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Present Your Ideas Effectively

I1 d l M K A l ' D S H T

Abstract -One of the more effective techniques for developing presentations of ideas, particularly for management, is to try to an ticipate all possible questions and objections to the idea and then build into the presentation the answers or solutions to those questions or problems. Often an idea "sells" better if others are allowed or encour­aged to become contributors and reasonable revisions or modifications are warmly accepted. Visuals are usually beneficial to any presentation, and an extemporaneous-but not unrehearsed-presentation is dynamic and flexible. Further advice on preparation and delivery is included.

M ANY ideas die on the vine because of failure to com­municate them in an interesting, persuasive way. The

idea may be a good one. The presenter's delivery may be good. But if there is inadequate preparation, selling of the idea may fail.

Ideally, after presentation has been made, participants should feel that nothing could be added to it without radically modifying or changing its form. They should perceive that all of the details necessary to the integrity and unity of the idea are theie.

P K I I ' A K A I I O N A N D D U I V I - K Y C O N S P I R A T I O N S .

Ad lib it The best way to present new ideas is extempora­neously. Of course, all points are thought through and planned in detail. Only the exact wording and phrasing are not memo­rized. You may want a written outline. On the other hand, you may prefer to write out your text in full, to memorize salient points. But don't take it to the lectern. In addition, you should use a good deal of time making your introduction and closing remarks as clear and concise as possible. A strong beginning and a strong ending are critical to an idea-selling presentation.

The extemporaneous presentation gives you a more natural, closer contact with the audience. It also enhances believability. Finally, it enables you to "play'.' to the moods and reactions of your audience. You can thus adapt your delivery for maxi­mum impact.

Table 1 is a checklist you can use to test your preparedness for making a presentation.

List pros and cons Make a list of all the pros and cons that anyone could think of. When listing the cons, try to view your idea with cool objectivity, as if from another's viewpoint. Then, consider your list of objections one by one. Formulate

Reprinted with permission from Hydrocarbon Processing, vol. 57, no. 7, p. 215, July 1978; copyright 1978 by Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, TX 77019.

The author is President of Princeton Creative Research, Inc., P.O. Box 122, Princeton, NJ 08540, (609) 924-3215.

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• Hjve I c o m p l e t e l y examined and thought through my i d e a 0 Have I subjected it to stringent and object ive seli-eriticism'?

• Is my presentat ion organized in to logically sequential u n i t s 9

• Does il a t tempt to cover too urany p o i n t s 0 (Due to prevailing t ime l imitat ions , even some good i tems may have lo be discarded.)

• Is the organizat ion o f my material easy to f o l l o w 0

• Have I determined which po ints need special emphas i s and highlight­i n g Are some of the minor points o v e r e m p h a s i z e d 0

• Have I checked all my support ing tacts and evidence for correctness? • Am I planning to use a sut fu i ent number of examples , i l lustrations,

visuals, ami analogies to support and reinforce the idea? Which of them can best help to clarify, intensity , prolong, and deepen the participants' awareness ot my idea's merits , attributes, and qualit ies?

• Have I orchestrated the rhythm and pace ot my delivery so that it is varied, interesting, and attention-sustaining?

a plan for handling them if they are raised. Such a list helps you anticipate and handle objections and reservations with skill. This practice also bolsters your own conviction about your ideas merits. It will thus add to your persuasiveness and self-confidence.

The listing ot pros and cons will also help you crystallize y oui idea. You may find you have even gotten your first comprehensive, balanced appraisal of the idea's worth.

Suppose the pros do not outweigh the cons. In this case, you wink on your ideas to remove the "bugs," or find the missing elements that would make it sound. Otherwise, shelve it' This is painful, but not as painful as having your idea rejected.

Weighing pros and, cons has other benefits: ( 1 ) You may get a new, fresh perspective on your idea as you analyze it and weigh supporting evidence, (2) you may be able to clarify ambiguous points, (3) it will help you to prune redundancies, and put your idea into better focus, and (4) you will be aided in identifying new problems that you had not been aware of, but which can now be dealt with.

Facilitate idea selling Strangely ervough, receptivity by others of your ideas may be enhanced when conditions in the organization are bad, or when your organization has had a series of reversals. If your idea has "positive" connotations (such as offering the company an opportunity to expand its sales, product line, etc.), management may be more prepared to "tune in." Your idea is likely to be approved if it promises an alternative to reverse a negative trend. You have to be very perceptive to the needs and motivations of your organization's management, however, if you are to take advantage of the "negative climate" phenomenon.

Sometimes you can sell a radically new idea if you can dem­onstrate the competitive advantage it would give the company.

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The success ol this depends on youi management's "track recoid" foi accepting innovation Even so, yon need a really "big" idea, of a showy innovation.

Caution and conservatism are more characteristic attributes of manageis. To impress these people, you may need to resort to the bandwagon approach. In other words, if you can show that competitors are already doing "it, your idea will have an additional plus. Most managements do not want the ab­solutely new and nsky. Rather, they seek the marginally novel

that which is sufficiently original to seem new. but not totally uiilamihai.

Moderate change Λ new procedure that calls for only a minor change involving little cost is more readily accepted than a radical change entailing a big investment. Think of other successful ideas oi concepts that parallel the one you are trying to sell. Then use as many of these as you can by way of analogy without overselling.

You may also increase the value of your idea by referring to some secondary, long-term, spin-off. or indirect benefits or by­products. But put your main emphasis on the short-range or immediate benefits. I verybody loves a fast payoff. Never­theless, secondary benefits can make your idea more attractive.

Consider your company's prime concerns of the moment. If the main thrust is to gain a greater market share with a recently introduced product, your idea may not get the hear­ing it deserves. Not that is if it is totally unrelated to the product. Also, watch your timing. Is your organization on an austerity program'* Depending on the cause, if it is, you may want to shelve your idea presentation until the "wind blows over."

Timing your move Timing can be critical. When Clarence Btrdseye saw Labradonan natives freezing fish, he saw an idea that he tried to sell to the public. In 1924, he established the General Seafoods Co. to sell frozen haddock filets But sales were not good until World War II. Then, working housewives welcomed a convenience food. Birdseye won his bet. But only because he had an idea whose time had come.

Channel your idea into the current in which your organiza­tion is moving. Relate it to problems that have high visibility. Tie it to what is being considered, done, and thought. Link it up with management's present or past preoccupations and concerns. By such associative links, you improve your chances of having your idea accepted and implemented.

Sell your boss. Try to get your immediate supervisor's back­ing first. If you do, selling your idea to higher management becomes easier. You may also prevent some ruffled feathers. Many a good idea has failed because of the political backlash that stemmed from an idea-seller's trying to go around his boss. One way to get your boss' backing is to consider what he views as important. Then, present your idea so as to appeal to this bias. Put yourself in his shoes. Imagine how he would react to your idea if the roles were reversed. This exercise in empathy will enable you to formulate an approach that he is more likely to respond favorably to.

Sell by implanting If you are more concerned about what happens to your idea than who gets the credit for it, you may

want to "plant" the idea in another person. Then, let that person present it. The highei this person's stature and power in the organization, the better are your chances of winning approval.

To do this, plan your strategy skillfully. First, sell or con­vince the individual on the importance and urgency of the idea. Next, only hint at what^the solution might be. Give only a vague, generalized description of what could be done. The idea is to direct your proxy idea-presenter to a "eureka feeling" in which he begins to crystallize and rephrase what he now thinks is his idea. I have seen a few instances in which this was so cleverly earned off that the precipitator of the idea could even express a few doubting remarks when his own idea was fed back to him with enthusiasm-by the presenter. If you are able to do this, you may find your presenter defending your idea You can then be gradually won over by him. Then, when you are sold on his idea, you can supply the missing de­tails or other supporting arguments to firm it up. If you can get through this effectively, you will have won not only a presenter of your idea, but a friend as well.

Is the "proxy presenter" concept Machiavellian? This is a moot question. When no other r e c o u r s e s available, this strategy is legitimate and surprisingly effective. Thus, the old maxim. "There is no limit to what you can accomplish if you do not care who gets the crediu"-

Get backing If you have to present your idea to a group, try to convince one or two members - prior to the meeting of the value of your idea. By taking them into your "confidence," they are more likely to rally to your side if the going gets tough. If you are particularly close to one or two such people, you may even want to "plant" them in the audience, to evoke supporting comments, ask leading questions which when answered -will lend credence to your idea.

Talk over your idea with a close associate. Get a thorough critique to assure that you have covered all of the bases. Similarly, you may want to have several "dress rehearsals" of the presentation. Again, searching questions can point up unresolved problems, check the validity of arguments used, probe for weak or ambiguous positions, and test feasibility.

Timing relates to the "climate" in which the idea is to be sold. Even the hour of the day can make a difference. You have to study the work habits, schedules, and other variables of those to whom you want to sell your idea. Here, there will be many individual variations. And the size of the group to which you are selling increases the complexity of making an objective analysis of timing factors. But they have to be considered.

Consider, for example, the feasibility of trying to sell an idea 15 minutes before the close of the work day on a holiday-weekend Friday. This could not only encourage rejection of your idea, it might get you killed. Give proper3 attention to timing.

Audience, presentation style Who will you be selling the idea to? What are their idiosyncracies? What are their concerns, attitudes, preferences, values, pet peeves, needs, and back­grounds as they relate to the concept you are trying to sell?

The more empathy you have with your audience, the more

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Fsc simple language. Clarity is a must. Avoid jargon and highly technical language, unless necessary. People tend to distiust what they do not understand.

At the same time, you may have to translate a difficult technical concept into one that a nontechnical audience can understand. Try to use analogy, allegory, and alliteration to illustrate these technical points. An example of this can be found m a remarkable little paperback book called The Uni­verse and Dr. linstcin. In this book, Finstein's otherwise incomprehensible theory of relativity comes alive through the author's use of analogy, allegory, and alliteration.

Studies of tape iccordings in which engineers tried to sell nonengineenng management on new product ideas have been helpful. Mos t of the verbal impasses and communication gaps were due to the use of highly* technical terminology by the presenters. Little attempt was made to translate this into what management would be comfortable with. So, if you have a specialized vocabulary, and il ties into your idea, be careful. Try to make your message as particular, precise, and articulate as''y ου can. Relate it to your audience's experience and frame of reference.

Value of understatement Avoid hard-sell or oversell. Subtle, fact-hut tiessed ^persuasion is better. The overheated propa­ganda of hard-sell evokes boredom, indifference, and exaspera­tion. I ndcfstatement'. on the other hand, is more amenable to the astute, informed, and intelligent. It does not imply the absence of enthusiasm. To the contrary, your own enthusiasm tor youi idea helps to sell it. But you need not wear it pal­pitating on your sleeve.

Too much enthusiasm, especially in the beginning of the piesentation. mav put people on the defensive. Of course, it is natuial to be enthusiastic about your own idea. It is also natural to magnify the benefits and overstate your feelings. But you do not want to come on too strong. You may over­power people's psyche to the point that they want nothing to do with your idea.

Avoid unsubstantiated claims. Have at your fingertips a dossier of facts and figures on what the idea can accomplish. And never try to bluff your way through. A straightforward "I don't know" can actually be an advantage. This is so particularly if you promise an answer to be conveyed to the audience later, perhaps by memorandum, tven a professional con. artist would be ill-advised to tamper with the facts too much in the presence of a shrewd and knowledgeable audience.

Maintain audience contact Pay attention to feedback from your audience. If facial expressions, restlessness, or other reactions indicate you are not getting across, slow down, or ask questions to see if you hàVe been understood. Various types of "body language" such as shuffling feet, yawns, glances at watches, talking among audience participants, and so on, may signal that it's time to call for a break, or to quickly sum up your presentation. It is better to leave them a little igno­rant thafi^sound asleep, frustrated, or irritable.

Visuals aid comprehension Use visuals. Illustrations, pic­tures, drawings, photographs, slides, film strips, motion pic­tures, models, sketches, diagrams, charts . . . all can be appro­priate to your presentation. As a minimum, use a chalkboard or an easel pad to illustrate your points. The kind of visuals

easily you will he able t o haiulle ilie sub | c c i i \ e and objective requirements of the situation. At the same time, there is no place Jor manipulation in genuine persuasion. When people sense that someone is appealing t o then emotions ami feelings at the expense of their reason, they become suspicions and resentful. They may ax youi idea o n that basis alone.

When you aie frying to sell an idea to a paiticular $ioup. remembei that the people are theie because you want them theie. They have been invited. They are not theie because they asked to be, usually. There thus may kbe an inteience that your status is in some way superior to theirs. You can­not demand .their attention. You must also deserve it. Con­sequently, the duration of your presentation is restricted.

Λ lecturer may ask "Mow much time does the subject need?" But a presenter's question is "How much time can the audi-, encc spare?" Remember that you have a captive audience. Try to make their captivity as pleasant or af least as painless as possible.

Suppose that in making your presentation, you aie to be introduced to the audience by someone else. You can use this to advantage, Get with the person who is to make the intro­duction, beforehand. (îo through your achievements and credentials that strengthen youi credibility m.teims of the idea you are trying to present. If,your audience s e ^ you as a "winner." they will be in youi corne\ when the bell ring's, riven so, an introduction should not be too long oi gushy. And it should be as relevant as possible to content presentation.

Beginning and concluding Λ good introduction will provide you with an audience that intends to listen. Your conclusion is your opportunity to reinforce the idea you just presented. Both should be carefully planned. If your idea is fairly com­plex, the introduction and conclusion should probably even be memorized. Presentation authority Antony Jay says that a presenter's introduction is his opportunity to "harness the horse of the argument to the wagon of the audience's interest and understanding." He adds that if you "gallop straight off. you Jnay hurdle along without realizing you left them all be­hind at the starting gate. You have to start in the area they know and understand. You have to identify coriectly the as­sumptions and questions in their minds before you can take them with you into unknown territory."

Organize your presentation intff ( I ) a broad, over-all con­sideration of your idea and ( 2 ) a detailed discussion of the main points and how the idea can bé implemented. . The broad consideration gives a short background history of

the problem, what led you to it, and how you proceeded to solve it. The detailed portion covers such areas as how the idea can be executed or implemented, who should be in charge o f it, what the manpower, requirements are, the timetable, etc. But don't overelaborate On the idea's background.

A long presentation should be interspersed with visual aids, demonstrations, and chalkboard use. These furnish variety and help your audience stay alert and attentive. Try not to keep people penned in their seats for long per iodsof time. For the longer presentation, take a break then reconvene .V

Get to the point Be concise,. Avoid longwindedness. Some people introduce ideas and proposals with so many prelimi­naries that the idea itself gets buried. At the same time, side­step no main point.

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For (he presenter: • They increase his motivation and enthusiasm tor the project • Increase his selt-contidertte and mastery ot the presentation • Improve his creative ingenuity in the preparation ot the presentation • Contribute to better organization of materials. • Inable him to act more spontaneously and to move around • Give him the opportunity to escape from the limelight for briel

periods. • Decrease audience resistance to the idea. For the audience: • They reduce misunderstandings, contusion, inaccuracies, and vague

ness. • Provide conceptual clarity to abstract concepts. • Add variety, color, and interest to the presentation. • Emphasize and reinforce key concepts of the idea. • Deepen and vitalize audience involvement. • Stimulate imagination and empathie listening. • Help continuity of thought and the creation of meaningful concepts. • Generate and hold attention. • F.nliven dull portions of the material. • Make a more lasting impression.

and the number ot* them that you use depends on the com­plexity of your idea, the length of the presentation, and who has to pass judgment on it. But good visuals do more than help your audience understand. They also demonstrate to it that you have put care and thought into your presentation.

Few technical professionals use good visuals. Ignorance is one reason. - Another is the cost and time required to pre­pare some types of good visuals. On the other hand, we have the individual who uses visuals far too elaborate for the kind of idea he is trying to sell. This creates a showman image. It can actually hurt the presentation. At the same tjnne. it is probably better to commit this sin than to avoid visuals altogether and rob your audience of the opportunity to picture your idea and thus understand it better (see Table 2).

People remember about 10 percent of what they read. 20 percent of what they hear. 30 percent of what they see, 50 percent of what tliey hear and see, 70 percent of what they say, and 90 percent of what they say as they do a thing.

Listening, unaided by visuals, can result in comprehension errors. Consider this experiment: Five out of six subjects leave a room. The remaining one is exposed to a picture of a street scene. He has two minutes to study and memorize as many details as he can. The picture is then withdrawn.

Now, the second subject is called into the room. The first subject describes the picture to him. Me in turn tells the third subject what he heard, and this goes on until the last subject is reached. This last person then describes the pic­ture* as he visualizes it based on what he heard. When he sees the picture he can't recognize it. Why° Because fewer details pass each time the picture is described. There are also variables in the visual perception and verbal articulation of each participant.

Helping management "see" Consider another example from the corporate world: The vice president in charge of personnel wanted to have a new policy that would save the company a lot of money. In spite of several meetings with management, he could not make them see how the new policy would work in practice. Frustrated, he finally wrote it up as it would appear in the new policy manual. He had it typeset and sent proofs to the top management team, requesting their approval

I AMI I } I I is I ssj \ F I \I LOT's ! Vl'si M s VV HI S

• It is difficult to v i suah/c the idea by verbal delivery alone. • I here are divergencies in op in ions and viewpoints . • Statistical or numerical d a t a w i l l be given. • I n g m e e i i n g or product ion details are used • A radically n e w product or service is 'proposed. • A model o f a new device cannot be brought to the meet ing . • Structural relationships o f the details to the whole have to be shown . • I he audience is unfamiliar to the speaker. • A large number o f people participate. • The meet ing is formal, or when top management will at tend.

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• What are the key selling po ints ot my idea.' Which ot these should be underscored 1u vis­uals ' Will they achieve my objec t ives '

• Which of my ke> po ints particu­larly need visuals'

• Will my visuals clarify my idea.' Or will they merely support it.' It they only support it. should I consider them '

• Arc my visuals appropriate and concrete' ' Are they informative' 1

• What visuals should I plan to use.' I ransparencies to he used with the over-the shoulder pro .lector' S l i d e s ' l-ilmstrips? Mo­tion pictures? Opaque mate-n a l V I lannel board 'materials' M o d e l s ' Drawings.' Diagrams' Chalkboard? I asel pad?

• Have 1 considered the cos t , t ime, and thought any ot these visuals will l a k e ' Does the particular presentation ot my idea justify the*;:"* Can I .manage |usj as well without them, or without some ol them''

• Is each visual 1 plan to use con­sistent with my object ives - ' D o they add up to a consis tent ' basie structure and u n i t y ' Are they tree trom compl icat ing type faces, art techniques , and symbols?

• \ i e the visuals des igned to clarify my points or are they designed to persuade.' Do they use both consc ious and sub­liminal appeals' 1

• Should my visuals be represen­tational, pictorial, or symbol ic? Which treatment is. best for my idea? Which treatment is best from the standpoint o f the au­dience?

• Can my audience easily grasp what they see or is an added explanat ion necessary? Are my visuals direct and to the point?

• Is the sequence with which I plan to use the visuals logical? Are they so organized that they add strength and are relevant one to another and to my over-all idea.' Is my purpose sequential disclosure or build­up.'

• Are mv visuals realistic? D o they give all the pertinent facts without d i s t o r t i o n 0

• Are my visuals as effect ive as they can be made.' Did I put enough thought and effort into the planning of the visuals? Did I consider all the ways in which the idea could be reinforced and clan lied, by the v isuals 0

• Have 1 sought evaluation from * others? Have I consulted spe­

cialists if they are available? • Are my visuals believable in

terms of the overall idea? Will my audience appreciate and understand them'.' Will they be complete ly readable and will my audience have an unobstructed view o f them?

• Have I pretested the visuals? Have I planned o n e or more rehearsals'.'

or suggestions for revision. In a week.-till proofs were cleared without any changes. Why? Top management had now been able to see how the abstract policy would work in practice.

For a presentation to be effective, it has to activate partic­ipants' minds. It must transform a passive ingestion of infor­mation into a persuasive, convincing experience. When is it particularly wise to use visuals'* See Table 3. Then take'a look at Table 4 for a how-to-do-it checklist.

Try showmanship. Dramatize. Consider the experience of George Walker, former vice president for Ford Motor Co. When he was a free-lance designer in Detroit, he entered a design competition for a new door handle, sponsored by Ford. Before he submitted his design, he reviewed all the displays already submitted. He was struck by their similarity and

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plainness. He decided to slip a piece of black velvet behind his design. When Henry Ford passed the exhibits and saw Walker's, he said "I want that one."

Demonstrate Try a model that participants can see and manipulate. A demonstration is a giant step toward converting your idea into a reality.

Inventor Robert Worman tells the story of a man who was trying to sell an idea for making an extruder to his company's management. He showed fancy drawings, diagrams, and so on. Still, his audience did not have a clear concept of what he was talking about. Finally, he showed up one day with his wife's meat grinder, mounted on a board. This was an extruder. When it was fed wilii modeling clay, a crude wood and sheet metal device at the end went through some motions. Manage­ment people watched for two hours, turning the grinder handle until the combination of rotary and linear motions was under­stood. Then they proceeded with the design and purchase of full-scale equipment.

It is obvious from this story we should try to simplify our ideas so that they can be demonstrated. A good demonstra­tion bridges the gap of incomprehension.

I D F A P R F S F N T A T I O N T F C H N I O I ' F . S

Include in your presentation all arguments for and against it. This pro and con discussion will help you convince the more knowledgeable persons of the thoroughness that went into you idea's conception. This two-sided approach has additional advantages. It often takes the wind out of objec­tions and reservations that others r. ight raise.

Dealing with the negative aspects of your idea and resolution ο f, them disarms objections that people tend to mentally re­hearse while they are hearing your message. But if you use this technique, go "all the way." You must include all impor­tant negative arguments. Otherwise, you may appear to be "stonewalling" the situation. You will lose more than you gain.

The two-sided approach is useful when you feel opposing statements or arguments will be aired at the beginning of your presentation. One-sided presentations, emphasizing tmly the advantages of the idea, are usually more effective when the group has been presold on your idea.

Handling questions Your presentation should include most of the answers to anticipated questions. If you fail to antic­ipate these questions and answer them, your audience is apt to feel frustrated and impatient. Depending on the format of your presentation, unanswered questions may even burst forth during the presentation. This can disrupt the continuity of your delivery.

But suppose that you reserve questions to the end. Two things usually happen. Either you are overwhelmed by an avalanche of questions, or your audience has become too frustrated to ask questions at all.

Consider writing down all of the questions that you would anticipate with respect to your idea if you were in the audi­ence yourself.

The president of a medium-sized advertising agency wanted to secure a large drug account. When he met the president of

the pharmaceutical firm, his presentation was less elaborate than that of his competitors giants in the field. But when he talked, he carefully, answered all the questions he hid posed to himself. When he completed his presentation, the president of the drug firm looked down on a piece of paper where he listed a series of questions. After reviewing them, he stood up to shake'hands. There were no questions.

Support your idea Come to your presentation armed .to answer as many of the detailed questions as possible. For those that you anticipate, but think you can answer on the spot, bring supporting material or at least be prepared to refer your audience to supporting material.

If there are some answers you can't handle on the spot, say so. If, in giving an answer, you are only offering an educated guess, say so.

If your idea is highly technical or complex, it is best to allow even encourage comments and questions during the presentation. Of course, too many questions can disrupt the orderly progress of your delivery. But you may have more to lose by deferring questions to the end. In explaining intricate concepts, which your audience cannot query or respond to as issues are raised, you may lose your respondents altogether. They may not be able to track the continuity of your concepts and thus miss the rationale behind what you are trying to explain.

Answer objections The larger th^vgroup to which you are making a presentation,.the more likely it is that there will be one or more persons who raise all kinds of objections and argu­ments as to why your idea won't work, should not be adopted, etc. Be prepared to answer them. It is better to thoroughly evaluate an idea during the selling stage and find flaws in it than it is. to put financial resources behind it and see it fail. In this setting, even an antagonistic question can be more helpful than harmful.

There are times, though, when it is best no't to try to refute objections or reservations. This is* so especially when you feel that your refutation might not be convincing. Caught in this kind of bind, politicians have effectively used the ploy of -instead of answering the specific question -turning to periph­eral matters that are more positive. But it takes a bit of mental dexterity to do this cleverly, so that you don't appear to be ducking the issues. Sometimes this technique will buy some time so that you can later reinject an answer to the question, when the tone of the session is more in your favor. At that point, you would refer back to the unrefuted argu­ment and neutralize it with positive statements.

Avoid being argumentative If you enter a presentation wilh the attitude that people will resist your idea, you may transmit your feelings to your audience. They may very well respond with the blind stubbornness that you feared.

Naturally, when the integrity of your idea is challenged, there is an urge to argue, to defend. You may be tempted to raise your voice. It is more effective to keep your voice even and try to raise questions about the portion of the idea with which the person who objected must agree. This is a difficult thing to do without appearing that you are sidestepping the original question. Consequently, if the situation does not lend

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itself to that kind of resolution, you may decide simply to listen to the questioner, calmly anif thoughtfully. Encourage him to expand freejy or elaborate. In an astounding number of instances, people who are thus allowed to expand, elabo­rate, bluster, and so on, actually disarm their own arguments.

When you are not taking an argumentative posture, your antagonist is free to relax his own mind. He is thus more likely to reconcile his own question. In the meantime, other observers present are more inclined to identify with you as the presenter -and be empathie with your position. This is particularly true if your questioner appears antagonistic, puni­tive, or irrational in his remarks.

Stay calm Some questioners seek knowledge. Others want to show off their own. There are a few folks around who seem to enjoy putting other people on the spot. Here, careful listening, especially to what lies behind the words, can help you detect overtones, feelings, and attitudes.

Antagonistic questions can arise because of company or organizational politics, rivalry, resentment, status-seeking, competition, and so on. Even when these elements are pres­ent, you have to stay on a track that is rational, objective, and nonretaliatory. If you allow someone to make you angry, you are more likely to overreact lose your "cool ," and appear defensive and uncontldent. Be prepared to receive wounds without showing that they have been inflicted.

Never assume an air of superiority. You have nothing to gain by making others feel small or ignorant. In the words of Benjamin, Franklin, "The way to sell an idea to another is to state your case moderately and accurately. This makes your listener receptive. Like as not, he will turn about and con­vince you of the worth of your idea. But if you go at him in a tone of positiveness and arrogance, you are likely to turn him against your idea, no matter how good it is."

Welcome revisions Try not to be so ego-involved with your ideas that you reject positive suggestions for improvement or modification. Heartily welcome these. It is your opportunity to give your audience a pat on the back. In so doing you muster additional support for your original idea. Of course, you have a right to contest concepts that would destroy your brainchild.

On the other hand, accepting some adjustments and modifi­cations is somewhat akin to the compromise and tradeoffs that we see in international diplomatic relationships: Γ give you something; you give me something. We try to get consensus on the main thrust of the idea, but remain flexible on some of the issues. Remember, people most readily commit themselves to that which they help create.

Be generous in sharing credit with others. Everyone will be a winner. You will be remembered as the one who came up with the original concept. If you hug your idea too closely* to your own bosom, others will not come to your aid when you meet obstacles.

Idea implementation requires cooperative, mutual effort. Try to let others "get into the act." Build an atmosphere of mutuality. Make others feel that they are participants. Give them an air of importance. Even let then>beeome co-creators

of your idea., Using the "we" approach is the single most important ingredient in selling ideas.

Outline Try to outline immediate steps for your idea's implementation. Consider as many alternatives as you can. If you see that an immediate commitment is difficult to secure, go for a tentative acceptance. Suggest further actions such as formation of a committee for further study, market research, feasibility studies, detailed cost estimates, patent search, and other such concrete actions which will help keep your idea alive.

You may also want to win approval by offering to test your idea, if it is feasible. Sometimes a poor idea presented by a forceful, convincing presenter wins out over an idea offered by an inexperienced, less persuasive person. But when ideas are tested in advance, the good ones will-like cream-rise to the top. Moreover, pilot tests are often less expensive than full-fledged implementation. Such a phasing-in approach also enables other key parties to become involved in developing your idea. They become participants. . Of course, pretesting can produce problems. Consider the experience of Ε. H. Land, president of Polaroid Corp. and inventor oT the Polaroid camera. His original invention met with stiff resistance. Extensive market research indicated there would be little or no demand for such a camera. It would be too expensive. It would be regarded as a toy. And it could not meet the standards of a fine camera. In the long run, Dr. Land proved the research invalid and went on to de­velop one of the most successful camera innovations of all time. Even so, if he had not been prominent in his company already, his idea might still be only a gleam in his eye.

Another idea that won Consider also the experience of G. I. Long, former president of Ampex Corp. After the war, when the TV boom started, he felt that permitting TV programs to be transcribed for distribution and rebroadcasting would tap a huge potential market. Many other companies were interested in this, too, but all of them thought the project would be too expensive. Ampex, on the other hand, considered itself too small to tackle the problem. But Long's enthusiasm carried beyond market research findings which had shown that video­tape would not be feasible, Ampex went on to develop a viable videotape methodology, which established Ampex as a leader in the industry.

In another case, Chester Carlson spent several discouraging years trying to interest someone in a process he had developed in his kitchen. Again, several interested firms conducted ex­tensive market research. They decided that the idea would not be profitable. But Carlson persisted. His ideas eventually became the Xerox Coi\p.

The incredible myopia of market research and pretesting is not restricted to technology. The best-selling author R. J. Ringer approached ten prominent publishing houses with his manuscript Winning Through Intimidation. Several pub­lishers turned him down after their marketing departments had conducted "sophisticated" research to assess its sales po­tential. Results indicated it would not sell out a modest first printing. Finally, the author published the book himself in

2 1 0 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATION, VOL. PC-22, NO. 4 , DECEMBER 1979

hard cover. It was on the Best Seller list for more than 38 weeks.

Be prepared Co pretest Most large corporations insist on pretesting ideas. If you have an idea which cannot be tested in advance, spend extra effort planning a step-by-step program for carrying it out. If it appears that a favorable decision is not forthcoming, try to buy time by suggesting that you will further develop your own idea, or that you will gather more data. Now, your idea can strike roots in the subconscious of your audience.

Depending on the complexity of your idea, you may want to present some of it in writing. Your audience may want to go off in a corner and study your material. Obviously, the same care should be given to this written presentation that you gave to your oral presentation.

In some instances, you may want to send out your paper­work before making an oral presentation. One executive I know uses a four-page memorandum. It consists of a short description of his idea, a detailed outline of key points, an­ticipated questions and answers, and a request for submission of further questions and objections from recipients of the memorandum. He sends these out a few days before the scheduled meeting.

Here's how he explains the advantages of this method: "For years I tried to introduce my ideas in person at a con­ference. I theorized that I wanted to nip objections in the bud. Then I became convinced I was relying too much on my own persuasiveness and not enough on my idea. Also, I saw I was creating the impression that I wanted to ram my ideas down some people's throats. This led to long arguments on insignificant points. By giving recipients of my memorandum an opportunity for questions and objections, I proved my openmindedness."

Asking for preconference responses also helps people who will be attending to organize their own ideas. They then come to the conference prepared to discuss the matter intelligently.

Sell down and sideways Ideas should be sold not only t o management but also sideways and to subordinates. You want those who will have to execute your idea to fully understand what is involved. Otherwise, they may feel that they have been "handed" something. They have no input, no vested interest, and very little incentive to support apart from a rr magement edict. Always try to sell an idea to everyone who will ultimately be involved.

How to Prepare Inspection Reports RICHARD L. CLARK

Abstract-Inspection reports are used to evaluate a seller's product against the requirements of the purchaser's procurement document. Although the quality of the report depends on the inspector, the use of standardized forms often limits the value of an inspection by restricting the amount and type of information in the report, twenty criteria are presented as guidelines for inspection report preparation.

PURCHASERS of equipment and materials for the hydro­carbon processing industry can realize a greater value for

their source inspection dollars by improving the preparation and use of inspection reports.

Source inspection is a common part of the purchasing pro­cess, especially where expensive or critical items are involved. Companies which require the source inspection of purchased equipment or materials employ their own inspectors or con­tract the work to third-party inspection services. In either case, inspection reports are prepared.

Reprinted with permission from Hydrocarbon Processing, vol. 57, no. 2, p. 159, Feb. 1978; copyright 1978 py Gulf Publishing .Company, Houston, TX 77001.

The author is Manager of the Quality Division of C. A. Rubio Com­pany, 2600 S. Gessner, Houston, TX 77063, (713) 781-3600.

THE REPORT

A Description

An inspection report is a description of conditions observed, and in some cases formally witnessed, during the performance of inspections, examinations, tests, and various quality-related^ activities conducted in accordance with the specifications and requirements of the purchase order. Inspection reports are prepared by inspectors during the course of, and at the con­clusion of, inspection assignments.

The inspection report is the essence of an inspection assign­ment. It survives as a record long after the assignment has been completed. It remains as tangible evidence of all that tran­spired during the course of the inspection visit. It is capable of serving rnany useful purposes if it is properly prepared and used.

Inspection assignments are usually conducted at the location of manufacture or at some other site where the purchaser's inspector can compare the seller's product against the re­quirements of the procurement documents. His goal is to de­termine whether the product is suitable for the purchaser's needs.