LMM ： year ＋ fluctuation

Physical and chemical properties of groundwater

Wat

er le

vel (

cm)

Pre

cip

itat

ion

(m

m)

1970

1972

1975

1978

1982

1984

1992

1994

Un-mined H/S

Mid/Stable

Low/Fluctuate

High/F

Ground water level

Middle/F

Seasonal fluctuations

TN: high in young sitespH: low in unmined sites 　 EC

pH

TN

(m

g/l)

TP

(m

g/l)

EC

（μ

S/

cm）

Year/month

Year/month

Year/month

Month

Month (2005) (Nishimura & Tsuyuzaki 2014)

Unmined site

Mined site Whole wetlands

-0.8 0.0 1.0 -0.8 0.0 1.0

1.0

0.0

-0.8

Small scale (mined site): WLM > WLR

Large scale: (mined site vs original site: pH > WLM > WLR

Scale-dependent environmental factorsMethodsPhysical elements = groundwater level (WLM) and the fluctuation (WLR)Chemical elements = chemical properties of ground water (pH, EC, TN, and TP)

1994 1992 1984 1982 1978 1975 1972 1970 Unmined

(Nishimura & Tsuyuzaki 2014)

Typhoons are sometimes disturbanceFelling of tees (wind) coastal wetlands, e.g., mangrove gap dynamicsSaltwater pulses (storm surge) push a wall of seawater inland increase in salinity → salt-intolerant species ↓

(Turner et al. 2006)

Most common tracks of hurricanes and typhoons

Areas of water with mean monthly temperatures above 27oC for at least one month of the year

Typhoons

Cyclone

Hurricane

Willy-willy

⇒ Predictable disturbance

Freshwater pulses (rain) raising river levels dilution of waterSediment redistribution (waves) developing river delta, etc.

Fig. 4.18 Delta grows as sediment accumulates at the mouth of a river, but once the river changes course, the delta gradually deteriorates into islands and offshore shoals. Storm and hurricanes play a significant role in reshaping the sediment (Peanland et al. 1988)

Regressive environments

Fresh marsh

Distributary

Beach ridges

Transgressive environments

Salt marsh marsh

Subaerial barrier

Subaqueous barrier

Sand sheet

Recurved spits

Shell reefs

Tidal inlet

Active delta

Stage 3Inner-shelf shoal

Stage 2Transgressive barrier

island arc

Stage 1Erosional headland with

flanking barriers

Restricted interdistributary

bay

Shoal base

Interdistributary bay

Erosional headland

Flankingbarrier island

Tidal inlet

Recurved spit

Shoal crest

Washover terrace

Recurved spit

Tidal inlet

Interdeltaic lagoon

Fig. There are many sources of sediment in coastal marshes: (a) resuspension of offshore shelf or lagoonal muds with landward transport during storms; (b) erosion of headlands or abandoned deltas with transport to marsh via longshore currents; (c) wave cutting of marsh muds exposed in lower shore face with transport to the marsh via longshore currents (c’); (d) riverine input; and (e) overwash redistribution (Michener et al. 1997)

UplandMarshBarrier/beach complexHolocene marsh muds

a

db

c’

c

e

Sediment produces a diverse array of wetland types

Seedbank

2,3983,254

14,7684,4966,405

SpeciesPrairie marshes Phragmites australis Carex spp. Coastal marshes Typha latifolia Myrica gale Mixed annuals

Table 4.1. Seedlings (/m2) emerged from seedbanks in meadows and marshes (Keddy 2010). The species found in Sarobetsu mire are listed.

= Buried reserves of viable seedsemerged after disturbances, such as wildfire (that improves nutrients, particularly phosphorus, and light (also reducing competition)

70-3,600826

38,25922,500

9,2002,324

Density of total speciesOpen waterWet meadowLakeshoreSandy small pondOrganic small pondBeaver pond

Fig. 4.13 Disturbance by muskrats (Ondatra zibethicus) and drought shift prairie potholes from one ecological state to another. (van der Valk & Davis 1978)

Marsh seed bank

Dry marsh

Regenerating marsh

Degenerating marshLake marsh

Mudflat emergent

Normal rainfall

Mudflat

Submersed and free floating

Muskrat damage

Emergent, submersed and free floating

SenescenceDiseaseInsectsHigh water

Submersed and free floating

Emergent, submersed and free floating

Submersed and free floating

Drought or drawdown

Fire severity affects vegetation and seed bank in a wetland

(Kimura & Tsuyuzaki 2011)

Fig 1. Similarities (%) between seed bank and the standing vegetation in each season and between seed bank in fall and summer. Upper and lower numerals show quantitative and qualitative similarities, respectively. Quantitative similarity is by Goodall’s index, and quantitative one is by Sørensen’s index. Thickness of lines connected with two circles indicates the intensity of similarities. Thick line > 80% in quantitative similarity; medium line: 2% to 15%, thin line: < 2%.

Vegetation, biomass and seed bank were monitored for the 2 yr after annual prescribed fires were discontinued in a reed swamp

Fire→ positive effects on seed bank dynamics→ developing diverse standing vegetation→ a tool to maintain species-rich wetlands

Seedling density (/m2)

Fall 2007

High35,300

Summer 2008

Less*43,638

High35,000

Less*27,088

* Sum of litter and soil layersDominant life form annuals/biennials – seedbank perennials - vegetation

Severe fire increased species diversity by providing short herbs (annuals) derived from seed bank

Vegetation

Relationships between vegetation and seedbank

Seedbank

Sp

ecie

s ri

chn

ess 8

6

4

2

0

Autumn 2006Fall 2007

BG RA MX MJ

Grassland

See

dlin

g d

ensi

ty (

/m2 )

2000

1500

1000

500

0

Fall 2006Summer 2007

BG RA MX MJ

Grassland

Cov

erag

e (%

) 80

60

40

20

0

Sp

ecie

s ri

chn

ess

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

LitterAbsent Present

(Egawa & Tsuyuzaki 2009)

Fall 2006 Summer 2007

Greenhouse experiment

Seedbank distribution

R. alba (0.75 mg)

M. japonica (1.21 mg)

P. australis (0.16 mg)

D. rotundifolia (0.01 mg)

Nu

mb

er o

f se

edlin

gs

G. triflora (0.12 mg)

litterpeat

Transient seedbank Fall → Summer: Decreased Their own sites

Fall → Summer: stable More in peat under litter Later successionalPersistent seedbank

BG RA MX MJ

Grassland

BG RA MX MJ

Grassland (Egawa & Tsuyuzaki 2009)

Seed germination and seedling survival

Winter

R. alba

M. japonica

P. communis

Days after sowing

Nu

mb

er

of

see

dlin

gs

Mixed grasslandBare groundMoliniopsis alba

grasslandRhynchospora alba

grassland

FL

(Egawa & Tsuyuzaki 2011)

ChinaBeijing

Lhasa

500 km

Shanghai

Yangtze River

Yellow River

Fig. 13.8 The Yangtze River is the third longest river in the world. It begins in the highland of Tibet, amidst some of the world’s largest high-altitude peatland (Ruoergai Peatland, bottom left; courtesy Wetlands International). Here it also flows through mountains which comprise one of the world’s biodiversity hotspots, the mountains of Southwest China (star, top left). Further east it passes through large lakes such as Dongting Lake (lower right). Where it enters the sea there are large deltaic wetlands. The largest dam, the Tree Geoges Dam, is indicated by the blue dot (top left).

ALOSPRISM, AVNIR-2April 14 2009