , , , , .

(2) , (movement chain).

(3) , , . . - , - : - (drag chain). , - : (push chain). H - , ( - (chain shift)).

(4) , (1) (1). - (clause-chaining language) ( , Hua), (. ).

(5) ( (chaining)) , -

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/ .

() [drag chain] (3)

() [push chain] (3)

/ [chain/choice] - (1) - () () . , / , .

() [concatenation] -, . (1), , .. + + X Y Z ( ...).

-- [catenative] - , : T , , . , (1) .

() (: ()) ( ()) [blend, blending] , , , , ( (blend)). -, (syntactic blends) Its his job is the problem , (2) Its his job His job is the problem . , - ( -), .. : brunch, Interpol Eurovision. - - -, .. swurse swear + curse + . . .

-- [unmarked] --

() () [immediate dominance] (1) : - - .

(2) () (immediate dominance (ID) rule) , . , . - , - .

() () [immediate constituent (IC)] (1), . , , . ( + , + ), . - (immediate-constituent analysis) ( - ) Bloomfield (-).

-- [direct] - (1) (1) - . The man gave the boy a book - , a book (direct object) ( ;) (indirect object). , (. *The man gave the boy * ). - , ( - ) to ( ) .

() [intransitivity]

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-- [invariable] . (invariable invariant) - , .. , , . -, .. /, /

() (--) [invariance, invariant] (1) -, , . , - , .

(2) ( ) -- (1)

() ( ()) [pure vowel] - , , .., . , , (. (1)) .

() ( ()) [mutual intelligibility] . , - , . , - . , , . , (.. ) (.. ).

() [mutual intelligibility]

-- [reciprocal] . ( ) , - . [d] [j] [dZ] could you ....

() [ambifix]

() [biuniqueness]

() [biuniqueness] - , . ( --) . , bin :

/b/ + /I/ + /n/

- - -

[b] + [I] + [n]

. (. -), , (3). (biuniqueness condition), , , , .

() (--) [ambiguity, ambiguous] , , - (2) - . ( ) (grammatical structural ambiguity). , (2) OMH (1), , [ ] ( -) [ ] ( ). -, -

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. , Visiting speakers can be awful - It is awful to visit speakers Speakers who visit are awful . - (multiply ambiguous). - . , - (2), (lexical ambiguity), .. I found the table fascinating / (= . ). - : , ( -). , , - , - ( ; ;) . (6).

() (--, , ()) [ambisyllabicity, ambisyllabic, ambisyllabify, ambisyllabification] - ( ) - , - , .

() [promotion] (1) . (advancement), - , -. (ascension), .

(2) (.. , ) - . , ( ) .

() [ascension] , , .

() [essential conditions]

() [recognition] ,

()/ ()/ () [speaker recognition/identification/verification] , - (. ). - (speaker verification), - . , , . (speaker identification), , . - , - ( ) - .

() [speech recognition] , - - () (automatic speech recognition (ASR)). - (, , .) . ( / ) ( ). -, ( -) , -

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. (1) , - , . - . , - , . , .

() [reordering] (1) - . - (reordering transformations) ( ) , - . , . , .

(2) - , , . -, .. .

() (, --, --, ()) [reduplication, reduplicate, reduplicative, reduplicant] / . , - (1) ( ), .. /lu:o:/ - /leluka/ ( ). , , helter-skelter shilly-shally . , ( (reduplicant)), .

() [restructuring] ()

() [feedback]

() [back-formation] - . , edit editor , -, . , , - editor - , , .. credit/creditor /, inspect/inspector /, act/actor /-. , edit , .

() [spell-out]

() () [revised extended standard theory, REST] , Noam Chomsky () 1970, . . , --. (. () ), ( ). - ( ). , .

-- [unaccusative] , , . , . .

() (: ()) [discovery] - .

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(discovery procedure) . - loomfield () . - . , , -.

[retract]

/ [resyllabify]

() [scrambling] , (.. ). , +++ - +++. (.. ) . - ( (1)) - ( ).

-- ( ()) [retroflex, retroflexion, retroflexed] . - , . (retroflexion) - . r, - ( ), . (retroflex) r ( r ), - -. [t] [d] , , - . [n], [l], [s] [z] .

-- [checked] (1) , Jacobson () Halle -. , . - , , , . T , , [+]. - (unchecked), o .

(2) (5), : (checked syllable) , - (checked vowel) .

-- [resumptive] - . (resumptive pronouns) (.. ) (resumptive relative clauses) (.. , ).

() [anacoluthon] - . - (2), (1) , .. ;. - - .

-- ( ()) [recoverable, recoverability] ( ) , (1). , - .

() [loopback, backlooping] -

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(1) (2) , (.. - ). .

() [reiteration] Halliday () , , -. . . ! . , .. .

() [holding, hold] - , , - - (. ).

() [analogy] - . - . , , .. mens , mans , mouses : - . , .. went/saw/knew goed/seed/knowed . . (analogical creation) , , - -ed, .. healp helped -.

() [type-token ratio] (6)

() [type-token ratio]

() ( ) [levelling, level] , - - . , - , .

-- [proportional] (3) - . H /f/ /v/, .. , , .. /s/ /z/, /S/ /Z/. , , , /v/ /l/ , - .

() [acoustic domain analog]

() [analysis-by-synthesis] - . - , .

() () [conversation analysis, CA] (2) ( ), . - . .

-- ( --) [analysable, unanalysable] - . () , , . , (

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), : --- , . , - , (unanalysable).

-- ( ()) [analytic, analyticity] (1) - ( ) . ( - ). - ( , - ) . . - , , - (analyticity) .

(2) , , . / (analytical proposition/sentence) o , .. . , - .

() [renewal of connection] (1)

-- [representative] --

( ()) [represent, representation] - (2). - (.. //- / ) - . , -, . , - . - , , , , -.

-- [alternating] --

() [compensatory lengthening] , - , , - . , - . , gs - gans, . - ( ).

() [breath group] -. , , - , . , , ., - . ( ). -, .

() [anaphora]

-- [inalienable] --

() [(1) expansion, (1) expand, (2) anaptyxis, (2) anaptyctic] (1) (1) (1) (2), .. - . , - , - (.. + ).

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, .. (.. (gay)). , - , (.. ).

(2) , , - . (parasite vowels) (svarabhakti vowels) ( ). film [fil@m] .

() [reversal] (1) , , .., - . , (sponerisms).

(2) - thirteen men , // / / (iambic reversal) (rhythm rule) (thirteen men rule) ( ). , , .

(: / ) [resyllabify]

( ()) [reconstruct, reconstruction] (1) , , , (- -), . (comparative reconstruction) . , - , - , , - (internal reconstruction).

(2) , . - ; - .

() [(1) backchannelling, (2) feedback] (1) (2) (: ()) .

. , ( ), ( ). (complete feedback) - , (design features) . ( ), ( ) ( - ). (delayed auditory feedback, DAF) , , , . - -. , .

[a-bar-binding] - ( - )

[a-binding] - ( -)

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() [anaphor] - -, ( ). - (.. ), - (.. ) -. - ( ), , . , ().

() [referential indices] ( ) (2) . , () () , , . , ()

i

j, ()

i

i.

. .

-- ( ()) [relative, relativisation] - - (1) , , . (relative pronouns) , , , . (relative clauses) - , (relative adverbs), (.. () , ). -, : (adnominal) (.. ), - (nominal) (.. ), (sentential) (.. ) (zero) - (contact) (.. Theres the bus I caught ). (restrictive defining) (non-restrictive non-defining) -

, : - , , . , (1) - (relativization). . -.

() (--) (: (), --) [anaphora, anaphoric] - ( - ) . (anaphoric reference) . - ( (anaphoric substitutes), (anaphoric words)), , , : . -. ( - ) ( - ). , . . .

-- [chmeur] . chmeur . (1) ( ) . -, , - . - . (2) ( - ), .

-- [main] -- (1)

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() [infelicitous utterance]

-- [elaborated] --

() [discovery]

() [anthropological linguistics] - . , , , ( ) . - , - , , -. .

() [anthropophonics] Jan Baudoin de Courtenay (18451929) - . , (.. ) - . . -, .

-- [rising/rise] (1) . (.. high/low rising, rising/falling) - .

(2) - .

() [aperture] - (1) . -, , () [a]. -: , [a] [i] - , [e]. , ( (1)) - . - ( ). (aperture node). - , . : ( ), ( ) ( (2)).

-- [open] (1) , - , . , , .. [a] [A] (. cat cart). (half-open) (mid-open), .. [] [O] (. get got ). , - ( ).

(2) - , , .. [A] part. , . .

(3) , . - . -. , (+) -

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. (4)

. (open class) . , , . , , - , , . . , , , - (.. in accordance with , on account of - ), -, .. , - .

(5) - (1) (1), . , daddy there, cat there, drink there there - ( , ), daddy . (open class).

(6) . , - .

() [dissimilation] - , . , (.. pilgrim peregrinus, r l). , - , (. ). , , .

() () [resonance, resonate] . - . (resonance chambers) , . , , - .

-- (1) ( --) [(1) echo, (1) non-echo, (2) sonorant] , , - (2) . (.. : . : ;) (.. : ; : !). (non-echo) .

(2) Chomsky () Halle . - - , , , . -- (non-sonorant) ( --) , , - . --.

-- [resonant] , , .., , , . o . , , (2) .

() [counter-bleeding]

-- [contrafactive] , (1) - , , .., I wish John would go , - .

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.

-- [ungrammatical]

() (, ) [copying, copy] - , - . , - He is a doctor , - ( ). . He is a doctor, isnt he?. - do (.. John knows the answers, doesnt he? , ;). - , (copy tags) - , , , (1) ( ), .. He is coming, is he? , ;.

-- ( ()) [counter-intuitive, counter-intuitiveness] , . -, (3) - (.. ). - , . , , - ( ). , . (counter-intuitiveness) , Angus MacIntosh (. 1914): - , !.

() [uninterruptability]

() (--, ()) [(1) (2) contrast, contrastive, contrastivity, (3) opposition] (1)

, - . , - . . () , , ., . - // /D/ . (3) (opposition) , - ( (contrast) ).

(2) (contrastive analysis (CA)) , -, . - ( ) . , , (contrastive analysis hypothesis). ( - ), 1980 , . .

(3) [opposition] - . , , , . , /p/ /s/ , . - (distinctive oppositions) , Nikolai

21

Trubetzkoy Principles of Phonology (1939). - :

() (bilateral) vs (multilateral): /t/ /d/ , , / . , - /t/ /v/ , .. /d/ /f/

() (proportional) vs (isolated): /f/ /v/ , .. /s/ /z/. , /v/ /l/ , - ,

() (privative), (gradual) (equipollent): , , ( ), , .., /p/ /b/. , - , /i/, /e/, // // ( Trubetzkoy) , . , - , .. /p/ /k/ , Trubetzkoy, - /p/ /k/

() (constant) (neutralizable): , .. /p/ , /b/. , /t/ /d/ -, , , , /t/ /s/, .. stick *sdick.

() [contrastive stress]

() [contrastive accent]

-- [contrary] . (contrary terms, contraries) , / /. ( ), - (1) - .

-- [replacive] (. ), , - take ~ took, man ~ men . e . .

-- [absolutive] -- (4)

() [object, objective] (--) - (1) (2). - , . (direct) (indirect) - (object) : The teacher gave a letter to the girl /The teacher gave the girl a letter / , - , , , (, , ). -, . ( -, = ) ( , = ). - (1) (, .) - , ( - ) John is easy to please , John

22

please).

, (objective) , - (.. she ~ her) - . , .., . - , - , - . , . . -, .

() ( (), --, ()) [referent, reference, referential, referring] (1) - (, .) - : , . (.. ~ ) - (.. ~ ~ ). - (referential meaning), , (.. (- ) / / / ). , .. (2), . - (reference) , - (2).

(2) , (reference) , .. - . , ( ). , - ( ). , . , (referential expression, R-expression) . , (arbitrary reference) - o PRO.

[cognize, cognise] Noam Chomsky () . (.. (2) ) , , , .

() [auditory phonetics] O , , . - , - -. , - . - . , , . - .

() (--) [perception, perceptual] , - . -, , , . - (4).

-- [antipassive] - (.. Dyirbal), . , , ( ), . -

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, .

() [counter-example] , . , , .

-- [comparative] -- (1)

-- [counter-factual] - (2) -, , . (counter-factual unreal) (real) - , . .

() [cross-sectional]

-- (--) [representative] - - , , .., /

( (), --) (: , (), --) [map, mapping, mapped] , , . (mapping) (1) - . --, , . ( - ), . , - - . - , .. .

() [matching]

( (), ()) [correspond, correspondence] (1) - . , fish piscis . /f/ /p/, , .

(2) . -, - . (correspondence theory) , , .., (, ..). , (correspondence fallacy).

(3) (correspondence hypothesis) - 1960, . (1) (2) - . (1) - (.. -, ). , , 1960, , , - (.. -, ) . , - .

24

() [inversion] - . , - , .. Is he going?.

-- ( ()) [converse, converseness] - . (converse terms) , , .., /, /, / /. , . , , ., . , , , (1), - .

() [adstratum] - . (1). , - , .

() [counter-feeding]

-- [contradictory] . (contradictory terms, contradictories) , / /. ( - ), .

() ( ()) [pronoun] (2) - ( ). , - . (personal pronouns) , . (.. /) / , - (possessive pronoun). - : (demonstrative pronouns), .. / ( ), (interrogative pronouns), .. /, - (reflexive pronouns), .. / , (indefinite pronouns), .. /, (relative pronouns), .. -/ / (resumptive shadow pronouns), .. . (logophoric pronoun) - . (lazy pronoun) - : , . , . - . - .

() [pronoun]

() [pro-constituent] , PRO, . (1) (2). . , - , PRO - .

() (--, ) [pronominalization, pronominal, pronominalize] - . , . - , (pronominal) ( ) ,

25

. PRO. - .

() [pro-form] - (2) (2) (1). ( ) , - . (.. - ), (.. , ), - (.. ), (.. ). : (pro-verb), (pro-nominal), (pro-locative), (pro-NP) .

() [antonym, antonymy] ( ()) . - , , . , , - (.. (graded antonyms), ~ , , - (ungraded antonyms), ~ , . - (.. John Lyons (. 1932)) - , . , .

() (, ) [raising, raise] (1) (). ( - (object-raising)) (1) + (.. He believes John to be honest ) , - - ( he believes it+John is honest he believes John+to be honest). (subject-raising), , -, . , It seems that the man is angry he man seems angry O :

( -) the man seems, (the man) (seems) (to be angry). , , , ( - ). , , . , . . (.. , , ).

(2) , - (lowering). , , (.. ) . , - .

() [right node raising] - : John likes, and Bill hates, writing letters , , . (shared constituent co-ordination). - .

26

-- ( ()) [irregular, irregularity] . -, took, went, saw , , . - -ed. H - : - .

() [higher category] (2) . -, - , . , :

, (1) -. . / .

(valeur) () [value, valeur] Ferdinand de Saussure () - . , , - . - .

-- [evaluative] - (.. , ) . , Menomini - : .

() (--) [axion, axiomatic] , (axiomatics). - ( (axioms)) . ( ) ( -). , - , - . - . - - , . , (axiomatic functionalism), - 1960 J(ohannes) W(ilhelmus) F(ranciscus) Mulder (1919), - - O -. , , - ( ).

() [postulates]

() [maxims of conversation] H. P. Grice (19131988), . . . - (maxim of quality) , . (maxim of quantity) - . (maxim of manner) , - . .

(o) [axis] (1) -

27

, Ferdinand de Saussure (). - , . , - ( , .).

(2) , (1) , .. , -.

() (: ()) [tier] (. -) . , - -. , , , ( ) - . - , -, , . . , , -: , , , . , , , , , .

() [X-tier] , [] , , -. (timing unit) (timing tier). - ( ).

() [pivot] 1960 - . - , , .. my daddy, my car, my drink , , shoe gone, car gone , . - (2) ( - ), (2) + -+. (.. - , - ).

() (--) [aorist, aoristic] , , . -, , - . (.. ), - . (aoristic) .

-- ( () [indefinite, indefiniteness] - ( ) - . - a ( one, some .). - (non-definite) , . , - , .

() (, , ()) [bleeding, bleed, counterbleed, counterbleeding] , , - , . -

28

() , - () , - . , . , (bleeding rule) , (bleeding order). , (counter-bleed) . , - , .

-- [proscriptive] - , . , , (2) . .

() () [deletion, delete] - . -, , ( , kick the ball You will kick the ball ). - (.. ). , - , - , . , , .. - , Hes been hit Someone/John/A bullet hit him / / .

() [tough movement] . tough tough ( hard , , easy -, simple , difficult ), Noam Chomsky () John is easy/eager to please -. The ball was easy for John to catch tough movement

[it

[for John to catch the ball]

]

was

easy, (it was easy for John to catch the ball). , - ( the ball) ( it). , -.

() ( (), (), - ()) [equi NP deletion] - ( Equi) - (1) (2) () - . , - . , - , , - . , - PRO.

() [equi NP deletion]

() [equi NP deletion]

do ()/ do ()/ do/ do () [do-deletion/insertion/support] do . do do do - . - , It wants cleaning - do, doesnt it. - , -

29

(.. did X happen). do - do, .

(whiz) () [whiz-deletion] , , (1) - , .. .

- - () [A-over-A] Noam Chomsky () (. Language and Mind , 1968) . ( ) - - (A-over-A principle condition) (2) [

S [

A ]

A ]

S, -

. , - (. - . T ;, , - . - - . , , - . , - .

() (--) [infinitive, infinitival] , .. , -, , . to ( - to (to infinitive)), .. He saw her go He wants to go . to (bare) (zero infinitive). , (infinitive infinitival clause) to.

-- [obsolete]

() [obsolescence] (1) , - - . - , . (.. ), . -, (obsolete).

(2) , , .

[map]

-- [aperiodic]

[ECM] -

() [single-base] - -. (2) - , -.

() [haplology] , - , , .. . - -, .. running jump rumpt.

-- [(1) simple, (2) singulary] (1) , - , (3), ..

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= N ( I go ), = ( /), - = ( ). - . , - (2) ( (2) (1)) ( ). . - (1) .

(2) - . - , , -, .

( ) () [simplicity (metric)] - , . -, (, .) - . - , , , .. - . , - . - , . - - ( ) . - , , . , . , - .

[rule-to-rule] , , ( - ), - .

( ) [bottom-up] , . (top-down) . , , . (1) (2) . , , - ( (phonics) ), - .

[top-down]

[bottom-up]

[top-down]

() ( ()) [elision] . , - . , (2) , and , of / , , .., f cuppatea ( ) d boys n girls ( -). , - , .. camera (/kamr@/), probably (/prQblI/), February (/febrI/). , .. twelfths /twels/ /twelfs/. - .

31

, . , - (aphaeresis) (prosiopesis), - (syncope) (apocope). - , .

() [destressing]

() [defooting] (1)

() [recipient] . - (.. ). - (recipient) - . , , .

() (--, --, ()) [acceptability, unacceptable, unacceptability] - . - . -, -, . - , , - . (unacceptable) , .. I aint, I be, I am () . - . -, I will go tomorrow I shall go () This is the man I spoke to to whom I spoke . , . , , . , - .

. , - (/ - (acceptability tests)). , - , , . : I think its the money theyre charging is one thing , , . , . - . , .

. - (marginally acceptable), , ..:

*The wall was arrived before

O ()

?The wall was arrived before by the army sent by the king

O ()

. , , - . , , . , ,

32

, -. - : This is the malt that the rat that the cat killed ate . : This is the malt that the rat ate -. , , .

( ()) (: , ()) [assign, assignment] - . - (2). , (1) , ..:

+ [ + ]

+ [ + [ + ]

]

+ [[ + ]

+ [ + [ + ]

]

]

, , . , .. [[ ] [ [ ]]].

() [deconstruction]

() [apodosis] , , (1) (protasis). We shall get in if we queue , we shall get in if we queue.

() () [exceptional case marking, ECM] - . , --- , believe - consider , (.. Mary believes Bill to be a fool , Mary considers Bill a fool - . (-) - .

() (--) [downstep, downstepped] . , - . . - (upstep) , . - (downdrift), - . - . H (declination) , ( F

0)

, - , . , - .

-- [devoiced]

-- [exclusive] (1) , ( -) ( ) , .. = .

(2) , ( -) . , , . , .

(: ) (--, ()) block, blocked, blocking] - -

33

. . . (blocking category) () .

() [(1) declination, (2) deviance, (2) deviant, (3) divergence] (1) (2) (--)

(2) ( ) ( ). , .. * .

(3) - , ( ). - ( ) - , - , . - . -, .

-- [stray] --

() [apocope] , , . and /@n/ of /@/ snakes and ladders cup of tea .

() [decreolization]

() [acquisition] (1)

() [child language acquisition]

[acquire] (1)

[decode]

() (: ()) [frozen expression]

-- ( ()) [fossilized, fossilization] (1) (1) (2) . , (2) : , . : goody-goody, hocus-pocus, .

(2) , -. - , -, .

() [cardinal] , , ., , .

-- [(1) (2) (3) absolute, (4) absolutive] (1) , , (2) - . - , .. However, he arrived later , . Happy, she went to sleep () . -, , .. hoc facto (= ).

(2) , . (absolute universal) - .

(3) -- (2) (4) ,

, . , - - ( ) ,

34

.

() [remote structure] .

-- ( ()) [isolating, isolation] , ( ) , - . (isolating languages) ( ). H , - . , , . - , ( -), .

-- [denasalised] --

pro () [pro-drop] -

-- [alienable] --

-- ( ()) [debuccalized, debuccalization, deoralization] - - , [h]. (debuccalization deoralization): - [t] > [?] [s] > [h].

() [delinking]

() ( ()) [esult, resultive, resultative, resulting, resultant] - (1) - . (resultative, resulting resultant), (.. , ), (2) (.. -), - (.. ) (.. ). - , -, .

-- [abrupt] , - , (abrupt release). - , , . , - .

() [statement] (3)

() [stop]

-- ( --, --) [unmarked] - , , , . , , .. . , (.. ).

() ( ()) [bleaching] -. , . .

() [aspect]

() [deforestation] , - , - . (.. sensation, sensationality , ).

35

() (--) [indeterminacy, indeterminate] - -, , -. -, , . ( ). - , - (.. , ).

-- [fuzzy] --

-- [impersonal]

() () [loss (of language)]

() (: --) [obviative] - (. ). ( , .) , , .

() [article] . - , -, .. /. , . - , (definite) (indefinite) ( ) , . ( , ) ( ). . .

() (, (), --) [articulation, articulate, articulator, articulatory] - , . - . , - , -, . (articulator). : , , , -, , , - , .. , .

, , - , . . [kt] cat - , - . - () , .

. - . , (-). , ( (co-ordinate coarticulation)) ( ()-) ( ()). , , - .

() ( ()) [articulatory setting] , - , , - . (phonetic setting). -, . - (phonatory setting), -

36

. - , , - . , , , , .

() [articulatory phonetics] - () . - , . , - , , -. , -, . , , , - . , , , , , . - , .

() [articulatory phonology] (1) : . - () - . - .

() [articulatory analog]

() [articulator model] - . -, . - 80 -, .

() [numeration] , - . - .

-- (--, --, --, () ()) [count, uncount, countable, uncountable, countability] - . - , (2) . (countable) - , , , . (uncountable non-count) - , . * * . , .. / / .

() [number] (singular), (plural), (=) (dual), (=) (trial), (=) (paucal) ., .. -, -. - -, . -, , (.. , . --), - (.. ). - ( * ).

() [left-linear grammar]

37

() [left-branching] . : () + . , my friends aunts pen - () the pen of the friend of my aunt . , / (left branch constraint/condition) , , . , : *How many did you read books?, - books.

() [left dislocation] , - (2) , , .. - / . , - ( ()) - .

() [left-associative grammar] - . , , , , , , . , .

() [alphabetism]

() (--, (), --, ()) [harmony, harmonic, disharmony, disharmonic] - ( ) - . . - (consonant harmony) (vowel harmony). - , , , , .. - . , , (harmonic sets). (disharmony / disharmonicity) (.. -) . , (harmonic island), , (harmonic span), . ( ) (harmonic domain).

() (: --) [harmonic] , () , (overtone). - , 200 Hz, - 400 Hz, 600 Hz ... , - ( , 400 Hz , 600 Hz ...). - .

() [juncture]

() (: (), ()) [juncture] -, (1). , - . , , - , , - ., that stuff thats tough . ,

38

, /D{tstVf/, - . that stuff /s/ /t/ , thats tough, /s/ /t/ . , - .

. (open) (plus) ( , ), ( ) (close) ( - ). - , co-opt, . , - .

- , : (single-bar) - (sustained), ( (double-bar) (rising), ( (terminal) (double cross) (falling) (fading) ( ).

() (--) [negation, negative] - . not nt ( - ) (). , .. un-, non- ( : -, -, -, -, -, -, -, -) - deny , . (1) ( nepas). - ( ) - Ive not done nothing ( ). Im not unhappy ( : ) .

, (2) - , .. . - . , - . (negative polarity) , .. (. * ).

() [negative transfer]

-- [verbless] (1) - (.. QUIRK), ( -), .. , When ready, we wait for the signal. ( () () , ), Stay at home if possible ( () ). - , . , .

() [principles] - , . , - , , - . . (principles and parameters) . . .

-- [primitive] --

-- ( ()) (: --) [primitive, prime] - , , . -

39

-. : , , , , , , . , - , . (non-primitive) . , - (2) , .. , -, , +, () , , -, . . -, : , , [+, ], - [, +] . - , , . . - .

() () [control agreement principle, CAP] - .

() [procrastinate] , (1) - . , . - .

() [greed] , - . , - . - .

() [adjacency principle] . , . , , : John read a book yesterday , *John read yesterday a book .

() () [minimal-distance principle (MDP)] Mary wants Jim to go , (1) Jim, . - (.. like , hope , make ), . , Mary promised Jim to go - , go ary: -, - , .

() () [empty category principle, ECP] -, ( ).

() [uniformitarian principle] - - . - . , - , , - .

40

() [co-operative principle] H. P. Grice (19131988) . , . , , , (-, : , , -). . - ( , .), - . , - ( ). -, .

() (: ()) obligatory contour principle, OCP] , . , (.. --- -). , - , , (2). - , (.. buses).

() (A) [obligatory contour principle (OCP)] -

() [initialism]

() [initial symbol] -. . (2), , , . , . .

-- [initial] (1) , . , /k/ - . . , .. - ( ).

() [archistratum] - . , .

() [system architecture] - . , -, .

() [archiphoneme] - ( (1) ). /s-/ (3) (.. *sgin, - skin ), . /skIn/ /sgIn/ , . - Nikolai Trubetzkoy (18901939) , , - , , . - , .. /sKIn/. , .

[IC, CA] (1) (2)

() [vagueness]

41

-- (: --) [fuzzy] - . , - ( ) , , (1). (glass) (cup) . , . (. - ). (fuzzy grammars), 1970, -. .

-- [unmarked] --

() [weak adequacy]

() [weak form] - . - (2), of cup of tea ( ) . - , .. and [nd] [@nd] [@n] [n] .

-- [(1) avalent, (2) lenis] (1) (2) -

. - , ( (1)). (2) . (weak) (strong) , . , ([b], [d], [v], [z] .) ( ), , , - . - , -.

() (-- ) [asterisk, asterisked] (1) , , .. * . O (asterisked form) - , .. *.

(2) -, - ( ). , * - .

(3) , W* (W-).

(4) , -, , , , , .. *s, *penkwe .

(5) , ( star ) . -, : *, *.

() (--) [incompatibility, incompatible] . - (- ). -: , -/ . -. ( -), ( ), (.. ), (.. ) (.. ).

() [asymmetric rhythmic theory] -

42

. - .

-- [unassociated]

-- ( ()) [(1) (2) discontinuous, (1) (2) discontinuity, (3) discrete, (3) discreteness] (1) , (1) . (discontinuous constructions constituents) (1), .. switch on switch the light on , - ( nepas, nidddim .), (.. Is he coming? ;). , (2) , (.. k-t-b ). (discontinuity grammar) , , - (.. , -, ).

(2) , , - Roman Jakobson (), - . , . - ( ) - (.. ) - .

(3) ( ()) ( ), (1) - , - . (non-discrete) (. ). , , - . , - . - , . .

-- [atelic] . , ( .) - (2) , , .

it () [weather it] - - It was raining () it.

-- [unaccented, unstressed] (1) (2)

-- (--) [frictionless (continuant)] - . , -. , /r/ , . , , . , , - , /r/. , - /r/ , , . .

() [arbitrary reference] , , - , PRO. , -

43

Its easy PRO to annoy John ( ) , PRO ( - (2)), . .

() (--) [arbitrariness (arbitrary)] - ( ). , . , - . . - , . , , , .. , , , -.

() [hightened subglottal pressure] Chomsky () Halle - . , Hindi.

[CP]

() [self-repair]

() [self-embedding] (2) +()+ (centre-embedding). - . , (2) - ( ) - . , - , . ? - . , , -.

() [autolexical syntax] 1990 . , ( - ) . - .

() [automatic speech recognition]

() ( ()) [automaton, automata] . , (. ). ( ) , , . , - ( -), . ( Alan Mathison Turing (19121954), 1936 - ). (finite automata) ( ), - - . .

-- [automatic] - . , - /-s/, /-z/ /Iz/ , - : /-Iz/. /-s/, /-z/. .

44

-- [autonomous] (1) - . - , , .

(2) , - ( ). (autonomous phoneme), , - , , , .

(3) (autonomous syntax) (-) . - (2) . , .

(4)

-- [reflexive, reflexiveness, reflexivity, reflexivization] (1) ( ()) - . , - (.. He kicked himself ), - (.. I shaved (myself) ). - , -, . , - (reflexivization) , - [] [+], , .. She saw her She saw herself . , , - o PR, .

(2) ( (), ()) (reflexiveness reflectiveness) ( - (reflexivity)) (- ), . - . , .

-- ( ()) [evidential, evidentiality] , . - ( - ). - , , ( ) . Tuyuca () - . , , ( - ).

() [autosegmental phonology] -. - ( ) . , . . , , - .

() [autosegment] . - , ,

45

.

() [autohyponym]

() ( (), --) [aphaeresis, aphesis, aphetic] , , , . - knife , /k/, Ive -. (aphesis) - (gain ).

() () [subtractive bilingualism]

-- [ablative] - (1) , . , , - ( with , from by ), .. He did it with his hands .

() (, ) (: ()) [release] , - . , ( -) , ( button bottle ).

Chomsky (-) Halle, (1) ( ) .

() [narrative] --

-- [narrative] , . - , ( ) . (narratology). , - (.. , ) - (.. , ). , - , , , .

() [assimilation] , - . ( , ) - , - . --, - , . , , .

. ten bikes , , /tem baIks/, /ten baIks/ . , - : /n/ /b/ /m/ - . , . /teb baIks/ ! ten mice/tem maIs , /n/ /m/ - /m/ .

. - , . , - turn up trumps , /-n/ turn /-m/ . , - , .

. : () (regressive ( anticipatory)) :

46

, .. ten bikes ( () - (progressive) : , .. lunch score s- /S/, -ch ( - ) () ( ) (coalescent reciprocal) : - , , , dont you /d@UntSU/ t y -.

, -: . - , ( -) ( ). - ( ). - ( ), . , : , - ( (total complete assimilation)). , - - ( (partial incomplete assimilation)). , , - ( (single-feature assimilation)).

() () [loyalty (language)]

() [silent pause]

() [silent stress]

-- (: ) [untensed] --

-- [inanimate] --

47

()- () [D-structure] , ()- ( ) , PRO.

() [deep structure] - . ( ) (2) - ( ()-, , - , ). ( ), .. - : - . , , .. - . , , () . , . ( .). (1) , - .

, , -, (. ). , . , , - Charles Hockett (. 1916), Chomsky ().

-- [gradual] (3) , - . , - /i/, /e/, // /a/, , Nicolai Trubetzkoy, .

-- [gradience] . ( (1) - ). (.. , - ) ( , , , , . ).

() [gradation]

() (--) [(1) degree, (2) rank] (1) . ( ), - , .. ( ). , .. bigger/biggest / more fascinating/most fascinating / .

(2) Halliday (), - , - . , (rank scale) (2) (1) - ( .).

48

, . - (rank shift) - , ( ) , ( - , .. ) - .

() [backgrounding]

() [weight] (1) , - . (heavy) (light). ( ) (6) ( MOA, ). ( ) ( ). . . . MA .

(2) , / - (2) (2). , (1) , . - . , () > , - () > .

-- [grave] Jacobson () Halle , - --. , -, - . , [+]. , - [].

-- [heavy] (1) () - : *John considers stupid my friends John considers stupid many of my friends ( - ), - , . , (heavy NP shift).

(2)

() (--) [base, basic] (1) (2) - (1). - , . , , (base form) . -, . , , - , -. , ( -) : , , .

(2) ( ), (basic form) - , . , -, - (.. ( ) man o man, men ) (.. [mn], man men ()). , (2) (.. - , (2) ...) -. - . , ( ) .

49

(3) , - (base component) ( -), (-) . Noam Chomsky (TOMKY) Syntactic Structures (1957), , . Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965) ( - -), , . Aspects, - ( , , .) ( , .). -. , , . . --.

( ) () [root] , , radix () ( radical ()). , (, ATR) (.. ) - .

() [bootstrap(ping)] . , . , (.. - , ) - , . -, . , , . bootstrapping ( ) (- - , -).

()/ () [standard theory/model] - Noam Chomsky () 1965 Aspects of the Theory of Syntax -. , - Chomsky , . - Chomsky - , , - (.. ), Aspects.

-- [default] -- (1)

() (--) [basilect, basilectal] -, , ( ) - ( ). - .

() [amelioration] (2). . , - mischievous -.

() [biolinguistics] - , - . - (biological linguistics). -

50

, , (. ).

[BT] (: ) -

[aux] (1)

-- () [auxiliary, aux] (1) . , , - (6), , . , - do, be have, .. She is coming , Does she know , She has taken . can/could, may/might, shall/should, will/would, must, ought to used to. . , (.. isnt, hasnt, cant, - *walknt) (.. is he, does he, will they, *walks he). , dare need, .

(2) , (auxiliary language) - , , . . , - . - , .

() (--) [volition, volitional] . (volitional) , - , .. . (non-volitional) , , .. . (.. ;) , will I will go ( , ) - (They will sit there for hours ).

() [lag]

() [abbreviation]

-- [short] ()

() (() (: () ()) [baby-talk, BT] - - . ( doggie , /den/ then .) (2) (2) - ( , .. Dadda gone Yes, daddys gone , ). , , - 70, . - ( ) - ( ). - / (caregiver speech).

51

[GPSG]

-- ( ()) [factive, factivity] - (1) . , , , . : - , . . , (1) , , -, . , (non-factive) , .. , , . (contrafactive) - , .. , -, I pretended the cat was in the garden .

[ATN]

-- ( ()) [adjacent, adjacency] - , , - . , , - , .. , - (adjacent), (non-adjacent). -, - (3). -, - . . , - .

() [adjacency] --

() [adjacency pair] -- - . , (.. , , ). , , - .

() [genealogical classification]

() [genetic classification] , - (genealogical classification). . . - , .

-- (, , () ()) (: ) [generative, generate, generation, generativist] (1) Noam Chomsky () Syntactic Structures (1957). - ( ) (2) -. , (generative grammar) , - . , . , , Chosmky , . , - , Chomsky, -

52

ARC-PAIR, - - . : (generative phonology) (generative syntax). (. (2) ). . .

(2) (generative semantics), - , 1970 - ( George Lakoff (. 1941), James McCawley (. 1938), Paul Postal (. 1936) John Ross (. 1938)). . , - (2) - - . , . Noam Chomsky ( ), -, , . , , - -. .

-- [generic] - , .. , , / /

() [genitive] ( - ) -. (.. ) (.. ). , . (1) , of , .. the car of the general ( the generals car) -. - , , .., a book of my brothers the King of Englands hat .

-- [general] (1) -. (general linguistics), , , . ( , - ). (general grammar), (.. ) . (general phonetics) - . , - (general semantics), , , 1930 - Alfred Korzybski (18791950), .

(2) (, --, (), ()) - . (.. , , (1)) . (generalizations) (.. ) - ( ). -, , . , , .. - - - . -

53

, , , .

(3) , , , , -, , -ing , - . (overgeneralization) - , .. *mouses, *sheeps.

(4) (--) -. (generalized transformation): - , , , .

() [gender] - (1) //, / . , - (natural gender), , (grammatical gender), , (2) ( .). , , . , (.. lela) - (.. -a ). , (.. -, he/she who/whose ., it which). - , he . (.. - she), .

() [gerund]

() [geolinguistics] - , , . , - , - . - .

() [geographical linguistics] - . , . - geographical dialect regional dialect.

() ( (), ()) [regional dialect] -

() ( (), ()) [regional accent]

() [geometry] , ,

() [feature geometry] , - . - . (3) (-, , ) . , , - . -, , (1) .

(Jakobson) () [Jakobsonian] Roman Jakobson (18961983) . - .

54

50, -. , Jackobson and Halle ( R. Jackobson and M. Halle, Fundamentals of Language (1956)). - , (Jakobsonian hypothesis) (2) ( ) .

(GLOW) [GLOW] (Generative Linguists of the Old World, GLOW) - 1970 . , , .

[HPSG]

() [linguistic philosophy]

() (--) [language, langue] (1) - , . , , - (. ) -. . - (.. ). (.. - , ) - (. ), - ( ) . , . , , - ( ) ( ). Chomsky (), - (-) - (-). (.. ) (.. -). , . - (.. , , ) (.. -).

, , - ., - - . , , - (.. , , ) (, .). , - , , (. , ), ( - ). , - (. ).

, , .. , , , - . , (first language) ( ) (second language) ( - , .. , ), (foreign language) ( ) ( -). (language laboratory) - ( ), - .

55

(language pathology) ( (speech pathology) - , . (language planning) - , - (language engineering). , - : - (language loyalty) (language maintenance) (language shift) / (language attitudes) - , (language loss) ( ) (language death) - (language spread language diffusion). - (language contact).

(2) (LANGUE)

() () [tongue] (1) , ( ). , , . , - ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ) . To -, . - , , - , , - .

(2) Chomsky () Halle , (tongue body features) ( ). , (3): , .

() [lingua franca]

() [lexical representation language] - . - ( ) -. , . - ( ), .

() ( (), ()) [register tone language] Kenneth Pike (. 1912) - . (.. ), - , -. , , . (.. ), - . - / (.. Trique).

() [register tone language]

() [register tone language]

(satem) () [satem language]

(sentum) () [centum language] /k/ -- centum .

56

(satem) /s/ , - Avestan, satem . , -. - - .

- () [object language]

() [mother-in-law languages]

() [avoidance languages] , - () (mother-in-law languages). - , . Dyirbal, , - Guwal, Dyalnguy, - .

() [glosseme] , - .

() [glossematics] Louis Hjelmslev (18991965) 1930 ( ). - (, . -). , - , (.. , ). -, Hjelmslev Prolegomena to a Theory of Language , 1943 , . .

() [linguistic determinism]

() [linguistic geography] ,

() [Sprachbund] (1)

() ( (), ()) [language awareness] -, , ( ). 1990 , - .

() [performance]

() [competence] , - , , - (2) . - , , . , - . Chomsky (), , , - , - . , , - . - - (.. ).

(communicative competence) - , .

57

, , , . - , - , (2) ( ). , . , , (pragmatic competence). . (5), .

() (: ()) [shift] (3), , , (2), , -- (2)

() [shift]

() [performance] , , , o . , , . - , , (.. , ). - (2). , , , - (performance grammars) , -. . (5).

() [variety] - . , , (.. ). , , , (.. , , ). , , -, . , - - , .. .

() [speech act] J. L. Austin (19111960). X- - . - ( ) ( ) ( - ) ( - ). : ( , .. , , ) - ( , .. , ) ( , .. , , ) ( , .. , , -) ( - , .. , ). . - , , - .

() [language awareness]

() [language awareness]

() [linguistic relativity]

() [Sprachgefhl]

() [linguistic environment] (2)

58

() [linguistic atlas]

() [death of language]

-- [(1) language, (2) speech] (1) (1) (2) (1)

-- (. ) (-) [lingual, linguo-] - . , [r] . - (linguo-) (.. , ) -, (.. -, -).

--, -- [linguistic] ( ). : (1) , -, (2) , - , , .., . , linguistic intuition (/ -) : () () . , / - , . .

() [glossogenetics] . - , , , , -, , , .

() (--, (), --) [glossolalia, glossolalist, glossolalic] - (speaking in tongues), . , , - , - . , ( ). (glossographia).

() [linguistics] . , 1960. - , (.. , , ), -. , Noam Chomsky () , - .

. - , Ferdinand de Saussure (), (diachronic) (synchronic) - ( (historical linguistics)) . - - , (general linguistics) (theoretical linguistics). - (descriptive linguistics). , -, (contrastive linguistics). - - (comparative/typological linguistics).

, ( ), -

59

. (structural linguistics) - , , 1940 1950, - . - - . , - , , , - (taxonomic linguistics).

, (linguistic sciences) - . - (linguistic science) .

, : (anthropological linguistics), (biolinguistics), (clinical linguistics), (computational linguistics), (critical linguistics), - (educational linguistics), (institutional linguistics), -

(mathematical linguistics), (neurolinguistics), (philosophical linguistics), (psycholinguistics), (quantitative linguistics), (sociolinguistics), (statistical linguistics). , - , - (applied linguistics). , - . . , .

() [linguistically significant generalization] - . (2) , , . , - (3), , . . - .

() [linguistic anthropology]

() [linguist] . , linguistician, . -, (. ).

() [glottochronology] . , - (-) . .

-- (--, , (), ()) [glottal, glottalic, glottalize, glottalization, glottis] . (glottis), . (glottal stop) [?]. - , .. , are you, , co-operate. - (.. Cockney) , (- [t] [k]), .. bottle /bQ?t/ /bQtl/. - , [h] . -, ,

60

, . (glottalization) -

(1), . , -, , .., what? [wt?]. , , . , - , . - . (glottalic) - . - (glottalized) (, - ). - , .. [p], [t], [s]. -, (.. I think - , [k] think). , Quechua Hausa . - .

Chomsky () Halle, (glottal constrictions) - ( ). , .

() [mandibular setting]

() () [cognitive (meaning)] - . (2) - (2), . (2). .

() [cognitive grammar] - , - (space grammar). , . ( ) - ( ) . - () (), - . (-, , ) (2), - . - (1) . (, .. ) (, .. -, , , (1)). . . .

() [cognitive metaphor] , - , ( -). , - , .. - ( ). - . - ( - ), - .

() [cognitive semantics] , -, - . , . . -

61

. : -, (.. , , ) , .

-- (: --) [given] - . ( - ). - , , , -. , .. : ; : , . : ; : , - . , , , , your cusins had a bby, .

() (--, --) (: (), --, --)) [charm, charmed, charmless)] , - . (charmed) (.. -) (.. ) ( (charmless), .. ). , . -. .

(wugs) [wugs] 50 - . ( wug) : wug. -, : . - . . , wugs , wug. -, .

(Whorf) () [Whorfian] Benjamin Lee Whorf (18971941), - (Whorfian hypothesis) ( -). ( ) (2) (1). .

[LP] -

() [genre]

- () [subgenre] -

0/1/2/3 () [Type 0/1/2/3 grammars]

() [grammar, grammatical, grammaticalize, grammarian] , . :

(1) (descriptive grammar) , , (.. - ). , - . - , . , - - . (reference grammar) - ( 20 , .. Otto Jespersen (18601943) Randolph Quirk (. )).

(2) (theoretical grammar) - -

62

- . - , , ( - , , ). - ( , .), (formal grammar) ( - ). , - .

(3) - , . (comparative grammar), ( ), . () .

(4) (traditional grammar) . - , -, , () 18 19 , . ( ) . - , .

(5) ( ) , . , - , , (2). - , - , , () . , , . , - . , ( (competence grammar)). - (, - ), (performance grammar). , , , - , , . () - (universal grammar).

(grammarians) - (grammatical analyses) ( ). , (.. , -), , : (.. , , ), ( ), / / (2)/ (.. ), / ( /), ( ). - , (grammaticalized, grammaticized). . - , (2), , , (1), , , (1).

() [reference grammar] (1)

() [transition network grammar] - -. -

63

, (augmented transition network (ATN) grammar). . .

() [augmented transition network grammar]

() [role and reference grammar] - ( (role)) ( (reference)) . (1), ( ) - (.. ) (4) ( - ) ( ). , . . - .

() () [generalized phrase-structure grammar, GPSG] . - (1) (). (2) . , , (.. , ) , ( ) - . , . - , - ( / / / /) . , . . - . - (generalized generalized phrase-structure grammar (G2PSG)), , , - - - .

() [dependency grammar] - 1950 ( Lucien Tesnire (18931954)), (1) . (dependency trees) . (dependents), . , (1), . , , , . ( ). , - , (dependency rules). - ( -). , .. .

() [daughter-dependency grammar] - , . (daughter-dependency). ( - .) -. ( - ). -

64

. (dependency rules) . : - , . (.. , ()) - .

() [head-driven phrase-structure grammar, HPSG] , - . - . , - . , : + . . .

() [word grammar] . - .

() () [phrase-structure (PS) grammar] - Noam Chomsky () Syntactic Structures (1957) . ( (PS-rules)) (1) - , , . , - , (2) . , - , ( ) - .

() Chomsky, , Chomsky . , , ( - ):

+

+

+

, - (context-free) (context-sensitive): ( X , (1)), - , ( X ). , , - , . - . - ( ).

(Quirk) () [Quirk grammar] H - (Charles) Randolph Quirk (. 1920) . 70 80, A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language A (1985). - , - . - ( (1), , , .), , / , -,

65

.

(Montague) () [Montague grammar] 1970 Richard Montague (19301970). - () . , , -- . . . - . Montague - (Montagovian).

() [space grammar]

() ( ()) [finite-state grammar (finite-state language)] Noam Chomsky () - Syntactic Structures (1957) -. (2) - . (1) . , , ( ), ( ), . Chomsky , (1) (1), .. , . Chosmky - (. , ). - , , 3 (. ), (finite-state languages), , , .

() (--, --, ()) [grammaticality, grammatical, ungrammatical, ungrammaticalness] , ( - ) . - - (ungrammatical), . , .. - , , . , - -. , , - . , , . , - .

, (-. ), -. . , ( -, Chomsky () Colourless green ideas sleep furiously - ) , - ( ).

, , , - (3) (, .., ). .

66

() [line]

() [association line] . . , - , . - (freely associating) - , , . , (association convention) - . (unassociated) (.. ) , , . . (_ _ _ _ _ _ _) . ( ). ( , =), . - . , - ( ) -.

(reassociations). (multiple associations) . - , - .

() [linear grammar] - (regular grammar). , (left-linear grammar) , (right-linear grammar). , , . . .

() [linear prediction] - , - . () linear prediction coefficient (LPC), (), . - . , ( - ) .

() [linear phonology]

-- [linear, linearity] (1) - . - - ( , .. ). , .

(2) ( ()) , (linearity) , - (- ) . , / / A / / B. , - . , .

() [graph] - , . -

67

(graphs) , , , ., . -.

() ( ()) [grapheme, graphemics] . , , (.. - (2), .) - ( ), . - (graphemics) ( ).

-- ( ()) [graphetic, graphetics] , , . , - . , .. , , . , ( - ). , .

() [graphic substance] - - , . -. , .

() (--) [graphology, graphological] - , . - . , , .

() [PS(G)] ( )

68

[DRS]

( ()) [borrow, borrowing] - -. (borrowings) (.. restaurant, bonhomie, chagrin, ), (. ). - , .. - , , - , , -s drinks, ski-lifts, goals, girls.

() (--) [loan] ( ) - . , (loan words) ( - , .. ), (loan blends) ( - , ..

/rest@rO~)/, (loan shifts) ( , , .. /asanser/) (loan translations) ( , .. bermensch - .

-- [loan]

() (--) [aspiration, aspirated] , . , [h] . , [phin], - . [bin], , . , Hindi, : [p], [ph-], [b-] [bh-]. - , , .., - /l, r, w, j/ , : please , twice , queue . , /s/ , - , [spIn]. , , , . , - (pre-aspiration) ( ) - (post-aspiration) (- ) , , Scottish Gaelic.

[EST]

() [data] - ( ). , , . - , . , - () . ( ) . , . , , , .

-- [given] --

() (: ()) [token] (6)

() [marker] (-

69

) . - , .. - . , [] , [+] [] , .. * -. -.

-- [demonstrative]

() (--) [deixis, deictic] , - , .. now/then /, here/there /, I/you /, this/that / - (deictics) ( ). - . ( ), .. that , the following , the former . (discourse ( text) deixis), (social deixis), - (-- .), , .., , , . , , , -.

[delta] (. ) - . (delta symbols) ( - ) . , - - .

-- [arboreal] . , (arboreal grid) - .

() ( ()) [tree, subtree] (1) - (2) - . (tree diagram) (S). , , (.. , ). - - : , . - , , (subtree), . - (tree geometry). , (local tree) , . -- . , - (structure tree) (parse tree) - . , (treebank). . , .

(2) , - .

() [right-linear grammar]

() [right-branching] (1) (1) . -

70

+ (). , , the book of the wife of the major () the majors wifes book, -, .

() [right dislocation] , (2) , .. I know her, Julie Julie, Hes always late, that chap .

-- [deontic] - . (deontic modality) , .. (2) , . , , : , .

() [bounded foot] (1),

-- [bound] (1) . (bound morpheme) ( (bound form)) , .. - de-, -tion, -ize .

(2) -. . ( ) ( -) - ( ) , - . --, --.

(3)

-- [commissive] , , .., /.

() [boundedness] , . (bounded feet) - , . - .

/- [bind] /-

() [bundle] -. , - . /s/ , , - , , .

() [nexus, nexi] (1) Otto Jespersen (18601943), ( ). - (junction) (.. ). , - , .

(2) - (2).

() [secondary aperture] - Chomsky () Halle ( ). - , (3).

() [secondary articulation] , -

71

, .. -, (primary articulation). . - (. --).

() [second language] (1)

() [secondary response] Leonard Bloomfield () . , .. , . ( ) ( ).

() [(1) declaration, (2) denotation, (2) denotative, (3) statement] (1)