HPOOPIKH

E A'

ATPA 2000

HPOOPIKH E A' EIA KEPAYNOY K T K ANAITH INTEA T M EPAIMO KOYTOYPAKH ... TYPORAMA / 19971999 ISBN: 9605380781 K : H 10/1 Copyright 2000 & , 26222 : (0610) 314094, 314206 : (0610) 317244 . 2121/1993, .

............................................................................................................................................ 11K 1

H : E

, , E .................................................................................................. 13 1.1 ....................................................................................... .................................................................

15 18 28 30

1.2

1.3 .................................................................. 22 1.4 1.5 ..................................... ................................................

...................................................................................................................... 35 ............................................................................................... 36K 2

, , E .................................................................................................. 37 2.1 .............................................................................. .........................

40 43 50 56 58

2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5

.................................................................

...................................................................................................... .....................................................................................................

2.6 ....................................................................... 63 2.7 ............................................................................. 69 ...................................................................................................................... 71 ............................................................................................... 73K 3

, ,

6

EIAH THN EITHMH TN YOOITN

E .................................................................................................. 75 3.1 3.2 ................................................................................................... .....................................................................................................

77 82

3.3 ............................................................................................... 86 ...................................................................................................................... 93 ............................................................................................... 94K 4

Y

, , E .................................................................................................. 95 4.1 4.2 ..........................................

97

..................................................................................... .....

102 105

4.3

4.4 ................................. 108 ................................................................................................................... 110 K 5............................................................................................

111

: ,

, , E ................................................................................................ 113 5.1 ...............................................................................................

116

5.2 ........................................................................................ 116 5.3 ......................................................................... 117 5.4 5.6 .........................................................................

118 125 133 135 139

5.5 ......................... 121.................................................................................

5.7 ......................................................... 131 5.8 ........................................................................... .........................................................................

5.9

................................................................................................................... 137...........................................................................................

EPIEXOMENA

7

K 6

, , E ............................................................................................... 141 6.1 6.3 ....................................................... .........

143 144 151 152 155 156 161

6.2 6.4

................................................................................. ....................................................................

6.5 ......................................................... 154 6.6 ...................................................... ....................................

6.7 K 7

................................................................................................................... 159...........................................................................................

, , E ............................................................................................... 163 7.1 ......................................................................................... 165 7.2 7.3 K 8........................................................................... ............................................................................

170 174 178

................................................................................................................... 177...........................................................................................

, , E ............................................................................................... 179 8.1 ............................................................................ 181 8.2 ...................................................................................

184 188 197

8.3 ........................................................................................ 185 8.4 .................................

................................................................................................................... 196...........................................................................................

8

EIAH THN EITHMH TN YOOITN

K 9

, , E ............................................................................................... 199 9.1 ..............................................................................

203 209 213

9.2 (MIS) ............................. 205 9.3 K 10.............

................................................................................................................... 212...........................................................................................

Y

, , E ............................................................................................... 215 10.1 ..............................

219

10.2 ........................................................................................ 221 10.3 ..................................................................... 222 10.4 ...................................... ............

225 228 235

10.5 : K 11

................................................................................................................... 234...........................................................................................

, , E ............................................................................................... 237 11.1 ................................................................................................................ 240 11.2 (Multimedia) .................................. 240 11.3 .............................................

244 248

................................................................................................................... 247...........................................................................................

XXX

9

K 12

K: M Quo Vadis InfoTechnology?

, , E ............................................................................................... 249 12.1 .......................................................

251

12.2 : .................................................................................... 252 ................................................................................................................... 257 E...........................................................................................

258 259 261 276 309

......................................................................................................................................... .........................................................

A A B

.......................................................................................

.................................................................................................................................... 289..............................................................................................................................

, . . , . H E , , . , , . , , . , , , .

12

EIAH THN EITHMH TN YOOITN

, , , . , . 1 . 2 , 3 . 4 . , , , 5. 6 . 7 , . , 8. 9 , 10 . 11 , . , 12 . , , , , . . O 1998

H : E . . , : (Computer) (Computer Science) (Informatics) (Computations) (CPU) (data) (bits) (inputoutput) E . -

1

14

K E A A I O 1 : H / E

. . . . , .

1.1

15

1.1

, 2200 .. 3500 .. . ( 65 ..), . , , .. (, 210 ..), , ( , 100 ..), , . , . , John Napier, , , , , . Napier, [1] e, 1614, Henry Briggs 10 .

[1] e, e = 2,71828, , .. ex = N > 0, x = lnN e.

16

K E A A I O 1 : H / E

, . (logs) ( ) . , () , , , () , . Pascal: Blaise Pascal 1647 , , . Pascal ( ) 10:1, ' . , . Pascal Gottfried Von Leibnitz 1671 . Jacquard: Joseph Jacquard 1801 . , , . . . . Babbage: Charles Babbage, Cambridge, 1823

1.1

17

, . Babbage, Jacquard, 1834 , . Babbage , . . Hollerith: 19 . Herman Hollerith, , 1880 1886 . Hollerith . . , Hollerith Tabulating Machine Co., . , 1924 International Business Machine Corporation (IBM). Aiken: 1937, Howard Aiken, , Harvard , , Hollerith. MARK I

18

K E A A I O 1 : H / E

. MARK IV. : (/) 1940 John Atanasoff ABC (Atanasoff Berry Computer). J. Eckert J. Mauchly 19421944 ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator), / 5.000 500 , . , 1949, M. Wilkes W. Renwick Manchester / , EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Computer). EDSAC . 1951 Sperry Rand Corporation UNIVAC I (UNIVersal Automatic Computer). / . .1.2

: ; ; ; (Concise Oxford Dictionary, 1964) (Computer) . . .

1.2

19

. , (data), , . I (Informatics). , , . 1.4. , ... (computing science computing). (cybernetics).

: . . , .1.2.1

1.1

18 , , C. Babbage , . : (i) ,

20

K E A A I O 1 : H / E

() . (ii) ( Babbage mill), . . (iii) , ( ). (iv) . (v) . , , , [Central Processing Unit (CPU)].1.2.2

Babbage , . . , , .. , . / . CPU . / , . 1 () 0 () 000 S, 111 (), SOS 000111000. 1 0 (binary digits) bits.

1.2

21

. . . , , ' , . , , . , , . . , , . , , , . , . 1.2

: () () 0 1 () 0, 1 () () , ()

22

K E A A I O 1 : H / E

1.2.3 /

E/E [Input/Output (I/O)] CPU CPU . , . , . . , . , . I / (CPU), (interface) . 1.3

x . / : , , () (), () ().

1 . 3

23

1.3

: (i) : . . , , . . , , (real time). ( ) , ( ), (1 microsec = 106 sec), (1 nanosec = 109 sec) (1 picosec = 1012 sec). (ii) : , , . CPU , , . CPU (auxiliary or secondary storage devices). , -

24

K E A A I O 1 : H / E

. ( CPU) , 1024 , .. CDC CYBER 73 128 (. 128 x 1024 ). (iii) : , , . , .. , . (iv) : , . , . : ) /, ) CPU, ) , ) . , . , . . (v) : ,

1 . 3

25

. CPU , . Babbage , , . . . , . . : , , , , , , , , , . 1.4

: , , , , CPU, , , .

1.5

26

K E A A I O 1 : H / E

1.3.1

: (i) (digital), (analogue) (hybrid). () . () , .. , , . (ii) A . (iii) A . , . (iv) A , : (floatingpoint, specs .), , (throughput) . , . [Personal Computers (PC)] ( 197080) , . (server) () . (workstations) ,

1 . 3

27

. [ (large mainframe), (medium), (mini), (microcomputers)] , .. (supermicro), , .. , , . , , .. laptop computers, 5 kg, notebook computers, 3 kg, palmtop computers, 1 kg. . , .. , 5 6 , , [network computers (NC)], , , , , ., . , . . bits (qubits), 0, 1 , . ,

28

K E A A I O 1 : H / E

. , . 1.6 : , , , ,

1.4

informatique (information = + /ique) , , . (informatik) (informatika), (Computer Science). , , . () , . , [Information Technologies (IT)] , , .. -

1.4

29

, , .., , , , .., . , , , . , (Information Science), , .. , , , , .. 196070 , , . , , , , , , . ( ) , , , , , , (Management), , . . 198090 : (i) , (ii) , , , ., (iii) , .

30

K E A A I O 1 : H / E

1.5

, , Computing Reviews (CR). CR Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) 1964. Communications of ACM (CACM, Vol. 25, No.1, p.13) 1982. T 1983, 1987, 1991 1998. 1998, , , . , . , , , . () .0 (, ) .1 .2 (, ..) .m () (HARDWARE) .0

1.5

31

.1 .2 .3 , , .4 / , /, , .5 .6 .7 B.8 .m (C) C.0 C.1 C.2 C.3 C.4 C.5 C.m (D) (SOFTWARE) D.0 D.1 D.2 () D.3 D.4 D.m () .0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .m

32

K E A A I O 1 : H / E

(F) F.0 F.1 , , F.2 , , F.3 , , F.4 , , F.m (G) G.0 G.1 , , , , , , (..), .. , G.2 , G.3 G.4 G.m (H) H.0 H.1 H.2 H.3 H.4 .5 H.m

1.5

33

() .0 .1 .2 .3 .4 I.5 I.6 I.7 (Pattern recognition) (Simulation & modeling)

.m (J) J.0 J.1 J.2 J.3 J.4 J.5 J.6 J.7 (ComputerAided Engineering)

J.m (K) (COMPUTING MILIUX) .0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 K.m

34

K E A A I O 1 : H / E

(Internet): http://www.acm.org/class/1998/overview.html 10 12. , , () . 1.7

, ( ) : , (, , ) , , (, , ) (, , ) , (, , ) , (, , )

1.8

: , , , , , , , . (Software), : , , , , , , , .

1.9

1.5

35

. , ; 300 . ACM (1998) 37 [ (SIGs)] (information technology), .. , , , , , , (multimedia) . : http://www.acm.org/sigs/guide98.html . ( 1.5) ; ( 200 ). .

1.1

1.2

, . () (users) , .

36

K E A A I O 1 : H / E

/ (I/O) . : , , , . , , . , . ( ) , , : , , , , , , , , , , .B

[1.1] ARBIB M.: Computers and Cybernetic Society, Acad. Press, NY, 1977 [1.2] DERTOUZOS M.L., MOSES J.(eds): The Computer Age: A twenty year view, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass, 1979 [1.3] DROMEY G.: How to solve it by Computers, Prentice Hall, UK, 1982 [1.4] GOLDSCHLAGER H.H., LISTER A.: Computer Science: A modern introduction, Prentice Hall, NJ, 1982 : , . [1.5] HUNT R., SHELLEY J.: Computers and commonsense, Prentice Hall, London, 1979 [1.6] METROPOLIS N., HOWLETT J. ROTA G.C.(eds): A history of computing in the twentieth century, Academic Press, 1980 [1.7] STERN N., STERN R.A.: Computing in the information age, Wiley & Sons, NY, 1993

. . . : , (CPU) , (, , ) / (Hardware), (Software), (Operating System) (Digital) (data) (CPU) (chips)

2

38

K E A A I O 2 :

(microprocessor) ASCIIEBCDIC (RAMROM) VLSI (registers) MIPS Y (Hardware) (Software) (windows)

E , , , . . (), , (PCs), . , , (marketing) . (workstations) (clusters) .

E

39

(digital) (analogue) . , . () , , . . I , , (processing) , , , , . (computer system) : (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) . (information processing) , , . (hardware) , . . , ' . . -

40

K E A A I O 2 :

. , . . , .2.1

(input), ( CPU) (output). (CPU) . M , .. , , .. . (instructions) . , , , . , , . (+, , *, /), . [Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)]. , , (Control Unit). ALU [Central Processing Unit (CPU)].

2.1

41

( von Neumann) 2.1, , . . H , ' CPU, (main memory) . H (ROM, PROM, RAM ..). , von Neumann, . K M E M M

E

M E

A M

2.1

. K . H . 2.1 . O ,, , CPU , . O , . . ALU ALU . ALU . -

42

K E A A I O 2 :

, . . CPU, , : (i) , (ii) , (iii) / . CPU , . CPU () () () (). CPU . (chips) CPU . CPU (microprocessor). 2.1

: , , , , , , ,

2.2

CPU : , , , , / ,

2.2

43

2.2

, (integrated circuits), (magnetic cores) (semi conductors) ., . , ( 0 1) . [binary digits (bits)], . bits , 09 . (Alphanumeric Alphameric). bits , 26 = 64 , 64 . bits 32 . (words) . bits , . 8 bits 64 bits. bits (byte), 8 bits. , 8 bits, . bits, , , . ( ,

44

K E A A I O 2 :

) , . .. 21 bits 7 bits [ ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) 128 ] : 1000011 1001110 1000100

D

(code) . (C, A), C . C A , 12 , i < > 0 i< . , . ALU . [Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)], 3 (Excess3BCD), 2421, Gray. , . , , , .

2.2

45

: (i) ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) , 7 8 bits . 8 ASCII, 4 bits () , (, ) , 4 bits () 09. , 1111 4 bits , 0100 4 bits 4. (ii) EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code) 8 bits . EBCDIC, , , 28 = 256 , ASCII 7 bits 27 = 128 . (universal code) , , , , , ., . 6 (8421) 26 = 64 , 8 ( 928), , , Baudot, 5 . -

46

K E A A I O 2 :

, . 8 . (bar codes), . , , . . , .. Hamming (parity). (error detecting and correcting codes), .. , Berger, checksum, .2.2.1

. H : (i) , (ii) , (iii) , . 10, 09. 10 , .. 2475 2 2 10, 4527 2 10 . 2 0 1. O , .. , , , ,

2.2

47

. , . O . T , (0 1), . : 0 1 10 11 100 101 110 111 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

2 bit , .. O 1 1 0 1

1 20 = 1 0 21 = 0 1 22 = 4 1 23 = 8 8 +4 + 0 + 1 = 13. 36 bits, 35 bits, 36 bit (signbit) . (number system)

48

K E A A I O 2 :

, .. 10 10 (): 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 8 : 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. 934.52 934.52 = 9 102 + 3 101 + 4 100 + 5 101 + 2 102, 736.4 : 753.4 = 7 82 + 5 81 + 3 80 + 4 81 = = 7 64 + 5 8 + 3 1 + 4 / 8 = 491.5 H , . , (hexadecimal). 16 , 0 9 A, B, C, D, E, F 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15. 34F : 3A4F = 3 163 + A 162 + 4 161 + F 160 = = 3 4096 + 10 256 + 4 16 + 15 1 = 14927 . ,

2.2

49

. 54.623 . = 54 = 623 0.623 54 27 0 13 1 6 0 3 0 1 1 0 1 2 1.246 2 0.492 2 0.984 2 1.968 54 = 110010 54.623 = 110010.1001 ( ) , , 23 = 8 24 = 16, 3 , 4 . 3 bits , 4 bits . , 16 bits: 1 3 7 1 1 1 1 F 5 0 1 1 1 7 6 2 0 0 1 0 2 O 0.623 = 0.1001

1 0 1 1 B

(binary coding) .

50

K E A A I O 2 :

98 1100010, BCD 1001 9 1000 8

2.3

: () , () 0,1,2,,9, () 0 1, () 0,1,,9 .

2.4

1101 1011, 743.40, 3E9F .

2.5

2004 44.6875 .

2.3

. . . (i) 1001 + 110 1111 + : 1 9 6 15

2.3

51

(ii) :

11 101110 + 1101 111011 + 46 13 59

(iii) :

11111 10111010 + 110111 11110001

:

11 186 + 55 241

, , (, *, /) . , .. 5 4, 5 + 5 + 5 + 5, . , . (complement). , : (i) Y 9, 9 (, , .) . (ii) . (iii) 1 0 . , , .. : 26 11 15 28 54 26

52

K E A A I O 2 :

: 26 1 2 3 + 88 ( 9 11)

28 + 45 ( 9 54)

114 1 ( , 1)

073 0 ( , 0)

15

73 ( 9 73 )

26 : 26 11 15 11010 1011 11010 ( 1 1011) + 0100 11110 1 ( , 1)

1111 , .. 35/7 : 35 7 28 7 21 7 14 7 7 7 = 0 ( 7 ).2.3.1 ALU

: (octal) 8 (hexadecimal) 16. , .

2.3

53

: (i) , (ii) 1 0 1 0. (carrying over) (logic elements) (logic gates). (signals). , .. , , 0 1. (). , ( ), (truth table). : . (gates), AND, OR NOT. , : (i) AND 1, 1, :E E E E

1 1 AND

1

1 0 AND

0

0 1 AND

0

0 0 AND

0

(ii) OR 1, 1, :E E E E

1 0 OR

1

0 1 OR

1

1 1 OR

1

0 0 OR

0

54

K E A A I O 2 :

(iii) NOT , : 0 NOT 1 0 NOT 1

, 1 0. , , ( . 2.2). Z 0 11 0 0 0 NOT 2.2

OR

0

0 1

AND

0

SUM

.

10 1 0

0 0

AND

0 0

0

CARRY

NOT 2.2 . , bits, bits . NAND NOR. NAND ( NOTAND) AND , AND. NOR OR OR

2.3

55

. NAND NOR , AND OR . OR [exclusive OR (XOR) gate] 1, 1, 1. XOR OR, . AND A C

A A B C A B C A C A B C A B C A B C A B C 01 0 1 0011 0001 01 0 1 0011 0111 01 10 01 0 1 0011 1110 01 0 1 0011 1000 01 0 1 0011 0110 01 0 1 0011 1001 2.3

A B

C=AB

OR

A B

C

C=A+B

NOT

A

C

C = A'

NAND

A B

C

C = (AB)'

NOR

A B

C

C = (A + B)'

XOR

A B

C

C = A'B + AB'

XNOR

A B

C

C = A'B' + AB

, . M A' () A.

56

K E A A I O 2 :

NOR [exclusive NOR (XNOR) gate] XOR. XNOR 1, 1 0. , .2.3.2 ALU

ALU . ALU .

2.6

; : () a, () () () () , , ,

2.4

ALU (memory unit), (cells). , . . . -

2.4

57

(location address). , , . . ( ) (operation code), , (), (. 2.4). () ()

2.4

() (volatile memory), , .. , (nonvolatile memory). I : [RandomAccess Memory, (RAM)], , [ReadOnly Memory (ROM)] (firmware), . ROM : [Programmable ReadOnly Memory (PROM)], [Erasable PROM (EPROM)],

58

K E A A I O 2 :

[Electronically EPROM (EEPROM)]. (cache memory) , , , , . (magnetic bubble memory).

2.7

: , , , , a a: ROM, PROM, RAM, EPROM, ALU, EEPROM

2.7

2.5

(Control Unit), , ALU , . , , . , ALU (bus). -

2.5

59

(machine cycle), : () , , () , .2.5.1

(computer circuitry) . , () (chip) ( ). , .. , , . Boole (logical gates). , (, , .), . (integrated circuit) , (chip). , , : TTL (TransistorTransistor Logic) , ECL (Emitter Coupled Logic) , MOS (Metal Oxide Semiconductor), I2L (Integrated Injection Logic) , CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) , GaAs (Gallium Arsenide) .

60

K E A A I O 2 :

: [Small Scale Integration (SSI)] 510 , [Medium Scale Integration (MSI)] 10100 (.. ), [Large Scale Integration (LSI)] (.. ), [Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI)] (.. ). . (combinatorial circuits) . : (1) O (fulladder), ( ) (2) O (decoder), v 2 (3) O (multiplexer), ( ) (4) T (bus) , ( ). , . : (1) (FlipFlops). 1 0 ( ) , [Clock Pulse (CP)]. -

2.5

61

T, D, TK RS flipflops. (2) (registers), . (3) (counters) , flipflops ( ) , .. . , .. CPU . ROM RAM.2.5.2

CPU, , . (registers). . , . : [Storage Data Register DR (16 bits)] . [Instructions Register IR (16 bits)] . [Address Register AR (12 bits)] . [Accumulator Register AC (16 bits)] . [Program Counter PC (12 bits)] .

62

K E A A I O 2 :

[Temporary Register TR (16 bits)] . [Input Register INPR (8 bits)] . [utput Register OUTR (8 bits)] . CPU, CPU. (microoperations). : (i) , . (ii) , . (iii) , . (iv) , .

2.9

x : : [ ] TTL [ ] ECL [ ] SSI [ ] VLSI [ ] GaAs [ ] MOS [ ] LSI [ ] CMOS [ ] I2L

2.5 / 2.6

63

, : , , , FlipFlops, , , ,

2.10

(registers), , , . () : IR DR PC AR OUTR TR INPR AC

2.11

2.6

. (word) , bits CPU , , . CPU (clock speed) MegaHertz (MHz), [Millions of Instructions Per Second (MIPS)], .. 600 MIPS 600 .

64

K E A A I O 2 :

MHz (ticks) . turbosystems. . , , , ., (motherboard). O , (slots) . (computer system) . , , . , . , . . , .. , . , , , . , , , .. .

2.6

65

, , . .2.6.1

(instruction) . . / (commands), CPU. . H CPU . CPU . . (instruction) , : () (T)

(bits). . : (i) (memoryreference), (ii) (registerreference), (iii) / (I/O). 16 bits, 3 bits [operation code (opcode)],

66

K E A A I O 2 :

13 bits . 12 bits 1 bit (addressing mode). 0 (direct address) 1 (indirect address). 0 bit 111 . 12 bits . (AC). / 1 bit 111 , 12 bits I/O . 4 bits 1215 . , 3 bits 111, 15. 0, , 1, /. 3 bits 1214 111, bit 15 . :15 14 1211 0 (. = 000 110)

(i) 15 1211 0 (. = 111, = 0)

0 1 1 1

(ii) 15 1211 (. = 111, = I)

0 1 1 1

(iii) /

2.6

67

25. , . =0 =1 0 1 2 3 8 9 A B

AND ADD LDA STA CLA CMA SPA INP OUT ION

AND AC AC AC AC AC AC AC AC AC

7800 7200 7010 F800 F400 F080

( ) (machinecode) / , () . , (machinedependent languages).2.6.2

CPU . : 1. CPU . 2. , . 3. . 4. . -

68

K E A A I O 2 :

. 5. CPU. 6. . 7. . 8. 1 . 5 7 ( ) . CPU . (serial computers). , . (parallel processing). CPU, (multiprocessors) CPU , (parallel computers). CPU (array processors), (pipeline computers). , , . 2.12 , : , , , , /, , .

2 . 7

69

2.7

. , . , (primary storage), . (permanently) (secondary storage), , , o (CDROM) [ (backup)]. , .. (keyboards), (disk drivers), (page scanners), . , (line printer) . /. hardware (machinery) () . (hardware) , . () , (software). .

70

K E A A I O 2 :

(configuration) . : (i) (systems software), , (ii) (application software), . : , (Operating System), . . ( ), , ( ) . Disk Operating System (DOS) Operating System 2 (OS2). (interface). . . (.. DOS) , (Windows), (user friendly). . , .. . ,

2 . 7

71

. (): (packaged programs), (documentation), (custom programs), . (productivity tools). . , , (ALU) /. , ALU (CPU), : (i) , (ii) , (iii) () ALU. ( ) . ( 0 1). [binary digits (bits)] . (words), (bytes) (bits).

72

K E A A I O 2 :

. , . (+, , *, /) . (AND, OR, NOT .). , , , . (RAM) (ROM) . ROM (PROM), (EPROM), (EEPROM). , (, , .) . (registers) , . : , /. (Hardware) () , (Software) .

B

73

B

[2.1] ARBIB M.A.: Computers and the Cybernetic Society, Acad. Press, NY, 1977 [2.2] BOHL M.: Computer concepts, Science Research Associates, Chicago, 1970 [2.3] CAVANAGH J.J.F.: Digital Computer Arithmetic, McGrawHill, NY, 1984 [2.4] DASGUPTA S.: Computer architecture and VLSI Hardware, Prentice Hall, NJ, 1989 [2.5] GOLDSCHLAGER H.H., LISTER A.: Computer Science: a modern introduction, PrenticeHall, NJ, 1982 [2.6] GORSLINE G.W.: Computer Organization: Hardware and Software, PrenticeHall, NJ, 1980. [2.7] HUNT R., SHELLEY J.: Computers and commonsense, PrenticeHall, London, 1979 [2.8] KRISHNAMURTHY E.V.: Introductory Theory of Computer Science, SpringerVerlag, NY, 1983 [2.9] KULISCH V.W., MIRANKER W.L.: Computer arithmetic in theory and practice, Academic Press, NY, 1980 [2.10] MANO M.M.: Computer systems architecture, PrenticeHall, NJ, 1993 [2.11] PAGE E.S., WILSON L.B.: Information, representation and manipulation in a Computer, Cambridge University Press, 1978 [2.12] PATTERSON D.A., HENNESY J.L.: Computer organization and design: the hardware/software interface, Morgan Kaufmann Publ., CA, 1994 [2.13] RANDELL B.: The origin of digital Computers, Studies in the history of Mathematics and Physical Sciences, SpringerVerlag, NYHeidelbergBerlin, 1975 [2.14] SANDERS D.H.: Computers Today, McGrawHill, 1985 [2.15] SHIVA S.G.: Computer Design and Architecture, H. Collins Publ., NY, 1991 [2.16] STERN R.A., STERN N.: An introduction to Computers and Information Processing, J. Wiley & Sons, NYChichester, 1985 : [2.5], [2.7], [2.14], [2.16] [2.8] . [2.10], [2.4] [2.15] . [2.13] [2.17] .

74

K E A A I O 2 :

[2.17] VON NEUMANN J.: The Computer and the Brain, Yale University Press, New Haven, CN, 1958

. . : , MICR OCR , (I/O units) (MICR) (OCR) (modem) POS (UPC) (printers) (desktop publishing) (pixels) , (random access) (floppy disks) E (/) 1946, / 195060. /

3

76

KEAAIO 3:

. () , . . , /. . / [Input/Output (I/O)] , (peripheral devices). CPU . , (interface) ( ) CPU . . , .

3.1

77

3.1

/ ( ) (markreading, marksensing), (Magnetic Ink Character Recognition) MICR (Optical Character Recognition) OCR. (teletypewriter) TV. , , . ( ). . .3.1.1

H , H. Hollerith 1889. , , (coding forms), , . ( ) 80 . 12 ( ), , . 80 80

78

KEAAIO 3:

. , , , . . 1 , . , , . (channels) 8 . , . . () , .. , , .. .3.1.2

, , , . : (i) : (Mark Sense Reading) (ii) (Magnetic Ink Character Recognition MICR). (iii) (Optical Character Recognition OCR). ,

3.1

79

, . (i) : , . . , , . (ii) (MICR): . 1966 (standards) MICR (fonts), 13 ... U.K., CMC7 ( U.K.). 13 09 , , . CMC7 09, () . . 1, 0. MICR 1.200 . MICR , . , : , , , . (iii) A X (OCR): OCR

80

KEAAIO 3:

. , ( ) . . ( ) , .3.1.3

(Teletypewriter terminal), (key board), ( ) (hard copy) , . [Visual Display Units (VDU)] . , . . , (hardwiring) , (remote link) ( ). (modem), .

3.1

81

. H (bar codes) , .. [PointOfSale (POS) terminals]. , , . . . (), . (disk drivers), (page scanners), (voice recognition units), CPU. , .. , . . . , .. (mouse) , (touch screen), (light pens), (joy sticks), .

82

KEAAIO 3:

(source data automation) OCR, , , MICR . (bar code readers), OCR, [Universal Product Code (UPC)] . (automatic teller machines), /, (debit cards), , POS , , [Facsimile (fax)] (transactions). , , (digitizer tablets), . 3.1

, : OCR, DMA, WORM, MICR, , .

3.2

, , . . . (i)

3.2

83

(hard copies) (soft copies) . (line printer). (fonts) . , . , , . , , . , . (hard copies) (impact) (nonimpact) . [.. dotmatrix, (daisywheel)], , [.. (band printer), , ], . , (inkjet printers) laser, (desktop publishing). (ii) (graph plotters). , , , ,

84

KEAAIO 3:

(0.010.001 ) . , CPU , . / . (iii) (VDU) , [Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)], . [Visual Display Units (VDU)] , .. , , . (dotmatrix). 5002.000 . (RGB monitor). (pixel). , (resolution). (iv) , , . (software) , .. , , . , , , -

3.2

85

. (v) (COM) (Computer Output Microfilm COM) . 16 35 mm. , , . COM , .. . COM, , . (vi) , (standard). , . , . , , . , , . (.. COM), -

86

KEAAIO 3:

, .. , , , , . (image processing). E video, , , .. 3.2

(resolution) () , () , () (pixels) , () , () .

3.3 , (temporary) . , (permanent) (backing stores). . () , , , , () . : I (i) , Kbytes, Mbytes, Gbytes (1 GB = 103 MB = 106 KB = 109 Bytes). (ii) , .

3.3

87

(iii) , Mbytes/sec. (iv) . (v) . CPU. : (serial) (direct). (random access). . .. , . A , ' . , . , . , ( ) , (random access), . (direct) (indexed) . , . . , .

88

KEAAIO 3:

3.3.1

, . , 0,5 502.400 . , 1 0, (tracks), . , , . , , ( ) /.3.3.2

(mainframes) , . (disk drive). , . (diskpack) 0.5 , 2.000 . , . (tracks)

3.3

89

bits, , (sector) . ( ) . , , . 14 800 , 15.360 . , 6 122.880.000 (15.360 . 800 . 10 . 6 . ). (density), ( ) . , .3.3.3

(floppydisks) , . , (diskette), 50 8 . 77 985.688 ( ). 8 51/4 [ 1.2 . (M)] 31/2 1.44 .

90

KEAAIO 3:

(POS) (word processing). (softsectored) (formatting) . (double sided) /, . (addresses) , . . Winchester, , , . / (head crash), . (smart cards), . , , . (flashmemory), (laptops, notebooks).3.3.4

, . . -

3.3

91

, . : (i) , (ii) , (iii) . . CPU /.3.3.5

(optical storage). [Compact Disks (CD)] (laser) : CDROMs, , WORMCDs, CDs, (erasable CDs). CDROM 650Mbytes . CDROM . (master) . CDROM (CDROM drives) (multimedia), .. , (CorelDraw), . CDROM . WORMCDs -

92

KEAAIO 3:

3Gbytes , . (multifunction drives) WORMCDs .3.3.6

(.. ) CPU. CPU (buses) . [Direct Memory Access (DMA)]. CPU . / (DMA controller), , .

3.3

, : , , , , , , , ,

3.4

, : CDROM, , , , ( ), , , MICR

3.3

93

(DMA) : WORMCD, (buses) , CDROM, (DMA controllers), OCR,

3.5

(users) (back up) () . (back up procedures) . ( ) . ; 100 .

3.1

/ (I/O) CPU , CPU . ( ) . (mark reading), (MICR), (OCR).

94

KEAAIO 3:

(input) : , , , (disk drivers), (page scanners), , (digitizers) . (output) : (VDU), , (printers), (plotters), , , , /.B

[3.1] COLDSCHLAGER H.H., LISTER A.: A Computer Science: a modern introduction, PrenticeHall, NJ, 1982 [3.2] EDWARDS B.: PC Computing for absolute beginners, Sigma Press, Wilmslow, England, 1993 [3.3] GORSLINE G.W.: Computer Organization: Hardware and Software, Prentice Hall, NJ, 1980 [3.4] LANGHOLZ G., FRANCIONI J., KANDEL A.: Elements of computer organization, PrenticeHall, NJ, 1989 [3.5] LEEBAERT D. (Ed): Technology 2001: the future of Computing and Communications, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.,1991 [3.6] MANO M.M.: Computer system architecture, PrenticeHall, NJLondon, 1993 [3.7] MILLER G.A.: The psychology of communication, Basic Books, NY, 1967 [3.8] PATTERSON D.A., HENNESSY J.L.: Computer organization and design: the Hardware/Software interface, MorganKaufmann Publ., San Mateo, CA, 1994 [3.9] SIEWIOREK D., BELL C.G., NEWELL A.: Computer structures: principles and examples, McGrawHill, NY, 1982 [3.10] WEIZENBAUM J.: Computer power and human reason: from judgement to calculation, W.H. Freeman and Co., San Francisco, 1976

: [3.1], [3.3] . a a [3.6],[3.8] . [3.5] , .

Y . . , : , .. (Internet), , (email) (CDROMs) (Internet) (email) (animation) (hypertext)

4

96

KEAAIO 4: Y

E , , . , , , , , , . . , . , , . , .. . . . J. Gutenberg (1438), , , . , . ' : (1) (Internet), .. , , , (2) , , (3) ( )

4 . 1

97

(robots) , , ., (4) ' ' (High Performance Computing) (supercomputing), .. , (computer animation), , , .. . . . . , .4.1

:4.1.1 ,

. , . 0 1, . , 0 (), 1, , .4.1.2

, , -

98

KEAAIO 4: Y

, . , . , .. , , , , .4.1.3

(CDROMs) () , . , .. 20 Oxford English Dictionary CDROM, (pits) . , (laser) 0 1.4.1.4

. , , . , . (management) . , , . (information highways)

4 . 1

99

, . (faxes). . (Internet), , , . . . 1965 130 , 1994 (fiberoptic) 500.000 . , . () , . fax, (email) ( ), .4.1.5

, (pipeline). (bandwidth) . . , , () . , . . ,

100

KEAAIO 4: Y

, . Internet ..., 1960 . . , , , . , , . , , . , , (, ). O , , .. .4.1.6

(chips) . , / (chip) (transistors). ( ) . ,

4 . 1

101

, . Intel 1971 , 60.000 (adds/sec). 25 chips : 1974 1982 1989 1995 (290.000 adds/sec) (900.000 adds/sec) (20.000.000 adds/sec) (250.000.000 adds/sec) 1979 1985 1993 1997 (330.000 adds/sec) (5.500.000 adds/sec) (100.000.000 adds/sec) (500.000.000 adds/sec)

(Internet) . , : , , , , , , , 4.1

(Internet); () A (email). () (real time) . () . () A . () .

4.2

102

KEAAIO 4: Y

4.2

. : 1. , CDROM, , . 2. (special effects) .. . . 48 , (tracks) . , (animation) , CDROM. (virtual actors), . . 3. Internet, 1995 20 180 . 4. CDROM, (layers) . 20 , CDROMs.

4.2

103

5. . . . , , . , .. , . 190 . .. . ( Kilauea), ( Manua Kea, Hawaii), . 6. . , . 10 . . , , .

104

KEAAIO 4: Y

7. . , , . . . , , , . 8. . ( ) .. , , . , , , . . , , , . 9. . , . .

4 . 3

105

CDROM: () 20 . () . () 0 1. () . () () (). () (), () ().

4.3

(fan site) (Internet) Fox Mulder XFiles Luke Skywalker Star Wars, S. Spielberg B. Clinton. : () video; () video ; () (animation); () (virtual actors);

4.4

4.3

, .. , , . Internet. , : i) , .

106

KEAAIO 4: Y

ii) () , , , (notebooks) . , , . iii) , , , , . : a) T (Local Area Networks), .. LAN, . b) T (Metro Area Networks), . c) T (Wide Area Networks), .. , , . iv) , .. , . , , . , , , , . . . v) ,

4 . 3

107

, . : 1) H (email): , email . . 2) Y (hypertext): , . , . 3) : , , , . 4) A : , . , , . 5) : , , , . 6) A : .. .

108

KEAAIO 4: Y

, , . 7) N : , .

4.5

, : , , (), , , , , , , ,

4.4

199899 : 1) pentium ( 450 MHz) , (DRAM) ( 64 MB). 2) [Printed Circuit Board (PCB)], .. PCI (Programmable Communication Interface) 32 bits, video (throughput) . 3) (portability) (lithium ion battery), . 4) CDROM . 5)

4 . 4

109

video . 6) (3.2 GB), , . 7) (.. Windows 98), (multitasking), (interface) . 8) , . . 9) , . 10) , PCI , , , , .

, : , CDROM, , , ,

4.6

, . , ; 100 . .

4.1

110

KEAAIO 4: Y

: , , , . (Internet) , (, ). () , (). , , : , (special effects), , CDROM, , , , , . : , , , , . : (email), , , , , , .

B

111

B

[4.1] ARBIB M.A.: Brains, machines and Mathematics, Springer, Berlin, 1987 [4.2] EVANS C.: The making of the micro: a history of the computer, V. Collanz Ltd., London, 1981 [4.3] FOSDICK L.D., JESSUP E.R., SCAUBLE C.J.C., DOMIK G.: An introduction to high performance scientific computing, the MIT press, Cambridge, Mass, 1996 [4.4] FRATES j., MOLDRUP W.: Computers and Life, an integrative approach, PrenticeHall, NJ, 1983 [4.5] GOTLIEB C.C., BORODIN A.: Social issues in Computing, Academic Press, NY, 1973 [4.6] HALSALL F.: Data communications, computer networks and open systems, AddisonWesley Publ., Reading, Mass., 1992 [4.7] KROL E. The whole Internet: users guide and catalog, OReilly & Assocs, Sebastopol, CA, 1992 [4.8] LEEBAERT D. (Ed.): Technology 2001: the future of computing and communications, MIT Press, CA, 1991 [4.9] SANDERS D.H.: Computers Today, Mc GrawHill, NY, 1985 [4.10] TANENBAUM A.: Computer Networks, PrenticeHall, 1988 : [4.4], [4.5], [4.1] . [4.6] [4.10] ,, [4.8] . [4.7] (Internet), [4.2] .

: , , , . . , , / . : , , , (machine language) (assembler) (translator) (compiler)

5

114

K E A A I O 5 : : ,

, (debugging) (testing) (flow chart) (structure plan)

E (.. , .) , , . . , , . , , . ( ) () . ( /, , CPU ). . , . , . . , . : i) ii) iii) .

E

115

, (D. Hilbert, 19 ). (incompleteness) (K. Gdel, 1931), , A. Church, S. Kleene A. Turing . (thesis) ChurchTuring, . , . , . , . , . . . . . . . , .

116

K E A A I O 5 : : ,

5.1

, . , . (machine language) (hardware) . (). ( ) . , . .5.2

, . (mnemonics) , , .. 1001 () 09 () , MULT. MULT 1001. , (assembler). ,

5.1 / 5.3

117

(assembles) . (assembly codes). . , , (low level languages) .

: : () () , () . () , .. MULT. () . () (hardware) .

5.1

5.3

195060 () (high level languages). , , . ( /) -

118

K E A A I O 5 : : ,

. .. , . d = a b+c, (FORTRAN) : D = A * B + C, .5.4 (compilation process)

I . (assembly languages) , (assembler). (compiler), , . , [] (source program), , [] (object program), . , , , (translators), . (interpreter) , . (compiler) , , . (.. PC) -

5 . 4

119

, (linkage editor linking loader). . , . FORTRAN FORTRAN . , . , . . , , CPU, , CPU . , , . , : , , (interactive). : . , . . -

120

K E A A I O 5 : : ,

. 5.2 : , (compilers) (interpreters): () . () . () , . () , , .

5.3

, : , , , , , , (interactive), , .

5.4

(compilation) : () , () , () , () , () () ().

5 . 5

121

, , ;

5.5

5.5

(), , , . 195060 . J. E. Sammet Programming Languages: History and Fundamentals (1967) 120 , 20 , 35 , 50 15 . FORTRAN (FORmula TRANslator). J. Backus 1954. FORTRAN, , . American National Standards Institute (ANSI) 1966, FORTRAN 77 (1977) FORTRAN 90 (1991). ( ) (multiprocessor systems). LISP (LISt Processing), (functional programming), J. McCarthy (MIT) 1959. Church Curry.

122

K E A A I O 5 : : ,

. , . ALGOL (ALGOrithmic Language) 195960. ALGOL 60 ALGOL 68. Triplex ALGOL 60, Karlsruhe, . COBOL (COmmon Business Oriented Language) ... 196162 (G. Hopper), . BASIC (Beginers Allpurpose Symbolic Instruction Code) 196061 (J. Kemmeny, T. Kurtz) , . BASIC , . . : Basica, GWBASIC, Turbo BASIC, Quick BASIC, Visual BASIC. PL/1 (K. verson) 196667 FORTRAN COBOL, . PL/1 , . PASCAL (K. Jensen, N. Wirth) 197172 ALGOL. . SIMULA (O. Dahl, B. Myhrhang, A.

5 . 5

123

Nygaard) 196566, ALGOL . PROLOG (PROgramming in LOGic) 197080 . PROLOG . . , ( LISP) . C DECPDP11 (D. Ritchie) 197273 BCPL , . Unix C . C , Assembly. C . C++ to 198687 [Object Oriented Programming (OOP)]. H SMALLTALK 197576 . SMALLTALK 80 Xerox PARC. , ( ) . , . MODULA 197576 (N. Wirth) . MODULA PASCAL

124

K E A A I O 5 : : ,

(modules), . . MODULA2 (1980) MODULA3 (1988), ( 5.6). ADA 198182 , . . Visual BASIC Visual C++ (visual) , (interfaces) .

5.6

, : FORTRAN, PASCAL, C, Visual C++, ADA, PROLOG, Visual BASIC

5.7

; () FORTRAN (). () PASCAL ADA UNIX. () COBOL (, .). 2000, , .. 99 1999. () , Visual BASIC Visual C++.

5 . 6

125

5.6

, . (procedural definition), , , , . . . , () , .. . () . . : (1) (data abstraction), , .. 1, 2 bytes . (2) (procedural abstraction), , . ,

126

K E A A I O 5 : : ,

. , . , . , ( ) (hardware). ( ) . Turing . H Turing (A. M. Turing, 1936), , . , . . (object oriented programming) . , . : (i) (ii) , , . -

5 . 6

127

, .. COM (Common Object Model) Microsoft, DSOM (Distributed System Object Model) IBM ., (). OOP. O . : , (encapsulation). (classes), . C++ C, C , , C++ . . C++ . , . , , , (abstraction). (modules), , . -

128

K E A A I O 5 : : ,

. , . , . , . . , (visual programming). . . Visual BASIC Microsoft. . , . , , , .

5 . 6

129

Visual C++, . , (Windows '98) (QuickWin). (interfaces) . SQL (Structured Query Language), (.. COBOL) Visual BASIC Windows. FORTRAN, C. , , . (FORTRAN, COBOL, PL/1 .) . (4th Generation Languages) . , 198090 , ... (ESPRIT Project), .

130

K E A A I O 5 : : ,

[Very High Level Language (VHLL)]. . (inferenceengine) . , . . : (i) [Object Oriented Languages (OOL)], .. Visual BASIC, C++, Borland Delphi .. (ii) [Visual Programming Languages (VPL)], .. Microsoft Visual BASIC Visual C++, Borland C++ Builder, Sybase Power ++. : Sun Java Workshop, IBM Visual Age .. (iii) Languages (DL)], .. PROLOG. 5.8 [Descriptive

, : , , , , ,

5.9

(OOP), : , , , , ,

5 . 6 / 5 . 7

131

OOP ; () H . () O . () T . () O . () T .

5.10

5.7

, . . 1. : , , . , . 2. : . . 3. : .

132

K E A A I O 5 : : ,

4. : , .. (key board) . 5. : . , (.. ) (.. ). (diagnostics). 6. : . . (debugging) . 7. : . ( ) . . (testing), , . , . 5.11 : , , , , , , , , , , , ,

5 . 8

133

5.8

, . . (flow chart). , , (documentation) . (treecharts), (decision tables), HIPO (Hierarchical Input Process Output), WarnierOrr, (structure plans) . J. von Neumann (1945) , , . . , 5.1. A T E A (: / ) E 5.1

134

K E A A I O 5 : : ,

() . , . , , , , , . . 5.1: . (records) (file). , , , , , . . 21 26 . . , 21 26, . . (EOF). 5.12 , : , , , HIPO Warnier Orr, , , , ,

5 . 8 / 5 . 9

135

APXH

BAE TON METPHTH IA THN HIKIA IO ME MHEN

IABAE HPOOPIE AO MIA EPAH

EINAI NAI H TEEYTAIA EPAH

PAE TON METPHTH HIKIA

TEO

OXI EINAI H HIKIA METAY 21 26 NAI POEE 1 TON METPHTH HIKIA 5.2

OXI

5.1

5.9

, , , . (systems charting), , . -

136

K E A A I O 5 : : ,

. ( ) . , , . (project management software) , . . PERT Gantt. PERT (Program Evaluation and Review Technique) , , Gantt . , CASE (Computer Assisted Software Engineering).

137

(assembler) , . (compiler) . (source) , , (object) . : , (assembly) . : , , (interactive). : FORTRAN, LISP, ALGOL, COBOL, BASIC, PL/1, PASCAL, PROLOG, C, SMALLTALK, MODULA, ADA, Visual BASIC, Visual C++. (procedural), (object oriented) (visual) . , . : , .

138

K E A A I O 5 : : ,

: , , , , , . (flow charts) (documentation) . , , HIPO WarnierOrr, . . PERT , , Gantt .

XXX

139

[5.1] ABELSON H., SUSSMAN G.J.: Structure and interpretation of Computer programs, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass, 1985 [5.2] Active Memory Technology: FORTRANPlus Language, Irvin, CA, 1987 [5.3] AHO A.V., SETHI R., ULLMAN J.D.: Compilers: principles, techniques and tools, AddisonWesley, Reading, MA, 1986 [5.4] BENTLEY J.L.: Writing efficient programs, PrenticeHall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1982 [5.5] BENTLEY J.L.: Programming pearls, AddisonWesley, Mass, 1986 [5.6] BLACKLOCK P.: Computer Programming, Blackwell Ltd., Oxford, 1993 [5.7] CHANTY K.M., KESSELMAN C.: Compositional C++: compositional parallel programming, California Institute of Technology, 1992 [5.8] DAHL O.J., DIJKSTRA E.W., HOARE C.A.R.: Structured Programming, Academic Press, London, 1972 [5.9] GHESS C., JAZAVERI M.: Programming language concepts, J. Wiley, 1982 [5.10] GOLDBERG A., ROBSON D.: Smalltalk80: the language and its implementations, AddisonWesley, Reading, Mass, 1983 [5.11] HARVEY B.: Computer Science LOGO style: intermediate programming, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass, 1985 [5.12] HOROWITZ E. (ed.): Programming languages: a grand tour, Computer Science Press, Rockville, Maryland, 1987 [5.13] KNUTH D.E.: The Art of Computer Programming, Vol. 1,2,3,4, AddisonWesley publ., Reading, Mass [5.14] KOFFMAN E.B.: Pascal: problem solving and program design, AddisonWesley, Reading, Mass, 1988 [5.15] LEDGARD H., MARCOTTY M.: The programming language landscape, Science research Associates, Chicago, 1981

: [5.3] (compilers). [5.5], [5.6] , [5.8] . [5.13] 4 Prof. D. Knuth (Stanford Univ., USA): 1: , 2: , 3: , 4: . [5.20], [5.12], [5.9], [5.21], [5.15], [5.19] [5.26] . FORTRAN 77 FORTRAN 90 ( ) [5.16].

140

K E A A I O 5 : : ,

[5.16] ..: FORTRAN 77 FORTRAN 9X, , 1989 [5.17] Mc KELVY M.: Visual BASIC 5: Study Guide, MCSD, NY, 1995 [5.18] ORGANICK E.I., FORSYTHE A.I., PLUMMER R.P.: Programming language structures, Academic Press, NY, 1978 [5.19] PRATT T.W.: Programming languages: design and implementations, Prentice Hall, NJ, 1984 [5.20] SAMMET J.E.: Programming languages: history and fundamentals, PrenticeHall, London, 1968 [5.21] SETHI R.:Programming languages:concepts & constructs,AddWesley 1989 [5.22] STEEL G.L.: Common LISP, Digital Press, Burlington, Mass, 1984 [5.23] STROUSTRUP B.: The C++ programming language, AddisonWesley, Reading, MA, 1986 [5.24] THORNE M.: Computer organization and assembly language programming (for IBM PCs and compatibles), BenjaminCummings Publ., Reading, Mass, 1993 [5.25] WEGNER P.: Programming with ADA: an introduction by means of graduate examples, Prentice hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1980 [5.26] WEXELBLAT R.L. (ed): History of programming languages, Academic Press, NY, 1981 [5.27] WIRTH N.: Programming in Modula2, SpringerVerlag, NY, 1985 [5.28] YOUNG S.J.: An introduction to ADA, Ellis Horwood, Chichester, 1984

, . , , . : (windows) UNIX , , (operating system) (real time) (time sharing) (windows) (cursor) (mouse) UNIX (network) (distributed processing)

6

142

K E A A I O 6 :

E (operating system). , (batch processing), (multiprogramming), (time sharing), (real time). . (configuration) , , ( ), (CPU), , , CPU CPU. . / . CPU (speed missmatch) CPU ( ) () . / . 20.000300.000 . , , , .

6 . 1

143

, : , , , , , (TS), (real time), (PC).

6.1

6.1

(batch) () , . , , . . (batchprocessing) ( ) . , , CPU (offline operation). , . , . (interactive processing) . (transaction processing), .

144

K E A A I O 6 :

() (satellite) . , . (batches) .. , . : (online processing) . , , . . , , , , . .6.2

(Operating System) . () () , , .

6 . 2

145

( ) . , (i) (ii) . (system control commands) . , (records) , ( ) (.. $ ). ( ) (job), , . ( ) , . , . , , . , , . (kernel) (supervisor), . -

146

K E A A I O 6 :

, . (i) (multiprogramming), , , (ii) (multitasking) , (iii) (multiprocessing), (CPUs) , . (virtual memory) , . , , . : (i) (memory management), , (ii) , .. / (spooling), (text editing), (batch files), (root directory), (subdirectories) (file allocation table) , (iii) (device drivers) , .. CDROM, . (linkage editors), . : -

6 . 2

147

, , , , , . : PCDOS (IBM) MSDOS (IBM), OS/2 (IBM), (penbased computers), Pen Point (GO) Windows for Pen Computing (Microsoft), Apple Computers . (Windows) , , , . UNIX, Novell NetWare AppleShare, . : (i) MVS (Multiple Virtual Storage) 16 . (ii) VM (Virtual Machine), , . . (iii) TSO (Time Sharing Option), . : CICS (Customer Information Control System), (supervisor) (monitor) , CMS (Conversational Monitoring System), -

148

K E A A I O 6 :

, , , . CICS CMS () . Apple Computer Apple Macintosh QuickTime, , , Microsoft Windows, QuickTime.6.2.1 (Windows)

(graphical interfaces) DOS (windows). [Graphical User Interface (GUI)] (), , . , . DOS (multitasking) ( 640 Kbytes). (menus), (cursor) (mouse). DOS . . , .. , , , , ., , .. Word (Microsoft), Word Perfect, ToolBook ( ),

6 . 2

149

CorelDraw ( ) . O Windows DOS, , Windows NT . : I (Windows) (mouse) . . , .. , , , . . (fonts). , . . () . .6.2.2 UNIX

UNIX Bell & 1969 (). UNIX C, (portability), . UNIX, .. XENIX (Microsoft), A/UX (Apple), AIX (IBM), (Sun RISC, NeXT .).

150

K E A A I O 6 :

UNIX , . UNIX () , (shells). (interface) UNIX . UNIX . UNIX , , . UNIX: UNIX cat cp lp ls mkdir mv rmdir pwd

6.2

: , , , , , ,

6 . 2 / 6 . 3

151

x : : MVS TEX VM WORD TSO OS/2 MSDOS Sun RISC UNIX

6.3

6.3

, , . , , ALU . , , .. P1 , P2, / P1, P2, P3. . (jobs), , (queue) , .. . ALU . [supervisor monitor (IBM) executive (ICL)].

152

K E A A I O 6 :

, , . , . (direct access). (partitions). , , , . . (transfer monitor) , . J . (turnaround time) J.6.4

(Timesharing) , (resources) , . . . -

6 . 4

153

, . CPU . [time sharing (TS)] (.. VDU), ( ) , . TS (.. ) (.. ). (supervisor) TS, , . TS . TS ( 10 ), . .. , /, , . , . . (swapping process)

154

K E A A I O 6 :

. , , , , , (.. ). TS , 10 ( ). () TS , TS.6.5

(realtime system) . CPU () , ( ) . (.. ) (.. ). (process control system) . . (transaction systems) . .

6 . 5 / 6 . 6

155

timesharing , , . , , , (backup). , (failsafe) . (realtime processing) , CPU . ( ) , (transactions). , . , , . .6.6

(timesharing) . (computer network system). , -

156

K E A A I O 6 :

, . (.. COM ) () . . , , ( ) , .. , , , . . , , (project) . (.. cryptolopes, IBM), . on line , , .6.7

[Distributed Processing System (DPS)] , . , .

6 . 7

157

, . , .. , , . , . , ( ) , , . , , . , , . (distributed systems) , (distributed data files) . . .

158

K E A A I O 6 :

, . . (.. ) . : I . . . (hardware) (software). , . , VDU . (CPU) . CPU (/, , ). 6.4 . ;

6 . 7

159

, . , ; 100 .

6.1

: , , (time sharing), (real time). . , . (on line processing) . , . , (multitasking) . , . (mainframe) : MVS (Multiple Virtual Storage), VM (Virtual

160

K E A A I O 6 :

Machine), TSO (Time Sharing Option), : PCDOS, MSDOS, OS/2. (Windows) , DOS. UNIX C , . (TS) , . (computer network) , , () . (DPS) , .

B

161

B

[6.1] ANDERSEN P.K.: Just enough UNIX, Irwin. [6.2] BARON R.J., HIGBIE L.: Computer Architecture: Case Studies, Electrical & Comp. Engng, AddisonWesley, NY, 1992 [6.3] COOLING J.E.: Software design for real time systems, Chapman & Hall, London, 1991 [6.4] GEAR C.W.: Computer organization and Programming, Mc GrawHill, London Tokyo, 1980 [6.5] HALSALL F.: Data communications, computer networks and open systems, AddisonWesley Publ., Reading, MA, 1992 [6.6] KAY J., KUMMERFELD B.: C Programming in a UNIX environment, AddisonWesley Publ., Reading, MA, 1988 [6.7] LEE Y.H., KRISHNA C.M.: Readings in real time systems, IEEE Computer Society Press, Los Alamitos, CA, 1993 [6.8] MANO M.M.: Computer system architecture, PrenticeHall, NJ London, 1993 [6.9] PATTERSON D.A., HENNESSY J.L.: Computer architecture: the hardware/software interface, M.Kaufmann Press, CA, 1994 [6.10] SOBELL M.G.: A practical guide to the UNIX system, The Benjamin/Cummings Publ., Redwood City, CA, 1984 : [6.8], [6.4], [6.9] [6.2] . [6.3] [6.7] , UNIX [6.1] [6.10].

. . : , VLSI (virtual memory) , , E . , -

7

164

K E A A I O 7 :

, , J. von Neumann ( , ), A. Turing ( ) C. Shannon ( Boole ). , .

7.1

165

7.1

( ) . , , (hardware) (software) . . 1968 , . , . (19401952): . . . (19521964): ( , , .). , . , , . , . , , . , (throughput) . (FORTRAN, ALGOL, COBOL .)

166

K E A A I O 7 :

(machine symbolic coding). (19641976): , , , , (1 nsec = 109 sec). 0.250.50 , 0.5 12 , (integrated circuit). , Solid Logic Technology (SLT), . . / , . 3 , . , ( multiprogramming, time sharing, multiaccess, virtual memory .). (problem oriented) (procedure oriented) (PL/1, RPG .), . (19761984): , . , , .

7.1

167

197080 (virtual memory), 1 . 1971, [agnetic Bubble Memory (MBM)]. () , 3 m , () . 1, 0. , . , . [Large Scale Integration (LSI)], , (semiconductors). , , (backing stores) . LSI (chip), 0.25 , 20.000 . (pocket handcalculators) . (microprocessor chips) . MOS (Metal Oxide Silicon) ,

168

K E A A I O 7 :

(microcomputers) (minicomputers). (19822000): . : (i) : , .. , , . (ii) : ( ) , ( : ) . . (iii) : , FORTRAN, PASCAL, COBOL, BASIC ADA, , . . , . (iv) : chips, [Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI)], . , -

7.1

169

( , , ). , , , (chips), . 10 chip . (biochip), , . , . , . T ( , ) . . (biocomputers) (, .) . ( 1 6) : [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] VLSI [ ] MOS [ ] [ ] [ ] (TS) [ ] LSI [ ] 7.1

170

K E A A I O 7 :

7.2

, , : , , LSI, , , , , , VLSI, , , ,

7.2

1.3.1 , :7.2.1

(mini computers) 1960, . 1962 (Hughes HCH201), PDP8, 1965 Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC). , , . , ( 25 ), , 5.000 ( 1981). , , , . .7.2.2

(microcomputers)

7 . 2

171

197080. (microprocessor), () /. 1971 INTEL (chip) INTEL 4004. (Large Scale Integration LSI). LSI chip , () . (MicroProcessor UnitsMPU) , / . , / . MPU chips. . , , , . , : / . [ (word processing), , , , .]. , . . . -

172

K E A A I O 7 :

, .. , , . 4 bits, 8 bits 16 bits. 16 bits . 32 bits, RAM chip 64 KB chip. chip, chip, , , (Gallium Arsenide) chip. , CRAY3, .7.2.3

, (Supercomputer). , . : (i) A , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) von Neumann, (v) . T () von Neumann () , von Neumann . T (bottleneck) CPU , . O .

7 . 2

173

: , , (array processors). (SIMD) (MIMD). .7.2.4

(transistors). (optical computing) , , . . , , (crossbar) . . . O . (finite state), (latches) ( CPUs). (bottleneck) von Neumann. , . , log2(N),

174

K E A A I O 7 :

von Neumann. CPU. , , () , , . , . , . O (finite state machines) von Neumann , , . O . . . , (interface). NOR (optical NOR gate array), . , [Integrated Optic Technology (IOT)].7.3 (1950 19