Che Guevara

Ernesto "Che" Guevara (Spanish pronunciation: [ˈtʃeɣeˈβaɾa];[4] June 14,[1] 1928 – October 9, 1967), com-monly known as el Che or simply Che, was an ArgentineMarxist revolutionary, physician, author, guerrilla leader,diplomat, and military theorist. A major figure of theCuban Revolution, his stylized visage has become a ubiq-uitous countercultural symbol of rebellion and global in-signia in popular culture.[5]

As a young medical student, Guevara traveled through-out South America and was radicalized by the poverty,hunger, and disease he witnessed.[6] His burgeoning de-sire to help overturn what he saw as the capitalist exploita-tion of Latin America by the United States prompted hisinvolvement in Guatemala's social reforms under Presi-dent Jacobo Árbenz, whose eventual CIA-assisted over-throw at the behest of the United Fruit Company so-lidified Guevara’s political ideology.[6] Later, in MexicoCity, he met Raúl and Fidel Castro, joined their 26thof July Movement, and sailed to Cuba aboard the yachtGranma, with the intention of overthrowing U.S.-backedCuban dictator Fulgencio Batista.[7] Guevara soon roseto prominence among the insurgents, was promoted tosecond-in-command, and played a pivotal role in thevictorious two-year guerrilla campaign that deposed theBatista regime.[8]

Following the Cuban Revolution, Guevara performed anumber of key roles in the new government. These in-cluded reviewing the appeals and firing squads for thoseconvicted as war criminals during the revolutionary tri-bunals,[9] instituting agrarian land reform as ministerof industries, helping spearhead a successful nationwideliteracy campaign, serving as both national bank presi-dent and instructional director for Cuba’s armed forces,and traversing the globe as a diplomat on behalf ofCuban socialism. Such positions also allowed him toplay a central role in training the militia forces who re-pelled the Bay of Pigs Invasion[10] and bringing the Sovietnuclear-armed ballistic missiles to Cuba which precip-itated the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis.[11] Additionally,he was a prolific writer and diarist, composing a semi-nal manual on guerrilla warfare, along with a best-sellingmemoir about his youthful continental motorcycle jour-ney. His experiences and studying of Marxism–Leninismled him to posit that the ThirdWorld's underdevelopmentand dependence was an intrinsic result of imperialism,neocolonialism, and monopoly capitalism, with the onlyremedy being proletarian internationalism and world rev-olution.[12][13] Guevara left Cuba in 1965 to foment revo-lution abroad, first unsuccessfully in Congo-Kinshasa and

later in Bolivia, where he was captured by CIA-assistedBolivian forces and summarily executed.[14]

Guevara remains both a revered and reviled historical fig-ure, polarized in the collective imagination in a multitudeof biographies, memoirs, essays, documentaries, songs,and films. As a result of his perceived martyrdom, po-etic invocations for class struggle, and desire to create theconsciousness of a “newman” driven bymoral rather thanmaterial incentives, he has evolved into a quintessentialicon of various leftist-inspired movements. Time maga-zine named him one of the 100 most influential people ofthe 20th century,[15] while an Alberto Korda photographof him, titled Guerrillero Heroico (shown), was cited bytheMaryland Institute College of Art as “themost famousphotograph in the world”.[16]

1 Early life

A teenage Ernesto (left) with his parents and siblings, c. 1944.Seated beside him, from left to right: Celia (mother), Celia (sis-ter), Roberto, Juan Martín, Ernesto (father) and Ana María.

Ernesto Guevara was born to Ernesto Guevara Lynch andhis wife, Celia de la Serna y Llosa, on June 14, 1928[1]in Rosario, Argentina, the eldest of five children in anArgentine family of Basque and Irish descent.[17][18] Inaccordance with Spanish naming customs, his legal name(Ernesto Guevara) will sometimes appear with “de laSerna” and/or “Lynch” accompanying it.[19] Referring toChe’s “restless” nature, his father declared “the first thingto note is that in my son’s veins flowed the blood of theIrish rebels".[20]

Very early on in life, Ernestito (as he was then called)developed an “affinity for the poor”.[21] Growing up in afamily with leftist leanings, Guevara was introduced to awide spectrum of political perspectives even as a boy.[22]His father, a staunch supporter of Republicans from theSpanish Civil War, often hosted many veterans from the

1

2 1 EARLY LIFE

conflict in the Guevara home.[23]

Despite suffering crippling bouts of acute asthma thatwere to afflict him throughout his life, he excelled as anathlete, enjoying swimming, football, golf, and shooting;while also becoming an “untiring” cyclist.[24][25] He wasan avid rugby union player,[26] and played at fly-half forClub Universitario de Buenos Aires.[27] His rugby play-ing earned him the nickname “Fuser”—a contraction ofEl Furibundo (raging) and his mother’s surname, de laSerna—for his aggressive style of play.[28]

1.1 Intellectual and literary interests

22-year-old Guevara in 1951

Guevara learned chess from his father and began partic-ipating in local tournaments by age 12. During adoles-cence and throughout his life, he was passionate aboutpoetry, especially that of Pablo Neruda, John Keats,Antonio Machado, Federico García Lorca, Gabriela Mis-tral, César Vallejo, and Walt Whitman.[29] He couldalso recite Rudyard Kipling's "If—" and José Hernán-dez'sMartín Fierro from memory.[29] The Guevara homecontained more than 3,000 books, which allowed Gue-vara to be an enthusiastic and eclectic reader, with in-terests including Karl Marx, William Faulkner, AndréGide, Emilio Salgari and Jules Verne.[30] Additionally,he enjoyed the works of Jawaharlal Nehru, Franz Kafka,Albert Camus, Vladimir Lenin, and Jean-Paul Sartre; aswell as Anatole France, Friedrich Engels, H. G. Wells,and Robert Frost.[31]

As he grew older, he developed an interest in the LatinAmerican writers Horacio Quiroga, Ciro Alegría, JorgeIcaza, Rubén Darío, and Miguel Asturias.[31] Many ofthese authors’ ideas he cataloged in his own handwrit-ten notebooks of concepts, definitions, and philoso-phies of influential intellectuals. These included com-posing analytical sketches of Buddha and Aristotle, alongwith examining Bertrand Russell on love and patrio-tism, Jack London on society, and Nietzsche on the ideaof death. Sigmund Freud's ideas fascinated him as hequoted him on a variety of topics from dreams and libidoto narcissism and the Oedipus complex.[31] His favoritesubjects in school included philosophy, mathematics,engineering, political science, sociology, history andarchaeology.[32][33]

Years later, a February 13, 1958, declassified CIA 'bi-ographical and personality report' would make note ofGuevara’s wide range of academic interests and intel-lect, describing him as “quite well read” while adding that“Che is fairly intellectual for a Latino.”[34]

1.2 Motorcycle journey

Main articles: The Motorcycle Diaries (book) and TheMotorcycle Diaries (film)

In 1948, Guevara entered the University of Buenos Airesto study medicine. His “hunger to explore the world”[35]led him to intersperse his collegiate pursuits with two longintrospective journeys that would fundamentally changethe way he viewed himself and the contemporary eco-nomic conditions in Latin America. The first expedi-tion in 1950 was a 4,500-kilometer (2,800 mi) solo tripthrough the rural provinces of northern Argentina on abicycle on which he installed a small engine.[36] Thiswas followed in 1951 by a nine-month, 8,000-kilometer(5,000 mi) continental motorcycle trek through most ofSouth America. For the latter, he took a year off fromhis studies to embark with his friend Alberto Granado,with the final goal of spending a few weeks volunteeringat the San Pablo leper colony in Peru, on the banks of theAmazon River.In Chile, Guevara found himself enraged by the work-ing conditions of theminers in Anaconda's Chuquicamatacopper mine and moved by his overnight encounter inthe Atacama Desert with a persecuted communist cou-ple who did not even own a blanket, describing themas “the shivering flesh-and-blood victims of capitalistexploitation”.[38] Additionally, on the way to Machu Pic-chu high in the Andes, he was struck by the crush-ing poverty of the remote rural areas, where peasantfarmers worked small plots of land owned by wealthylandlords.[39] Later on his journey, Guevara was espe-cially impressed by the camaraderie among those livingin a leper colony, stating “The highest forms of humansolidarity and loyalty arise among such lonely and des-

3

A map of Guevara’s 1952 trip with Alberto Granado. The redarrows correspond to air travel.

Guevara (right) with Alberto Granado (left) aboard their“Mambo-Tango” wooden raft on the Amazon River in June 1952.The raft was a gift from the lepers whom they had treated.[37]

perate people.”[39] Guevara used notes taken during thistrip to write an account, titled The Motorcycle Diaries,which later became a The New York Times best-seller,[40]and was adapted into a 2004 award-winning film of thesame name.The journey took Guevara through Argentina, Chile,Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, Panama, andMiami, Florida, for 20 days,[41] before returning hometo Buenos Aires. By the end of the trip, he came toview Latin America not as collection of separate nations,but as a single entity requiring a continent-wide liberationstrategy. His conception of a borderless, united Hispanic

America sharing a common Latino heritage was a themethat recurred prominently during his later revolutionaryactivities. Upon returning to Argentina, he completedhis studies and received his medical degree in June 1953,making him officially “Dr. Ernesto Guevara”.[42][43]

“A motorcycle journey the length of South Americaawakened him to the injustice of US domination in thehemisphere, and to the suffering colonialism brought toits original inhabitants.”— George Galloway, British politician[44]

Guevara later remarked that through his travels in LatinAmerica, he came in “close contact with poverty, hungerand disease” along with the “inability to treat a child be-cause of lack of money” and “stupefaction provoked bythe continual hunger and punishment” that leads a fatherto “accept the loss of a son as an unimportant accident”.It was these experiences which Guevara cites as convinc-ing him that in order to “help these people”, he neededto leave the realm of medicine, and consider the politicalarena of armed struggle.[6]

2 Guatemala, Árbenz, and UnitedFruit

Main article: 1954 Guatemalan coup d'étatOn July 7, 1953, Guevara set out again, this time to

Amap of Che Guevara’s travels between 1953 and 1956, includ-ing his journey aboard the Granma.

4 3 MEXICO CITY AND PREPARATION

Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Panama, Costa Rica, Nicaragua,Honduras and El Salvador. On December 10, 1953, be-fore leaving for Guatemala, Guevara sent an update tohis Aunt Beatriz from San José, Costa Rica. In the letterGuevara speaks of traversing through the dominion of theUnited Fruit Company; a journey which convinced himthat Company’s capitalist system was a terrible one.[45]This affirmed indignation carried the more aggressivetone he adopted in order to frighten his more Conser-vative relatives, and ends with Guevara swearing on animage of the then recently deceased Joseph Stalin, notto rest until these “octopuses have been vanquished”.[46]Later that month, Guevara arrived in Guatemala wherePresident Jacobo Árbenz Guzmán headed a democrati-cally elected government that, through land reform andother initiatives, was attempting to end the latifundiasystem. To accomplish this, President Árbenz had en-acted a major land reform program, where all unculti-vated portions of large land holdings were to be expropri-ated and redistributed to landless peasants. The biggestland owner, and onemost affected by the reforms, was theUnited Fruit Company, from which the Árbenz govern-ment had already taken more than 225,000 acres (91,000ha) of uncultivated land.[47] Pleased with the road the na-tion was heading down, Guevara decided to settle downin Guatemala so as to “perfect himself and accomplishwhatever may be necessary in order to become a truerevolutionary.”[48]

In Guatemala City, Guevara sought out Hilda GadeaAcosta, a Peruvian economist who was well-connectedpolitically as a member of the left-leaning Alianza Pop-ular Revolucionaria Americana (APRA, American Pop-ular Revolutionary Alliance). She introduced Guevarato a number of high-level officials in the Arbenz gov-ernment. Guevara then established contact with a groupof Cuban exiles linked to Fidel Castro through the July26, 1953, attack on the Moncada Barracks in Santiago deCuba. During this period, he acquired his famous nick-name, due to his frequent use of the Argentine diminutiveinterjection che, a vocative casual speech filler used to callattention or ascertain comprehension, similarly to both“bro” or the Canadian phrase "eh".[49] During his time inGuatemala, Guevara was helped by other Central Amer-ican exiles, one of whom, Helena Leiva de Holst, pro-vided him with food and lodging,[50] discussed her travelsto study Marxism in Russia and China,[51] and to whom,Guevara dedicated a poem, " “Invitación al camino”.[52]

On May 15, 1954, a shipment of Škoda infantry andlight artillery weapons was dispatched from CommunistCzechoslovakia for the Arbenz Government and ar-rived in Puerto Barrios.[53] As a result, the UnitedStates government—which since 1953 had been taskedby President Eisenhower to remove Arbenz frompower in the multifaceted CIA operation code namedPBSUCCESS—responded by saturating Guatemala withanti-Arbenz propaganda through radio and droppedleaflets, and began bombing raids using unmarked

airplanes.[54] The United States also sponsored a forceof several hundred Guatemalan refugees and mercenar-ies who were headed by Castillo Armas to help re-move the Arbenz government. Though the impact ofthe U.S. actions on subsequent events is debatable, bylate June, Arbenz came to the conclusion that resis-tance against the “giant of the north” was futile andresigned.[54] This allowed Armas and his CIA-assistedforces to march into Guatemala City and establish amilitary junta, which would twelve days later on July 8,elect him President.[54] Consequently, the Armas regimethen consolidated power by rounding up hundreds of sus-pected communists and executed hundreds of prisoners,while crushing the previously flourishing labor unions andrestoring all of United Fruits previous land holdings.[54]

Guevara himself was eager to fight on behalf of Arbenzand joined an armed militia organized by the CommunistYouth for that purpose, but frustrated with the group’sinaction, he soon returned to medical duties. Followingthe coup, he again volunteered to fight, but soon after,Arbenz took refuge in the Mexican Embassy and toldhis foreign supporters to leave the country. Guevara’srepeated calls to resist were noted by supporters of thecoup, and he was marked for murder.[55] After HildaGadea was arrested, Guevara sought protection inside theArgentine consulate, where he remained until he receiveda safe-conduct pass some weeks later and made his wayto Mexico.[56]

The overthrow of the Arbenz regime and establishmentof the right-wing Armas dictatorship cemented Guevara’sview of the United States as an imperialist power thatwould oppose and attempt to destroy any government thatsought to redress the socioeconomic inequality endemicto Latin America and other developing countries.[48] Inspeaking about the coup, Guevara stated:

“The last Latin American revolutionarydemocracy – that of Jacobo Arbenz – failedas a result of the cold premeditated aggres-sion carried out by the United States. Its vis-ible head was the Secretary of State John Fos-ter Dulles, a man who, through a rare coinci-dence, was also a stockholder and attorney forthe United Fruit Company.”[55]

Guevara’s conviction that Marxism achieved througharmed struggle and defended by an armed populacewas the only way to rectify such conditions was thusstrengthened.[57] Gadea wrote later, “It was Guatemalawhich finally convinced him of the necessity for armedstruggle and for taking the initiative against imperialism.By the time he left, he was sure of this.”[58]

5

Guevara with Hilda Gadea at Chichén Itzá on their honeymoontrip.

3 Mexico City and preparation

Guevara arrived inMexico City in early September 1954,and worked in the allergy section of the General Hospital.In addition he gave lectures on medicine at the NationalAutonomous University of Mexico and worked as a newsphotographer for Latina News Agency.[59] His first wifeHilda notes in her memoir My Life with Che, that for awhile, Guevara considered going to work as a doctor inAfrica and that he continued to be deeply troubled by thepoverty around him.[60] In one instance, Hilda describesGuevara’s obsession with an elderly washerwoman whomhe was treating, remarking that he saw her as “representa-tive of the most forgotten and exploited class”. Hilda laterfound a poem that Che had dedicated to the old woman,containing “a promise to fight for a better world, for abetter life for all the poor and exploited.”[60]

During this time he renewed his friendship with ÑicoLópez and the other Cuban exiles whom he had metin Guatemala. In June 1955, López introduced him toRaúl Castro who subsequently introduced him to his olderbrother, Fidel Castro, the revolutionary leader who hadformed the 26th of July Movement and was now plottingto overthrow the dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista. Dur-ing a long conversation with Fidel on the night of theirfirst meeting, Guevara concluded that the Cuban’s causewas the one for which he had been searching and beforedaybreak he had signed up as a member of the July 26Movement.[61] Despite their “contrasting personalities”,from this point on Che and Fidel began to foster whatdual biographer Simon Reid-Henry deems a “revolution-ary friendship that would change the world”, as a resultof their coinciding commitment to anti-imperialism.[62]

By this point in Guevara’s life, he deemed that U.S.-

controlled conglomerates installed and supported repres-sive regimes around the world. In this vein, he consideredBatista a "U.S. puppet whose strings needed cutting”.[63]Although he planned to be the group’s combat medic,Guevara participated in the military training with themembers of the Movement. The key portion of train-ing involved learning hit and run tactics of guerrilla war-fare. Guevara and the others underwent arduous 15-hourmarches over mountains, across rivers, and through thedense undergrowth, learning and perfecting the proce-dures of ambush and quick retreat. From the start Gue-vara was Alberto Bayo’s “prize student” among those intraining, scoring the highest on all of the tests given.[64]At the end of the course, he was called “the best guerrillaof them all” by their instructor, General Bayo.[65]

Guevara then married Gadea in Mexico in September1955, before embarking on his plan to assist in the lib-eration of Cuba.[66]

4 Cuban Revolution

Main articles: Cuban Revolution, Battle of Santa Claraand Foco

4.1 Invasion, warfare, and Santa Clara

Guevara atop a mule in Las Villas province, Cuba, November1958

The first step in Castro’s revolutionary plan was an as-sault on Cuba from Mexico via the Granma, an old,leaky cabin cruiser. They set out for Cuba on Novem-ber 25, 1956. Attacked by Batista’s military soon af-ter landing, many of the 82 men were either killed inthe attack or executed upon capture; only 22 found eachother afterwards.[67] During this initial bloody confronta-tion Guevara laid down his medical supplies and pickedup a box of ammunition dropped by a fleeing comrade,proving to be a symbolic moment in Che’s life.[68]

6 4 CUBAN REVOLUTION

Only a small band of revolutionaries survived to re-groupas a bedraggled fighting force deep in the Sierra Maestramountains, where they received support from the urbanguerrilla network of Frank País, the 26th of July Move-ment, and local campesinos. With the group withdrawnto the Sierra, the world wondered whether Castro wasalive or dead until early 1957 when the interview byHerbert Matthews appeared in The New York Times. Thearticle presented a lasting, almost mythical image for Cas-tro and the guerrillas. Guevara was not present for the in-terview, but in the coming months he began to realize theimportance of the media in their struggle. Meanwhile, assupplies and morale diminished, and with an allergy tomosquito bites which resulted in agonizing walnut-sizedcysts on his body,[69] Guevara considered these “the mostpainful days of the war”.[70]

During Guevara’s time living hidden among the poorsubsistence farmers of the Sierra Maestra mountains, hediscovered that there were no schools, no electricity, min-imal access to healthcare, andmore than 40 percent of theadults were illiterate.[71] As the war continued, Guevarabecame an integral part of the rebel army and “convincedCastro with competence, diplomacy and patience”.[8]Guevara set up factories to make grenades, built ovensto bake bread, taught new recruits about tactics, and or-ganized schools to teach illiterate campesinos to readand write.[8] Moreover, Guevara established health clin-ics, workshops to teach military tactics, and a newspa-per to disseminate information.[72] The man who threeyears later would be dubbed by Time Magazine: “Cas-tro’s brain”, at this point was promoted by Fidel Castro toComandante (commander) of a second army column.[8]

As second in command, Guevara was a harsh disciplinar-ian who sometimes shot defectors. Deserters were pun-ished as traitors, and Guevara was known to send squadsto track those seeking to go AWOL.[73] As a result, Gue-vara became feared for his brutality and ruthlessness.[74]During the guerrilla campaign, Guevara was also respon-sible for the sometimes summary execution of a numberof men accused of being informers, deserters or spies.[75]In his diaries, Guevara described the first such execu-tion of Eutimio Guerra, a peasant army guide who ad-mitted treason when it was discovered he accepted thepromise of ten thousand pesos for repeatedly giving awaythe rebel’s position for attack by the Cuban air force.[76]Such information also allowed Batista’s army to burnthe homes of peasants sympathetic to the revolution.[76]Upon Guerra’s request that they “end his life quickly”,[76]Che stepped forward and shot him in the head, writing“The situation was uncomfortable for the people and forEutimio so I ended the problem giving him a shot with a.32 pistol in the right side of the brain, with exit orifice inthe right temporal [lobe].”[77] His scientific notations andmatter-of-fact description, suggested to one biographer a“remarkable detachment to violence” by that point in thewar.[77] Later, Guevara published a literary account ofthe incident, titled “Death of a Traitor”, where he trans-

figured Eutimio’s betrayal and pre-execution request thatthe revolution “take care of his children”, into a “revolu-tionary parable about redemption through sacrifice”.[77]

Smoking a pipe at his guerrilla base in the Escambray Mountains

Although he maintained a demanding and harsh disposi-tion, Guevara also viewed his role of commander as oneof a teacher, entertaining his men during breaks betweenengagements with readings from the likes of Robert LouisStevenson, Cervantes, and Spanish lyric poets.[78] To-gether with this role, and inspired by José Martí's prin-ciple of “literacy without borders”, Guevara further en-sured that his rebel fighters made daily time to teach theuneducated campesinos with whom they lived and foughtto read and write, in what Guevara termed the “battleagainst ignorance”.[71] Tomás Alba, who fought underGuevara’s command, later stated that “Che was loved, inspite of being stern and demanding. We would (have)given our life for him.”[79]

His commanding officer Fidel Castro has described Gue-vara as intelligent, daring, and an exemplary leader who“had great moral authority over his troops”.[80] Castro fur-ther remarked that Guevara took too many risks, evenhaving a “tendency toward foolhardiness”.[81] Guevara’steenage lieutenant, Joel Iglesias, recounts such actions inhis diary, noting that Guevara’s behavior in combat evenbrought admiration from the enemy. On one occasionIglesias recounts the time he had been wounded in battle,stating “Che ran out to me, defying the bullets, threw meover his shoulder, and got me out of there. The guardsdidn't dare fire at him ... later they told me he made agreat impression on themwhen they saw him run out withhis pistol stuck in his belt, ignoring the danger, they didn'tdare shoot.”[82]

4.2 La Cabaña, land reform, and literacy 7

Guevara was instrumental in creating the clandestineradio station Radio Rebelde (Rebel Radio) in Febru-ary 1958, which broadcast news to the Cuban peoplewith statements by the 26th of July movement, and pro-vided radiotelephone communication between the grow-ing number of rebel columns across the island. Gue-vara had apparently been inspired to create the stationby observing the effectiveness of CIA supplied radio inGuatemala in ousting the government of Jacobo ArbenzGuzmán.[83]

To quell the rebellion, Cuban government troops be-gan executing rebel prisoners on the spot, and regularlyrounded up, tortured, and shot civilians as a tactic ofintimidation.[84] By March 1958, the continued atroci-ties carried out by Batista’s forces led the United Statesto announce it would stop selling arms to the Cubangovernment.[72] Then in late July 1958, Guevara playeda critical role in the Battle of Las Mercedes by using hiscolumn to halt a force of 1,500 men called up by Batista’sGeneral Cantillo in a plan to encircle and destroy Castro’sforces. Years later, Major Larry Bockman of the UnitedStates Marine Corps would analyze and describe Che’stactical appreciation of this battle as “brilliant”.[85] Dur-ing this time Guevara also became an “expert” at lead-ing hit-and-run tactics against Batista’s army, and thenfading back into the countryside before the army couldcounterattack.[86]

After the Battle of Santa Clara, January 1, 1959

As the war extended, Guevara led a new column offighters dispatched westward for the final push towardsHavana. Travelling by foot, Guevara embarked on a dif-ficult 7-week march only travelling at night to avoid am-bush, and often not eating for several days.[87] In the clos-

ing days of December 1958, Guevara’s task was to cutthe island in half by taking Las Villas province. In amatter of days he executed a series of “brilliant tacticalvictories” that gave him control of all but the province’scapital city of Santa Clara.[87] Guevara then directed his“suicide squad” in the attack on Santa Clara, that becamethe final decisive military victory of the revolution.[88][89]In the six weeks leading up to the Battle of Santa Clarathere were times when his men were completely sur-rounded, outgunned, and overrun. Che’s eventual victorydespite being outnumbered 10:1, remains in the view ofsome observers a “remarkable tour de force in modernwarfare”.[90]

Radio Rebelde broadcast the first reports that Guevara’scolumn had taken Santa Clara on New Year’s Eve 1958.This contradicted reports by the heavily controlled na-tional news media, which had at one stage reported Gue-vara’s death during the fighting. At 3 am on January1, 1959, upon learning that his generals were negoti-ating a separate peace with Guevara, Fulgencio Batistaboarded a plane in Havana and fled for the DominicanRepublic, along with an amassed “fortune of more than$300,000,000 through graft and payoffs”.[91] The follow-ing day on January 2, Guevara entered Havana to takefinal control of the capital.[92] Fidel Castro took 6 moredays to arrive, as he stopped to rally support in severallarge cities on his way to rolling victoriously into Havanaon January 8, 1959. The final death toll from the twoyears of revolutionary fighting was 2,000 people.[93]

In mid-January 1959, Guevara went to live at a summervilla in Tarara to recover from a violent asthma attack.[94]While there he started the Tarara Group, a group that de-bated and formed the new plans for Cuba’s social, po-litical, and economic development.[95] In addition, Chebegan to write his book Guerrilla Warfare while restingat Tarara.[95] In February, the revolutionary governmentproclaimed Guevara “a Cuban citizen by birth” in recog-nition of his role in the triumph.[96] When Hilda Gadeaarrived in Cuba in late January, Guevara told her that hewas involved with another woman, and the two agreedon a divorce,[97] which was finalized on May 22.[98] OnJune 2, 1959, he married Aleida March, a Cuban-bornmember of the 26th of July movement with whom hehad been living since late 1958. Guevara returned to theseaside village of Tarara in June for his honeymoon withAleida.[99] In total, Guevara would ultimately have fivechildren from his two marriages.[100]

4.2 La Cabaña, land reform, and literacy

The first major political crisis arose over what to do withthe captured Batista officials who had been responsiblefor the worst of the repression.[101] During the rebellionagainst Batista’s dictatorship, the general command ofthe rebel army, led by Fidel Castro, introduced into theterritories under its control the 19th century penal lawcommonly known as the Ley de la Sierra (Law of the

8 4 CUBAN REVOLUTION

(Right to left) rebel leader Camilo Cienfuegos, Cuban PresidentManuel Urrutia, and Guevara (January 1959)

Sierra).[102] This law included the death penalty for se-rious crimes, whether perpetrated by the Batista regimeor by supporters of the revolution. In 1959, the revolu-tionary government extended its application to the wholeof the republic and to those it considered war criminals,captured and tried after the revolution. According to theCuban Ministry of Justice, this latter extension was sup-ported by the majority of the population, and followed thesame procedure as those in the Nuremberg Trials held bythe Allies after World War II.[103]

To implement a portion of this plan, Castro named Gue-vara commander of the La Cabaña Fortress prison, for afive-month tenure (January 2 through June 12, 1959).[104]Guevara was charged with purging the Batista armyand consolidating victory by exacting “revolutionary jus-tice” against those considered to be traitors, chivatos (in-formants) or war criminals.[105] Serving in the post ascommander of La Cabaña, Guevara reviewed the ap-peals of those convicted during the revolutionary tribunalprocess.[9] The tribunals were conducted by 2–3 armyofficers, an assessor, and a respected local citizen.[106]On some occasions the penalty delivered by the tribunalwas death by firing squad.[107] Raúl Gómez Treto, se-nior legal advisor to the Cuban Ministry of Justice, hasargued that the death penalty was justified in order toprevent citizens themselves from taking justice into theirown hands, as happened twenty years earlier in the anti-Machado rebellion.[108] Biographers note that in January1959, the Cuban public was in a “lynching mood”,[109]and point to a survey at the time showing 93% public ap-proval for the tribunal process.[9]Moreover, a January 22,1959, Universal Newsreel broadcast in the United Statesand narrated by Ed Herlihy, featured Fidel Castro askingan estimated one million Cubans whether they approvedof the executions, and was met with a roaring "¡Si!"(yes).[110] With thousands of Cubans estimated to havebeen killed at the hands of Batista’s collaborators,[111][112]andmany of the war criminals sentenced to death accusedof torture and physical atrocities,[9] the newly empow-ered government carried out executions, punctuated bycries from the crowds of "¡paredón!" ([to the] wall!),[101]

which biographer Jorge Castañeda describes as “withoutrespect for due process".[113]

“I have yet to find a single credible source pointing to acase where Che executed 'an innocent'. Those personsexecuted by Guevara or on his orders were condemnedfor the usual crimes punishable by death at times of war orin its aftermath: desertion, treason or crimes such as rape,torture or murder. I should add that my research spannedfive years, and included anti-Castro Cubans among theCuban-American exile community in Miami and else-where.”— Jon Lee Anderson, author of Che Guevara: ARevolutionary Life, PBS forum[114]

Guevara in his trademark olive-green military fatigues and beret

Although there are varying accounts, it is estimated thatseveral hundred people were executed nationwide dur-ing this time, with Guevara’s jurisdictional death total atLa Cabaña ranging from 55 to 105 (see reference).[115]Conflicting views exist of Guevara’s attitude towards theexecutions at La Cabaña. Some exiled opposition biog-raphers report that he relished the rituals of the firingsquad, and organized them with gusto, while others relatethat Guevara pardoned as many prisoners as he could.[113]What is acknowledged by all sides is that Guevara had be-come a “hardened” man, who had no qualms about thedeath penalty or summary and collective trials. If theonly way to “defend the revolution was to execute its ene-mies, he would not be swayed by humanitarian or politicalarguments”.[113] This is further confirmed by a February5, 1959, letter to Luis Paredes López in Buenos Aires

4.2 La Cabaña, land reform, and literacy 9

where Guevara states unequivocally “The executions byfiring squads are not only a necessity for the people ofCuba, but also an imposition of the people.”[116]

Along with ensuring “revolutionary justice”, the otherkey early platform of Guevara’s was establishing agrarianland reform. Almost immediately after the success ofthe revolution on January 27, 1959, Guevara made oneof his most significant speeches where he talked about“the social ideas of the rebel army”. During this speech,he declared that the main concern of the new Cubangovernment was “the social justice that land redistribu-tion brings about”.[117] A few months later on May 17,1959, the Agrarian Reform Law crafted by Guevara wentinto effect, limiting the size of all farms to 1,000 acres(400 ha). Any holdings over these limits were expropri-ated by the government and either redistributed to peas-ants in 67-acre (270,000 m2) parcels or held as state runcommunes.[118] The law also stipulated that sugar planta-tions could not be owned by foreigners.[119]

Guevara visiting the Gaza Strip in 1959.

On June 12, 1959, Castro sent Guevara out on a three-month tour of 14 mostly Bandung Pact countries (Mo-rocco, Sudan, Egypt, Syria, Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka,Burma, Thailand, Indonesia, Japan, Yugoslavia, Greece)and the cities of Singapore and Hong Kong.[120] Send-ing Guevara away from Havana allowed Castro to appearto be distancing himself from Guevara and his Marxistsympathies, which troubled both the United States andsome of Castro’s July 26 Movement members.[121] Whilein Jakarta, Guevara visited Indonesian president Sukarnoto discuss the recent revolution in Indonesia and to es-tablish trade relations between their two nations. Bothmen quickly bonded, as Sukarno was attracted to Gue-vara’s energy and his relaxed informal approach; more-over they shared revolutionary leftist aspirations againstwestern imperialism.[122] Guevara next spent 12 days inJapan (July 15–27), participating in negotiations aimed atexpanding Cuba’s trade relations with that nation. Dur-ing the visit, he refused to visit and lay a wreath at Japan’sTomb of the Unknown Soldier commemorating soldierslost during World War II, remarking that the Japanese“imperialists” had “killed millions of Asians”.[123] In

its place, Guevara stated that he would instead visitHiroshima, where the American military had detonatedan atom-bomb 14 years earlier.[123] Despite his denuncia-tion of Imperial Japan, Guevara also considered PresidentTruman a “macabre clown” for the bombings,[124] and af-ter visiting Hiroshima and its Peace Memorial Museum,he sent back a postcard to Cuba stating “In order to fightbetter for peace, one must look at Hiroshima.”[125]

Upon Guevara’s return to Cuba in September 1959, itwas evident that Castro now had more political power.The government had begun land seizures included inthe agrarian reform law, but was hedging on compensa-tion offers to landowners, instead offering low interest“bonds”, a step which put the United States on alert. Atthis point the affected wealthy cattlemen of Camagüeymounted a campaign against the land redistributions, andenlisted the newly disaffected rebel leader Huber Matos,who along with the anti-Communist wing of the 26th ofJulyMovement, joined them in denouncing the “Commu-nist encroachment”.[126] During this time Dominican dic-tator Rafael Trujillo was offering assistance to the "Anti-Communist Legion of the Caribbean" which was trainingin the Dominican Republic. This multi-national force,composed mostly of Spaniards and Cubans, but also ofCroatians, Germans, Greeks, and right-wing mercenar-ies, was plotting to topple Castro’s new regime.[126]

Guevara in 1960, walking through the streets of Havana with hiswife Aleida March (right)

Such threats were heightened when, on March 4,1960, two massive explosions ripped through the Frenchfreighter La Coubre, which was carrying Belgian mu-nitions from the port of Antwerp, and was docked inHavana Harbor. The blasts killed at least 76 people andinjured several hundred, with Guevara personally provid-ing first aid to some of the victims. Cuban leader FidelCastro immediately accused the CIA of “an act of ter-rorism” and held a state funeral the following day for thevictims of the blast.[127] It was at the memorial servicethat Alberto Korda took the famous photograph of Gue-vara, now known as Guerrillero Heroico.[128]

These perceived threats prompted Castro to further elim-inate "counter-revolutionaries", and to utilize Guevara to

10 4 CUBAN REVOLUTION

drastically increase the speed of land reform. To imple-ment this plan, a new government agency, the NationalInstitute of Agrarian Reform (INRA), was establishedto administer the new Agrarian Reform law. INRAquickly became the most important governing body inthe nation, with Guevara serving as its head in his ca-pacity as minister of industries.[119] Under Guevara’scommand, INRA established its own 100,000 personmilitia, used first to help the government seize controlof the expropriated land and supervise its distribution,and later to set up cooperative farms. The land con-fiscated included 480,000 acres (190,000 ha) owned byUnited States corporations.[119] Months later, as retalia-tion, U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower sharply re-ducedUnited States imports of Cuban sugar (Cuba’s maincash crop), thus leading Guevara on July 10, 1960, to ad-dress over 100,000 workers in front of the PresidentialPalace at a rally called to denounce United States “eco-nomic aggression”.[129] Time magazine reporters whomet with Guevara around this time, described him as“guid(ing) Cuba with icy calculation, vast competence,high intelligence, and a perceptive sense of humor.”[8]

Along with land reform, one of the primary areas thatGuevara stressed needed national improvement was inthe area of literacy. Before 1959 the official literacy ratefor Cuba was between 60–76%, with educational accessin rural areas and a lack of instructors the main deter-mining factors.[130] As a result, the Cuban governmentat Guevara’s behest dubbed 1961 the “year of educa-tion”, and mobilized over 100,000 volunteers into “lit-eracy brigades”, who were then sent out into the coun-tryside to construct schools, train new educators, andteach the predominantly illiterate guajiros (peasants) toread and write.[71][130] Unlike many of Guevara’s latereconomic initiatives, this campaign was “a remarkablesuccess”.[130] By the completion of the Cuban LiteracyCampaign, 707,212 adults had been taught to read andwrite, raising the national literacy rate to 96%.[130]

“Guevara was like a father to me ... he educated me. Hetaught me to think. He taught me the most beautiful thingwhich is to be human.”— Urbano (a.k.a. Leonardo Tamayo),fought with Guevara in Cuba and Bolivia[131]

Accompanying literacy, Guevara was also concernedwith establishing universal access to higher education. Toaccomplish this, the new regime introduced affirmativeaction to the universities.[132] While announcing this newcommitment, Guevara told the gathered faculty and stu-dents at the University of Las Villas that the days wheneducation was “a privilege of the white middle class” hadended. “The University” he said, “must paint itself black,mulatto, worker, and peasant.” If it did not, he warned,the people would break down its doors “and paint the Uni-versity the colors they like.”[132]

4.2.1 Marxist ideological influence

“The merit of Marx is that he suddenlyproduces a qualitative change in the historyof social thought. He interprets history,understands its dynamic, predicts the future,but in addition to predicting it (which wouldsatisfy his scientific obligation), he expressesa revolutionary concept: the world must notonly be interpreted, it must be transformed.Man ceases to be the slave and tool of hisenvironment and converts himself into thearchitect of his own destiny.”— Che Guevara, Notes for the Study of theIdeology of the Cuban, October 1960 [133]

When enacting and advocating Cuban policy, Guevaracited the political philosopher Karl Marx as his ideologi-cal inspiration. In defending his political stance, Guevaraconfidently remarked that “There are truths so evident, somuch a part of people’s knowledge, that it is now uselessto discuss them. One ought to be Marxist with the samenaturalness with which one is 'Newtonian' in physics, or'Pasteurian' in biology.”[133] According to Guevara, the“practical revolutionaries” of the Cuban Revolution hadthe goal of “simply fulfill(ing) laws foreseen by Marx,the scientist.”[133] UsingMarx’s predictions and system ofdialectical materialism, Guevara professed that “The lawsof Marxism are present in the events of the Cuban Rev-olution, independently of what its leaders profess or fullyknow of those laws from a theoretical point of view.”[133]

4.3 The “NewMan”, Bay of Pigs, and mis-sile crisis

Main articles: Bay of Pigs Invasion and Cuban MissileCrisis

“Man truly achieves his full humancondition when he produces without beingcompelled by the physical necessity of sellinghimself as a commodity.”— Che Guevara, Man and Socialism inCuba[134]

At this stage, Guevara acquired the additional positionof Finance Minister, as well as President of the NationalBank. These appointments, combined with his existingposition as Minister of Industries, placed Guevara at thezenith of his power, as the “virtual czar” of the Cubaneconomy.[129] As a consequence of his position at thehead of the central bank, it was now Guevara’s duty tosign the Cuban currency, which per custom would bearhis signature. Instead of using his full name, he signedthe bills solely "Che".[135] It was through this symbolic act,

4.3 The “New Man”, Bay of Pigs, and missile crisis 11

which horrified many in the Cuban financial sector, thatGuevara signaled his distaste for money and the class dis-tinctions it brought about.[135] Guevara’s long time friendRicardo Rojo later remarked that “the day he signed Cheon the bills, (he) literally knocked the props from underthe widespread belief that money was sacred.”[136]

Guevara meeting with French existentialist philosophers Jean-Paul Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir at his office in Havana,March 1960. Sartre later wrote that Che was " the most completehuman being of our time". In addition to Spanish, Guevara wasfluent in French.[137]

In an effort to eliminate social inequalities, Guevaraand Cuba’s new leadership had moved to swiftly trans-form the political and economic base of the countrythrough nationalizing factories, banks, and businesses,while attempting to ensure affordable housing, health-care, and employment for all Cubans.[138] However, inorder for a genuine transformation of consciousness totake root, Guevara believed that such structural changeswould have to be accompanied by a conversion in peo-ple’s social relations and values. Believing that the atti-tudes in Cuba towards race, women, individualism, andmanual labor were the product of the island’s outdatedpast, Guevara urged all individuals to view each otheras equals and take on the values of what he termed“el Hombre Nuevo” (the New Man).[138] Guevara hopedhis “new man” would ultimately be “selfless and coop-erative, obedient and hard working, gender-blind, in-corruptible, non-materialistic, and anti-imperialist.”[138]To accomplish this, Guevara emphasized the tenets ofMarxism-Leninism, and wanted to use the state to em-phasize qualities such as egalitarianism and self-sacrifice,at the same time as “unity, equality, and freedom” be-came the new maxims.[138] Guevara’s first desired eco-nomic goal of the new man, which coincided with hisaversion for wealth condensation and economic inequal-ity, was to see a nationwide elimination of material in-centives in favor of moral ones. He negatively viewedcapitalism as a “contest among wolves” where “one canonly win at the cost of others” and thus desired to seethe creation of a “new man and woman”.[139] Guevaracontinually stressed that a socialist economy in itself isnot “worth the effort, sacrifice, and risks of war and de-struction” if it ends up encouraging “greed and individualambition at the expense of collective spirit".[140] A pri-mary goal of Guevara’s thus became to reform “individ-

ual consciousness” and values to produce better workersand citizens.[140] In his view, Cuba’s “new man” would beable to overcome the "egotism" and "selfishness" that heloathed and discerned was uniquely characteristic of in-dividuals in capitalist societies.[140] To promote this con-cept of a “new man”, the government also created a se-ries of party-dominated institutions and mechanisms onall levels of society, which included organizations such aslabor groups, youth leagues, women’s groups, communitycenters, and houses of culture to promote state-sponsoredart, music, and literature. In congruence with this, all ed-ucational, mass media, and artistic community based fa-cilities were nationalized and utilized to instill the govern-ment’s official socialist ideology.[138] In describing thisnew method of “development”, Guevara stated:

“There is a great difference between free-enterprise development and revolutionary de-velopment. In one of them, wealth is con-centrated in the hands of a fortunate few, thefriends of the government, the best wheeler-dealers. In the other, wealth is the people’spatrimony.”[141]

A further integral part of fostering a sense of “unity be-tween the individual and the mass”, Guevara believed,was volunteer work and will. To display this, Gue-vara “led by example”, working “endlessly at his min-istry job, in construction, and even cutting sugar cane”on his day off.[142] He was known for working 36 hoursat a stretch, calling meetings after midnight, and eating onthe run.[140] Such behavior was emblematic of Guevara’snew program of moral incentives, where each worker wasnow required to meet a quota and produce a certain quan-tity of goods. As a replacement for the pay increasesabolished by Guevara, workers who exceeded their quotanow only received a certificate of commendation, whileworkers who failed to meet their quotas were given a paycut.[140] Guevara unapologetically defended his personalphilosophy towards motivation and work, stating:

“This is not a matter of how many poundsof meat one might be able to eat, or how manytimes a year someone can go to the beach, orhow many ornaments from abroad one mightbe able to buy with his current salary. Whatreally matters is that the individual feels morecomplete, with much more internal richnessand much more responsibility.”[143]

In the face of a loss of commercial connections withWestern states, Guevara tried to replace them withcloser commercial relationships with Eastern Bloc states,visiting a number of Marxist states and signing tradeagreements with them. At the end of 1960 he visitedCzechoslovakia, the Soviet Union, North Korea, Hungaryand East Germany and signed, for instance, a trade agree-ment in East Berlin on December 17, 1960.[144] Such

12 4 CUBAN REVOLUTION

Guevara fishing off the coast of Havana, on May 15, 1960.Along with Castro, Guevara competed with expatriate authorErnest Hemingway at what was known as the “Hemingway Fish-ing Contest”.

agreements helped Cuba’s economy to a certain degreebut also had the disadvantage of a growing economic de-pendency on the Eastern Bloc. It was also in East Ger-many where Guevara met Tamara Bunke (later known as“Tania”), who was assigned as his interpreter, and whowould years later join him, and be killed with him in Bo-livia.Whatever the merits or demerits of Guevara’s eco-nomic principles, his programs were unsuccessful.[145]Guevara’s program of “moral incentives” for workerscaused a rapid drop in productivity and a rapid rise inabsenteeism.[146] Decades later, the director of RadioMartí Ernesto Betancourt, an early ally turned Castro-critic and Che’s former deputy, would accuse Guevaraof being “ignorant of the most elementary economicprinciples.”[147] In reference to the collective failings ofGuevara’s vision, reporter I.F. Stone who interviewedGuevara twice during this time, remarked that he was"Galahad not Robespierre", while opining that “in a sensehe was, like some early saint, taking refuge in the desert.Only there could the purity of the faith be safeguardedfrom the unregenerate revisionism of human nature.”[148]

On April 17, 1961, 1,400 U.S.-trained Cuban exiles in-vaded Cuba during the Bay of Pigs Invasion. Guevaradid not play a key role in the fighting, as one day beforethe invasion a warship carryingMarines faked an invasionoff theWest Coast of Pinar del Río and drew forces com-manded by Guevara to that region. However, historiansgive him a share of credit for the victory as he was direc-tor of instruction for Cuba’s armed forces at the time.[10]Author Tad Szulc in his explanation of the Cuban victory,assigns Guevara partial credit, stating: “The revolutionar-ies won because Che Guevara, as the head of the Instruc-tion Department of the Revolutionary Armed Forces incharge of the militia training program, had done so wellin preparing 200,000 men and women for war.”[10] It wasalso during this deployment that he suffered a bullet graz-ing to the cheek when his pistol fell out of its holster and

accidentally discharged.[149]

Guevara (left) and Fidel Castro, photographed by Alberto Kordain 1961

In August 1961, during an economic conference ofthe Organization of American States in Punta del Este,Uruguay, Che Guevara sent a note of “gratitude” toUnited States President John F. Kennedy through RichardN. Goodwin, Deputy Assistant Secretary of State forInter-American Affairs. It read “Thanks for Playa Girón(Bay of Pigs). Before the invasion, the revolution wasshaky. Now it’s stronger than ever.”[150][151] In responseto United States Treasury Secretary Douglas Dillon pre-senting the Alliance for Progress for ratification by themeeting, Guevara antagonistically attacked the UnitedStates claim of being a “democracy”, stating that sucha system was not compatible with “financial oligarchy,discrimination against blacks, and outrages by the KuKlux Klan".[152] Guevara continued, speaking out againstthe “persecution” that in his view “drove scientists likeOppenheimer from their posts, deprived the world foryears of the marvelous voice of Paul Robeson, and sentthe Rosenbergs to their deaths against the protests of ashocked world.”[152] Guevara ended his remarks by in-sinuating that the United States was not interested in realreforms, sardonically quipping that “U.S. experts nevertalk about agrarian reform; they prefer a safe subject, likea better water supply. In short, they seem to prepare therevolution of the toilets.”[153]

Guevara, who was practically the architect of the Soviet-Cuban relationship,[154] then played a key role in bringingto Cuba the Soviet nuclear-armed ballistic missiles that

13

precipitated the Cuban Missile Crisis in October 1962and brought the world to the brink of nuclear war.[155]A few weeks after the crisis, during an interview withthe British communist newspaper theDaily Worker, Gue-vara was still fuming over the perceived Soviet betrayaland told correspondent Sam Russell that, if the missileshad been under Cuban control, they would have firedthem off.[156] While expounding on the incident later,Guevara reiterated that the cause of socialist liberationagainst global “imperialist aggression” would ultimatelyhave been worth the possibility of “millions of atomic warvictims”.[157] The missile crisis further convinced Gue-vara that the world’s two superpowers (the United Statesand the Soviet Union) used Cuba as a pawn in their ownglobal strategies. Afterward, he denounced the Sovietsalmost as frequently as he denounced the Americans.[158]

5 International diplomacy

A world map displaying those countries lived in or visited by CheGuevara in red. The three nations where he engaged in armedrevolution are signified in green.

By December 1964, Che Guevara had emerged as a “rev-olutionary statesman of world stature” and thus traveledto New York City as head of the Cuban delegation tospeak at the United Nations.[136] During his impassionedaddress, he criticized the United Nations’ inability to con-front the “brutal policy of apartheid" in South Africa, ask-ing “Can the United Nations do nothing to stop this?"[159]Guevara then denounced the United States policy towardstheir black population, stating:

“Those who kill their own children and dis-criminate daily against them because of thecolor of their skin; those who let the murder-ers of blacks remain free, protecting them, andfurthermore punishing the black populationbecause they demand their legitimate rights asfree men—how can those who do this considerthemselves guardians of freedom?"[159]

An indignant Guevara ended his speech by reciting theSecond Declaration of Havana, decreeing Latin Americaa “family of 200 million brothers who suffer the samemiseries”.[159] This “epic”, Guevara declared, would be

written by the “hungry Indian masses, peasants withoutland, exploited workers, and progressive masses”. ToGuevara the conflict was a struggle of masses and ideas,which would be carried forth by those “mistreated andscorned by imperialism" who were previously considered“a weak and submissive flock”. With this “flock”, Gue-vara now asserted, “Yankee monopoly capitalism” nowterrifyingly saw their “gravediggers”.[159] It would be dur-ing this “hour of vindication”, Guevara pronounced, thatthe “anonymous mass” would begin to write its own his-tory “with its own blood” and reclaim those “rights thatwere laughed at by one and all for 500 years”. Guevaraended his remarks to the General Assembly by hypothe-sizing that this “wave of anger” would “sweep the landsof Latin America” and that the labor masses who “turnthe wheel of history” were now, for the first time, “awak-ening from the long, brutalizing sleep to which they hadbeen subjected”.[159]

Guevara later learned there had been two failed at-tempts on his life by Cuban exiles during his stop atthe UN complex.[160] The first from Molly Gonzales whotried to break through barricades upon his arrival with aseven-inch hunting knife, and later during his address byGuillermo Novo with a timer-initiated bazooka that wasfired off target from a boat in the East River at the UnitedNations Headquarters. Afterwards Guevara commentedon both incidents, stating that “it is better to be killed bya woman with a knife than by a man with a gun”, whileadding with a languid wave of his cigar that the explosionhad “given the whole thing more flavor”.[160]

While in New York Guevara appeared on the CBSSunday news program Face the Nation and met with arange of people, from United States Senator Eugene Mc-Carthy[161] to associates of Malcolm X. The latter ex-pressed his admiration, declaring Guevara “one of themost revolutionary men in this country right now” whilereading a statement from him to a crowd at the AudubonBallroom.[162]

OnDecember 17 Guevara left for Paris, France, and fromthere embarked on a three-month world tour that includedvisits to the People’s Republic of China, North Korea,the United Arab Republic, Algeria, Ghana, Guinea, Mali,Dahomey, Congo-Brazzaville and Tanzania, with stops inIreland and Prague. While in Ireland Guevara embracedhis own Irish heritage, celebrating Saint Patrick’s Day inLimerick city.[163] He wrote to his father on this visit,humorously stating “I am in this green Ireland of yourancestors. When they found out, the television [station]came to ask me about the Lynch genealogy, but in casethey were horse thieves or something like that, I didn't saymuch.”[164]

During this voyage he wrote a letter to Carlos Quijano,editor of a Uruguayan weekly, which was later retitledSocialism and Man in Cuba.[139] Outlined in the treatisewas Guevara’s summons for the creation of a new con-sciousness, a new status of work, and a new role of the

14 5 INTERNATIONAL DIPLOMACY

Walking through Red Square in Moscow, November 1964.

individual. He also laid out the reasoning behind his anti-capitalist sentiments, stating:

“The laws of capitalism, blind and invis-ible to the majority, act upon the individualwithout his thinking about it. He sees onlythe vastness of a seemingly infinite horizon be-fore him. That is how it is painted by capi-talist propagandists, who purport to draw a les-son from the example of Rockefeller—whetheror not it is true—about the possibilities of suc-cess. The amount of poverty and suffering re-quired for the emergence of a Rockefeller, andthe amount of depravity that the accumulationof a fortune of such magnitude entails, are leftout of the picture, and it is not always possibleto make the people in general see this.”[139]

Guevara ended the essay by declaring that “the true revo-lutionary is guided by a great feeling of love” and beckon-ing on all revolutionaries to “strive every day so that thislove of living humanity will be transformed into acts thatserve as examples”, thus becoming “a moving force”.[139]The genesis for Guevara’s assertions relied on the fact thathe believed the example of the Cuban Revolution was“something spiritual that would transcend all borders”.[31]

5.1 Algiers, the Soviets, and China

In Algiers, Algeria, on February 24, 1965, Guevara madewhat turned out to be his last public appearance on theinternational stage when he delivered a speech at an eco-nomic seminar on Afro-Asian solidarity.[165] He specifiedthe moral duty of the socialist countries, accusing them

of tacit complicity with the exploiting Western countries.He proceeded to outline a number of measures which hesaid the communist-bloc countries must implement in or-der to accomplish the defeat of imperialism.[166] Havingcriticized the Soviet Union (the primary financial backerof Cuba) in such a public manner, he returned to Cuba onMarch 14 to a solemn reception by Fidel and Raúl Cas-tro, Osvaldo Dorticós and Carlos Rafael Rodríguez at theHavana airport.As revealed in his last public speech in Algiers, Guevarahad come to view the Northern Hemisphere, led by theU.S. in the West and the Soviet Union in the East, as theexploiter of the Southern Hemisphere. He strongly sup-ported Communist North Vietnam in the Vietnam War,and urged the peoples of other developing countries totake up arms and create “many Vietnams”.[167] Che’s de-nunciations of the Soviets made him popular among in-tellectuals and artists of the Western European left whohad lost faith in the Soviet Union, while his condemna-tion of imperialism and call to revolution inspired youngradical students in the United States, who were impatientfor societal change.[168]

Moreover, the coincidence of Guevara’s views with thoseexpounded by the Chinese Communist leadership underMao Zedong was increasingly problematic for Cuba asthe nation’s economy became more and more dependenton the Soviet Union. Since the early days of the Cubanrevolution, Guevara had been considered by many an ad-vocate of Maoist strategy in Latin America and the origi-nator of a plan for the rapid industrialization of Cuba thatwas often compared to China’s "Great Leap Forward".Castro became weary of Guevara’s opposition to Sovietconditions and recommendations: measures that Castrosaw as necessary, but which Guevara described as cor-rupt and “pre-monopolist”.[169]

"Marx characterized the psychological or philosophicalmanifestation of capitalist social relations as alienationand antagonism; the result of the commodification of la-bor and the operation of the law of value. For Guevara,the challenge was to replace the individuals’ alienationfrom the productive process, and the antagonism gener-ated by class relations, with integration and solidarity, de-veloping a collective attitude to production and the con-cept of work as a social duty.”— Helen Yaffe, author of Che Guevara: The Economicsof Revolution[170]

In Guevara’s private writings from this time (since re-leased), he displays his growing criticism of the Sovietpolitical economy, believing that the Soviets had “for-gotten Marx".[170] This led Guevara to denounce a rangeof Soviet practices including what he saw as their at-tempt to “air-brush the inherent violence of class strug-gle integral to the transition from capitalism to socialism",their “dangerous” policy of peaceful co-existence with theUnited States, their failure to push for a “change in con-

15

sciousness” towards the idea of work, and their attemptto "liberalize" the socialist economy. Guevara wanted thecomplete elimination of money, interest, commodity pro-duction, the market economy, and "mercantile relation-ships": all conditions that the Soviets argued would onlydisappear when world communism was achieved.[170]Disagreeing with this incrementalist approach, Guevaracriticized the Soviet Manual of Political Economy, cor-rectly predicting that if USSR would not abolish the lawof value (as Guevara desired), it would eventually returnto capitalism.[170]

Twoweeks after his Algiers speech, Guevara dropped outof public life and then vanished altogether. His where-abouts were a great mystery in Cuba, as he was generallyregarded as second in power to Castro himself. His dis-appearance was variously attributed to the failure of theindustrialization scheme he had advocated while minis-ter of industries, to pressure exerted on Castro by Sovietofficials disapproving of Guevara’s pro-Chinese Commu-nist stance on the Sino-Soviet split, and to serious dif-ferences between Guevara and the pragmatic Castro re-garding Cuba’s economic development and ideologicalline. Pressed by international speculation regarding Gue-vara’s fate, Castro stated on June 16, 1965, that the peoplewould be informed when Guevara himself wished to letthem know. Still, rumors spread both inside and outsideCuba to the missing Guevara’s whereabouts.On October 3, 1965, Castro publicly revealed an undatedletter purportedly written to him by Guevara aroundseven months earlier which was later titled Che Guevara’s“farewell letter”. In the letter, Guevara reaffirmed his en-during solidarity with the Cuban Revolution but declaredhis intention to leave Cuba to fight for the revolutionarycause abroad. Additionally, he resigned from all his posi-tions in the Cuban government and communist party, andrenounced his honorary Cuban citizenship.[171]

6 Congo

In early 1965, Guevara went to Africa to offer his knowl-edge and experience as a guerrilla to the ongoing conflictin the Congo. According to Algerian President AhmedBen Bella, Guevara thought that Africa was imperi-alism’s weak link and so had enormous revolutionarypotential.[172] Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser,who had fraternal relations with Che since his 1959 visit,saw Guevara’s plan to fight in Congo as “unwise” andwarned that he would become a "Tarzan" figure, doomedto failure.[173] Despite the warning, Guevara traveled toCongo using the alias Ramón Benítez.[174] He led theCuban operation in support of the Marxist Simba move-ment, which had emerged from the ongoing Congo crisis.Guevara, his second-in-command Victor Dreke, and 12other Cuban expeditionaries arrived in Congo on April24, 1965 and a contingent of approximately 100 Afro-Cubans joined them soon afterward.[175][176] For a time,

37-year-old Guevara, holding a Congolese baby and standingwith a fellow Afro-Cuban soldier in the Congo Crisis, 1965.

they collaborated with guerrilla leader Laurent-DésiréKabila, who had helped supporters of the overthrownpresident Patrice Lumumba to lead an unsuccessful re-volt months earlier. As an admirer of the late Lumumba,Guevara declared that his “murder should be a lessonfor all of us”.[177] Guevara, with limited knowledge ofSwahili and the local languages, was assigned a teenageinterpreter, Freddy Ilanga. Over the course of sevenmonths, Ilanga grew to “admire the hard-working Gue-vara”, who “showed the same respect to black people ashe did to whites”.[178] However, Guevara soon becamedisillusioned with the poor discipline of Kabila’s troopsand later dismissed him, stating “nothing leads me to be-lieve he is the man of the hour”.[179]

As an additional obstacle, white South African merce-naries, led by Mike Hoare in league with Cuban exilesand the CIA, worked with the Congo National Army tothwart Guevara’s movements from his base camp in themountains near the village of Fizi on Lake Tanganyika insoutheast Congo. They were able to monitor his commu-nications and so pre-empted his attacks and interdictedhis supply lines. Although Guevara tried to conceal hispresence in Congo, the United States government knewhis location and activities. The National Security Agencywas intercepting all of his incoming and outgoing trans-missions via equipment aboard the USNS Private Jose F.Valdez (T-AG-169), a floating listening post that continu-ously cruised the Indian Ocean off Dar es Salaam for thatpurpose.[180]

16 7 BOLIVIA

Listening to a Zenith Trans-Oceanic shortwave radio receiverare (seated from the left) Rogelio Oliva, José María MartínezTamayo (known as “Mbili” in the Congo and “Ricardo” in Bo-livia), and Guevara. Standing behind them is Roberto Sánchez(“Lawton” in Cuba and “Changa” in the Congo), 1965.

Guevara’s aim was to export the revolution by instructinglocal anti-Mobutu Simba fighters in Marxist ideology andfoco theory strategies of guerrilla warfare. In his CongoDiary book, he cites the incompetence, intransigence andinfighting among the Congolese rebels as key reasons forthe revolt’s failure.[181] Later that year on November 20,1965, suffering from dysentery and acute asthma, anddisheartened after seven months of frustration and inac-tivity, Guevara left Congo with the six Cuban survivorsof his 12-man column. Guevara had planned to sendthe wounded back to Cuba and fight in Congo alone un-til his death, as a revolutionary example. But after be-ing urged by his comrades, and two emissaries sent byCastro, at the last moment he reluctantly agreed to leaveAfrica. During that day and night, Guevara’s forces qui-etly took down their base camp, burned their huts, anddestroyed or threw weapons into Lake Tanganyika thatthey could not take with them, before crossing the bor-der into Tanzania at night and traveling by land to Dares Salaam. In speaking about his experience in Congomonths later, Guevara concluded that he left rather thanfight to the death because: “The human element failed.There is no will to fight. The leaders are corrupt. In aword ... there was nothing to do.”[182] Guevara also de-clared that “we can't liberate by ourselves a country thatdoes not want to fight.”[183] A few weeks later, he wrotethe preface to the diary he kept during the Congo venture,that began: “This is the history of a failure.”[184]

Guevara was reluctant to return to Cuba, because Cas-tro had made public Guevara’s “farewell letter”—a letterintended to only be revealed in the case of his death—wherein he severed all ties in order to devote himself torevolution throughout the world.[185] As a result, Guevaraspent the next six months living clandestinely in Dar esSalaam and Prague.[186] During this time, he compiledhis memoirs of the Congo experience and wrote draftsof two more books, one on philosophy and the other oneconomics. He then visited several Western Europeancountries to test his new false identity papers, created by

Cuban Intelligence for his later travels to South Amer-ica. As Guevara prepared for Bolivia, he secretly traveledback to Cuba to visit Castro, as well as to see his wife andto write a last letter to his five children to be read uponhis death, which ended with him instructing them:

“Above all, always be capable of feelingdeeply any injustice committed against anyone,anywhere in the world. This is the most beau-tiful quality in a revolutionary.”[187]

7 Bolivia

Main article: Ñancahuazú Guerrilla

In late 1966, Guevara’s location was still not publicknowledge, although representatives of Mozambique’sindependence movement, the FRELIMO, reported thatthey met with Guevara in late 1966 in Dar es Salaamregarding his offer to aid in their revolutionary project,an offer which they ultimately rejected.[188] In a speechat the 1967 International Workers’ Day rally in Havana,the acting minister of the armed forces, Major JuanAlmeida, announced that Guevara was “serving the rev-olution somewhere in Latin America”.Before he departed for Bolivia, Guevara altered his ap-pearance by shaving off his beard and much of his hair,also dying it grey so he would be unrecognizable asChe Guevara.[189] On November 3, 1966, Guevara se-cretly arrived in La Paz on a flight from Montevideo un-der the false name Adolfo Mena González, posing asa middle-aged Uruguayan businessman working for theOrganization of American States.[190]

Guevara in rural Bolivia, shortly before his death (1967).

Three days after his arrival in Bolivia, Guevara left La Pazfor the rural south east region of the country to form hisguerrilla army. Guevara’s first base camp was located inthe montane dry forest in the remote Ñancahuazú region.Training at the camp in the Ñancahuazú valley proved tobe hazardous, and little was accomplished in way of build-ing a guerrilla army. The Argentine-born East Germanoperative Haydée Tamara Bunke Bider, better known by

7.1 Capture and execution 17

her nom de guerre “Tania”, had been installed as Che’sprimary agent in La Paz.[191][192]

Guevara’s guerrilla force, numbering about 50 men[193]and operating as the ELN (Ejército de Liberación Na-cional de Bolivia; "National Liberation Army of Bo-livia"), was well equipped and scored a number of earlysuccesses against Bolivian army regulars in the difficultterrain of the mountainous Camiri region during the earlymonths of 1967. As a result of Guevara’s units’ winningseveral skirmishes against Bolivian troops in the springand summer of 1967, the Bolivian government began tooverestimate the true size of the guerrilla force.[194] Butin August 1967, the Bolivian Army managed to eliminatetwo guerrilla groups in a violent battle, reportedly killingone of the leaders.Researchers hypothesize that Guevara’s plan for foment-ing a revolution in Bolivia failed for an array of reasons:

• He had expected to deal only with the Bolivian mili-tary, whowere poorly trained and equipped, and wasunaware that the United States government had senta team of the CIA’s Special Activities Division com-mandos and other operatives into Bolivia to aid theanti-insurrection effort. The Bolivian Army wouldalso be trained, advised, and supplied by U.S. ArmySpecial Forces, including a recently organized elitebattalion of U.S. Rangers trained in jungle warfarethat set up camp in La Esperanza, a small settlementclose to the location of Guevara’s guerrillas.[195]

• Guevara had expected assistance and cooperationfrom the local dissidents that he did not receive, nordid he receive support from Bolivia’s CommunistParty under the leadership of Mario Monje, whichwas oriented toward Moscow rather than Havana.In Guevara’s own diary captured after his death,he wrote about the Communist Party of Bolivia,which he characterized as “distrustful, disloyal andstupid”.[196]

• He had expected to remain in radio contact withHavana. The two shortwave radio transmitters pro-vided to him by Cuba were faulty; thus, the guerril-las were unable to communicate and be resupplied,leaving them isolated and stranded.

In addition, Guevara’s known preference for confronta-tion rather than compromise, which had previously sur-faced during his guerrilla warfare campaign in Cuba, con-tributed to his inability to develop successful working re-lationships with local rebel leaders in Bolivia, just as ithad in the Congo.[197] This tendency had existed in Cuba,but had been kept in check by the timely interventions andguidance of Fidel Castro.[198]

The end result was that Guevara was unable to attract in-habitants of the local area to join his militia during theeleven months he attempted recruitment. Many of the in-habitants willingly informed the Bolivian authorities and

military about the guerrillas and their movements in thearea. Near the end of the Bolivian venture, Guevarawrote in his diary that “the peasants do not give us anyhelp, and they are turning into informers.”[199]

7.1 Capture and execution

“There was no person more feared by the company(CIA) than Che Guevara because he had the capacity andcharisma necessary to direct the struggle against the po-litical repression of the traditional hierarchies in power inthe countries of Latin America.”— Philip Agee, CIA agent, later defected to Cuba[200]

Monument to Guevara in La Higuera.

Félix Rodríguez, a Cuban exile turned CIA Special Ac-tivities Division operative, advised Bolivian troops dur-ing the hunt for Guevara in Bolivia.[201] In addition the2007 documentaryMyEnemy’s Enemy, directed by KevinMacdonald, alleges that Nazi war criminal Klaus Barbie,a.k.a. “The Butcher of Lyon”, advised and possibly helpedthe CIA orchestrate Guevara’s eventual capture.[202]

On October 7, 1967, an informant apprised the BolivianSpecial Forces of the location of Guevara’s guerrilla en-campment in the Yuro ravine.[203] On the morning of Oc-tober 8, they encircled the area with two battalions num-bering 1,800 soldiers and advanced into the ravine trig-gering a battle where Guevara was wounded and takenprisoner while leading a detachment with Simeón CubaSarabia. Che biographer Jon Lee Anderson reports Bo-livian Sergeant Bernardino Huanca’s account: that as the

18 7 BOLIVIA

Location of Vallegrande in Bolivia.

Bolivian Rangers approached, a twice-wounded Guevara,his gun rendered useless, threw up his arms in surrenderand shouted to the soldiers: “Do not shoot! I am CheGuevara and I amworthmore to you alive than dead.”[204]

Guevara was tied up and taken to a dilapidated mudschoolhouse in the nearby village of La Higuera on theevening of October 8. For the next half day, Guevara re-fused to be interrogated by Bolivian officers and wouldonly speak quietly to Bolivian soldiers. One of those Bo-livian soldiers, a helicopter pilot named Jaime Nino deGuzman, describes Che as looking “dreadful”. Accord-ing to Guzman, Guevara was shot through the right calf,his hair was matted with dirt, his clothes were shredded,and his feet were covered in rough leather sheaths. De-spite his haggard appearance, he recounts that “Che heldhis head high, looked everyone straight in the eyes andasked only for something to smoke.” De Guzman statesthat he “took pity” and gave him a small bag of tobaccofor his pipe, and that Guevara then smiled and thankedhim.[205] Later on the night of October 8, Guevara—despite having his hands tied—kicked a Bolivian armyofficer, named Captain Espinosa, against a wall after theofficer entered the schoolhouse and tried to snatch Gue-vara’s pipe from his mouth as a souvenir while he wasstill smoking it.[206] In another instance of defiance, Gue-vara spat in the face of Bolivian Rear Admiral Ugarteche,who attempted to questionGuevara a few hours before hisexecution.[206]

The following morning on October 9, Guevara asked tosee the school teacher of the village, a 22-year-old womannamed Julia Cortez. Cortez would later state that shefound Guevara to be an “agreeable looking man with asoft and ironic glance” and that during their conversationshe found herself “unable to look him in the eye” becausehis “gaze was unbearable, piercing, and so tranquil”.[206]

During their short conversation, Guevara pointed out toCortez the poor condition of the schoolhouse, stating thatit was “anti-pedagogical" to expect campesino studentsto be educated there, while “government officials driveMercedes cars”, and declaring “that’s what we are fight-ing against.”[206]

Later that morning on October 9, Bolivian PresidentRené Barrientos ordered that Guevara be killed. The or-der was relayed to the unit holding Guevara by Félix Ro-dríguez despite the United States government’s desire thatGuevara be taken to Panama for further interrogation.[207]The executioner who volunteered to kill Guevara wasMario Terán, an alcoholic 31-year-old sergeant in the Bo-livian army who had personally requested to shoot Gue-vara because three of his friends from B Company, allwith the same first name of “Mario”, had been killed inan earlier firefight with Guevara’s band of guerrillas.[9] Tomake the bullet wounds appear consistent with the storythat the Bolivian government planned to release to thepublic, Félix Rodríguez ordered Terán not to shoot Gue-vara in the head, but to aim carefully to make it appearthat Guevara had been killed in action during a clash withthe Bolivian army.[208] Gary Prado, the Bolivian captainin command of the army company that captured Gue-vara, said that the reasons Barrientos ordered the imme-diate execution of Guevara were so there would be nopossibility for Guevara to escape from prison, and also sothere would be no drama in regard to a public trial whereadverse publicity might happen.[209]

About 30 minutes before Guevara was executed, FélixRodríguez attempted to question him about the where-abouts of other guerrilla fighters who were currently atlarge, but Guevara continued to remain silent. Rodríguez,assisted by a few Bolivian soldiers, helped Guevara tohis feet and took him outside the hut to parade him be-fore other Bolivian soldiers where he posed with Guevarafor a photo opportunity where one soldier took a photo-graph of Rodríguez and other soldiers standing alongsideGuevara. After taking him back inside, Rodríguez thenprivately told Guevara that he was going to be executed.Guevara then responded by asking Rodríguez if he wasan American originally raised in Mexico or Puerto Rico,having noted that Rodríguez did not speak Bolivian Span-ish. Rodríguez truthfully replied that he was originallyfrom Cuba but that he had emigrated to the United Statesand was currently a member of the CIA. Guevara’s onlyreply was a loud “ha!" and he refused to speak any moreto Rodríguez, who left the hut.A little later, Guevara was asked by one of the Boliviansoldiers guarding him if he was thinking about his ownimmortality. “No,” he replied, “I'm thinking about theimmortality of the revolution.”[210] A few minutes later,Sergeant Terán entered the hut and immediately orderedthe other soldiers out. Alone with Terán, Che Guevarathen stood up and spoke to his executioner: “I knowyou've come to kill me. Shoot. Do it.” Terán respondedby pointing his M1 Garand semi-automatic rifle at Gue-

19

vara, but hesitated upon which Guevara angrily spat atTerán which were his last words: “Shoot me, you cow-ard! You are only going to kill a man!"[211] Terán thenopened fire, hitting Guevara in the arms and legs. Fora few seconds, Guevara writhed on the ground, appar-ently biting one of his wrists to avoid crying out. Teránthen fired several times again, wounding him fatally in thechest. Che Guevara was pronounced dead at 1:10 pm lo-cal time according to Rodríguez.[211] In all, Guevara wasshot nine times by Terán. This included five times in hislegs, once in the right shoulder and arm, once in the chest,and finally in the throat.[206]

Months earlier, during his last public declaration to theTricontinental Conference,[167] Guevara wrote his ownepitaph, stating “Wherever death may surprise us, let itbe welcome, provided that this our battle cry may havereached some receptive ear and another hand may be ex-tended to wield our weapons.” [212]

8 Post-execution and memorial

The day after his execution on October 10, 1967, Guevara’scorpse was displayed to the world press in the laundry house ofthe Vallegrande hospital. (photo by Freddy Alborta)Face Side angle Shoes

After his execution, Guevara’s body was lashed tothe landing skids of a helicopter and flown to nearbyVallegrande, where photographs were taken of him ly-ing on a concrete slab in the laundry room of the Nues-tra Señora de Malta.[213] Several witnesses were called toconfirm his identity, key amongst them the British jour-nalist Richard Gott, the only witness to have met Gue-vara when he was alive. Put on display, as hundreds oflocal residents filed past the body, Guevara’s corpse wasconsidered by many to represent a “Christ-like” visage,with some even surreptitiously clipping locks of his hairas divine relics.[214] Such comparisons were further ex-tended when English art critic John Berger, two weekslater upon seeing the post-mortem photographs, observedthat they resembled two famous paintings: Rembrandt'sThe Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp and AndreaMantegna's Lamentation over the Dead Christ.[215] Therewere also four correspondents present when Guevara’s

body arrived in Vallegrande, including Björn Kumm ofthe Swedish Aftonbladet, who described the scene in aNovember 11, 1967 exclusive for The New Republic.[216]

A declassified memorandum dated October 11, 1967to United States President Lyndon B. Johnson from hisNational Security Advisor Walt Whitman Rostow, calledthe decision to kill Guevara “stupid” but “understand-able from a Bolivian standpoint”.[217] After the executionRodríguez took several of Guevara’s personal items—including a Rolex GMT Master wristwatch[218] that hecontinued to wear many years later—often showing themto reporters during the ensuing years. After a militarydoctor amputated his hands, Bolivian army officers trans-ferred Guevara’s body to an undisclosed location and re-fused to reveal whether his remains had been buried orcremated. The hands were preserved in formaldehyde tobe sent to Buenos Aires for fingerprint identification. (Hisfingerprints were on file with the Argentine police.) Theywere later sent to Cuba.

Plaza de la Revolución, in Havana, Cuba. Aside the Ministry ofthe Interior building where Guevara once worked, is a 5-storysteel outline of his face. Under the image is Guevara’s motto,the Spanish phrase: “Hasta la Victoria Siempre” (English: UntilVictory, always).

On October 15 Fidel Castro publicly acknowledged thatGuevara was dead and proclaimed three days of publicmourning throughout Cuba.[219] On October 18 Castroaddressed a crowd of one million mourners in Havana’sPlaza de la Revolución and spoke about Guevara’s char-acter as a revolutionary.[220] Fidel Castro closed his im-passioned eulogy thus:

“If we wish to express what we want themen of future generations to be, we must say:Let them be like Che! If we wish to say howwe want our children to be educated, we mustsay without hesitation: We want them to be ed-ucated in Che’s spirit! If we want the model ofa man, who does not belong to our times butto the future, I say from the depths of my heartthat such a model, without a single stain on hisconduct, without a single stain on his action, is

20 8 POST-EXECUTION AND MEMORIAL

Che!"[221]

Also removed when Guevara was captured were his30,000-word, hand-written diary, a collection of his per-sonal poetry, and a short story he had authored about ayoung Communist guerrilla who learns to overcome hisfears.[222] His diary documented events of the guerrillacampaign in Bolivia,[223] with the first entry on Novem-ber 7, 1966, shortly after his arrival at the farm in Ñanc-ahuazú, and the last dated October 7, 1967, the day be-fore his capture. The diary tells how the guerrillas wereforced to begin operations prematurely because of dis-covery by the Bolivian Army, explains Guevara’s deci-sion to divide the column into two units that were sub-sequently unable to re-establish contact, and describestheir overall unsuccessful venture. It also records the riftbetween Guevara and the Communist Party of Boliviathat resulted in Guevara having significantly fewer sol-diers than originally expected, and shows that Guevarahad a great deal of difficulty recruiting from the localpopulace, partly because the guerrilla group had learnedQuechua, unaware that the local language was actuallya Tupí–Guaraní language.[224] As the campaign drew toan unexpected close, Guevara became increasingly ill.He suffered from ever-worsening bouts of asthma, andmost of his last offensives were carried out in an attemptto obtain medicine.[225] The Bolivian diary was quicklyand crudely translated by Ramparts magazine and circu-lated around the world.[226] There are at least four ad-ditional diaries in existence—those of Israel Reyes Za-yas (Alias “Braulio”), Harry Villegas Tamayo (“Pombo”),Eliseo Reyes Rodriguez (“Rolando”)[191] andDariel Alar-cón Ramírez (“Benigno”)[227]—each of which reveals ad-ditional aspects of the events.French intellectual Régis Debray, who was captured inApril 1967 while with Guevara in Bolivia, gave an inter-view from prison in August 1968, in which he enlargedon the circumstances of Guevara’s capture. Debray, whohad lived with Guevara’s band of guerrillas for a shorttime, said that in his view they were “victims of the for-est” and thus “eaten by the jungle”.[228] Debray describeda destitute situation where Guevara’s men suffered mal-nutrition, lack of water, absence of shoes, and only pos-sessed six blankets for 22 men. Debray recounts thatGuevara and the others had been suffering an “illness”which caused their hands and feet to swell into “moundsof flesh” to the point where you could not discern the fin-gers on their hands. Debray described Guevara as “opti-mistic about the future of Latin America” despite the fu-tile situation, and remarked that Guevara was “resignedto die in the knowledge that his death would be a sort ofrenaissance”, noting that Guevara perceived death “as apromise of rebirth” and “ritual of renewal”.[228]

To a certain extent, this belief by Guevara of a metaphor-ical resurrection came true. While pictures of the deadGuevara were being circulated and the circumstances ofhis death were being debated, Che’s legend began to

spread. Demonstrations in protest against his “assassi-nation” occurred throughout the world, and articles, trib-utes, and poems were written about his life and death.[229]Rallies in support of Guevara were held from “Mexico toSantiago, Algiers to Angola, and Cairo to Calcutta.”[230]The population of Budapest and Prague lit candles tohonor Guevara’s passing; and the picture of a smiling Cheappeared in London and Paris.[231] When a few monthslater riots broke out in Berlin, France, and Chicago,and the unrest spread to the American college campuses,young men and women wore Che Guevara T-shirts andcarried his pictures during their protest marches. In theview of military historian Erik Durschmied: “In thoseheady months of 1968, Che Guevara was not dead. Hewas very much alive.” [232]

8.1 Retrieval of remains

Che Guevara’s Monument andMausoleum in Santa Clara, Cuba.

Main article: Che Guevara Mausoleum

In late 1995, the retired Bolivian General Mario Var-gas revealed to Jon Lee Anderson, author of Che Gue-vara: A Revolutionary Life, that Guevara’s corpse lay neara Vallegrande airstrip. The result was a multi-nationalsearch for the remains, which would last more than ayear. In July 1997 a team of Cuban geologists and Ar-gentine forensic anthropologists discovered the remnantsof seven bodies in two mass graves, including one manwith amputated hands (like Guevara). Bolivian govern-ment officials with the Ministry of Interior later identifiedthe body as Guevara when the excavated teeth “perfectlymatched” a plaster mold of Che’s teeth made in Cubaprior to his Congolese expedition. The “clincher” thenarrived when Argentine forensic anthropologist Alejan-dro Inchaurregui inspected the inside hidden pocket of ablue jacket dug up next to the handless cadaver and founda small bag of pipe tobacco. Nino de Guzman, the Boli-vian helicopter pilot who had given Che a small bag of to-bacco, later remarked that he “had serious doubts” at firstand “thought the Cubans would just find any old bonesand call it Che"; but “after hearing about the tobacco

21

pouch, I have no doubts.”[205] OnOctober 17, 1997, Gue-vara’s remains, with those of six of his fellow combatants,were laid to rest with military honors in a specially builtmausoleum in the Cuban city of Santa Clara, where hehad commanded over the decisive military victory of theCuban Revolution.[233]

In July 2008, the Bolivian government of Evo Moralesunveiled Guevara’s formerly-sealed diaries composed intwo frayed notebooks, along with a logbook and sev-eral black-and-white photographs. At this event Bo-livia’s vice-minister of culture, Pablo Groux, expressedthat there were plans to publish photographs of everyhandwritten page later in the year.[234] Meanwhile, inAugust 2009 anthropologists working for Bolivia’s Jus-tice Ministry discovered and unearthed the bodies of fiveof Guevara’s fellow guerrillas near the Bolivian town ofTeoponte.[235]

9 Legacy

Main articles: Legacy of Che Guevara and Che Guevarain popular culture

The discovery of Che’s remains metonymi-cally activated a series of interlinkedassociations—rebel, martyr, rogue figurefrom a picaresque adventure, savior, renegade,extremist—in which there was no fixed divideamong them. The current court of opinionplaces Che on a continuum that teeters be-tween viewing him as a misguided rebel, acoruscatingly brilliant guerrilla philosopher, apoet-warrior jousting at windmills, a brazenwarrior who threw down the gauntlet to thebourgeoisie, the object of fervent paeans to hissainthood, or a mass murderer clothed in theguise of an avenging angel whose every actionis imbricated in violence—the archetypalFanatical Terrorist.

— Dr. Peter McLaren, author of CheGuevara, Paulo Freire, and the Pedagogy ofRevolution[236]

Guevara’s life and legacy remain contentious. The per-ceived contradictions of his ethos at various points in hislife have created a complex character of duality, one whowas “able to wield the pen and submachine gun with equalskill,” while prophesying that “the most important rev-olutionary ambition was to see man liberated from hisalienation.”[237][238] As undogmatic as he was commit-ted, his vision of liberation was at once romantic, poetic,compassionate, and ruthless.[239] Guevara’s paradoxicalstanding is further complicated by his array of seeminglydiametrically opposed qualities. A secular humanist and

A stylized graphic of Guevara’s face on a flag above the words“El Che Vive!" (Che Lives!).

The burning of a painting containing Che’s face, following the1973 coup that installed the Pinochet regime in Chile.

sympathetic practitioner of medicine who did not hesitateto shoot his enemies, a celebrated internationalist leaderwho advocated violence to enforce a utopian philosophyof the collective good, an idealistic intellectual who lovedliterature but refused to allow dissent, an anti-imperialistMarxist insurgent who was radically willing to forge apoverty-less newworld on the apocalyptic ashes of the oldone, and finally, an outspoken anti-capitalist whose im-age has been expropriated and commoditized; Che’s his-tory continues to be rewritten and re-imagined.[240][241]Sociologist Michael Löwy contends that the many facetsof Guevara’s life (i.e. doctor and economist, revolution-ary and banker, military theoretician and ambassador,deep thinker and political agitator) illuminated the rise ofthe “Chemyth”, allowing him to be invariably crystallizedin his many metanarrative roles as a “Red Robin Hood,

22 9 LEGACY

Author Michael Casey notes how Che’s image has become a logoas recognizable as the Nike swoosh or golden arches.[168]

Don Quixote of communism, new Garibaldi, MarxistSaint Just, Cid Campeador of the Wretched of the Earth,Sir Galahad of the beggars ... and Bolshevik devil whohaunts the dreams of the rich, (while) kindling braziersof subversion all over the world.”[237]

Various notable individuals have lauded Guevara as ahero;[242] for example, Nelson Mandela referred to himas “an inspiration for every human being who lovesfreedom”,[200] while Jean-Paul Sartre described him as“not only an intellectual but also the most complete hu-man being of our age”.[243] Others who have expressedtheir admiration include authors GrahamGreene, who re-marked that Guevara “represented the idea of gallantry,chivalry, and adventure”,[244] and Susan Sontag, who sup-posed that "[Che’s] goal was nothing less than the causeof humanity itself.”[245] In the black community, philoso-pher Frantz Fanon professed Guevara to be “the worldsymbol of the possibilities of one man”,[246] while BlackPower leader Stokely Carmichael eulogized that “CheGuevara is not dead, his ideas are with us.”[247] Praisehas been reflected throughout the political spectrum, withthe libertarian theorist Murray Rothbard extolling Gue-vara as a “heroic figure”, lamenting after his death that“more than any man of our epoch or even of our cen-tury, [Che] was the living embodiment of the principleof revolution”,[248] while journalist Christopher Hitchenscommented that "[Che’s] death meant a lot to me andcountless like me at the time, he was a role model, al-beit an impossible one for us bourgeois romantics inso-far as he went and did what revolutionaries were meantto do—fought and died for his beliefs.” [249] British his-torian Hugh Thomas opines that Guevara was a “brave,sincere and determined man who was also obstinate, nar-row, and dogmatic.”[250] At the end of his life, accordingto Thomas, “he seems to have become convinced of thevirtues of violence for its own sake”, while “his influenceover Castro for good or evil” grew after his death, as Fideltook up many of his views. In Thomas’ assessment, “Asin the case of Martí, or Lawrence of Arabia, failure has

brightened, not dimmed the legend.”[250]

Conversely, Jacobo Machover, an exiled opposition au-thor, dismisses the hero worship of Guevara and portrayshim as a callous executioner.[251] Exiled former Cubanprisoners have expressed similar opinions, among themArmando Valladares, who has declared Guevara “a manfull of hatred” who executed dozens without trial,[252] andCarlos Alberto Montaner, who has claimed that Guevarapossessed “a Robespierre mentality”, wherein crueltyagainst the revolution’s enemies was a virtue.[253] AlvaroVargas Llosa of The Independent Institute has hypoth-esized that Guevara’s contemporary followers “deludethemselves by clinging to a myth”, describing Guevaraas a “Marxist Puritan" who employed his rigid power tosuppress dissent, while also operating as a “cold-bloodedkilling machine”.[147] Llosa accused Guevara’s “fanati-cal disposition” as being the linchpin of the “Sovietiza-tion” of the Cuban revolution, speculating that he pos-sessed a “total subordination of reality to blind ideologi-cal orthodoxy”.[147] Moreover, detractors have attemptedto demonstrate that Che-inspired revolutions in much ofLatin America had the practical result of reinforcing bru-tal militarism and internecine conflict for many years.[147]Hoover Institution research fellow William Ratliff re-gards Guevara as a creation of his historical environ-ment, referring to him as a “fearless” and “head-strongMessiah-like figure”, who was the product of a martyr-enamored Latin culture which “inclined people to seekout and follow paternalistic miracle workers.”[254] Ratliffhas speculated that the economic conditions in the re-gion suited Guevara’s commitment to “bring justice to thedowntrodden by crushing centuries-old tyrannies"; de-scribing Latin America as being plagued by what MoisésNaím referred to as the “legendary malignancies” of in-equality, poverty, dysfunctional politics and malfunction-ing institutions.[254]

Meanwhile, Guevara remains a national hero in Cuba,where his image adorns the 3 peso banknote and schoolchildren begin each morning by pledging “We will belike Che.”[255] In his homeland of Argentina, where highschools bear his name,[256] numerous Che museums dotthe country, which in 2008 unveiled a 12-foot (3.7 m)bronze statue of him in the city of his birth, Rosario.[257]Additionally, Guevara has been sanctified by some Boli-vian campesinos[258] as "Saint Ernesto", who pray to himfor assistance.[259] In stark contrast, Guevara remains ahated figure amongst many in the Cuban exile and Cuban-American community of the United States, who view himwith animosity as “the butcher of La Cabaña".[260] De-spite this polarized status, a high-contrast monochromegraphic of Che’s face, created in 1968 by Irish artistJim Fitzpatrick, became a universally merchandized andobjectified image,[261][262] found on an endless arrayof items, including T-shirts, hats, posters, tattoos, andbikinis,[263] ironically contributing to the consumer cul-ture Guevara despised. Yet, he still remains a transcen-dent figure both in specifically political contexts[264] and

23

as a wide-ranging popular icon of youthful rebellion.[265]

10 Timeline

Che Guevara timeline

11 Archival media

11.1 Video footage

• Guevara addressing the United Nations General As-sembly on December 11, 1964, (6:21), public do-main footage uploaded by the UN, video clip

• Guevara interviewed in 1964 on a visit to Dublin,Ireland, (2:53), English translation, from RTÉ Li-braries and Archives, video clip

• Guevara reciting a poem, (0:58), English subtitles,from El Che: Investigating a Legend – Kultur Video2001, video clip

• Guevara showing support for Fidel Castro, (0:22),English subtitles, from El Che: Investigating a Leg-end – Kultur Video 2001, video clip

• Guevara speaking about labor, (0:28), English sub-titles, from El Che: Investigating a Legend – KulturVideo 2001, video clip

• Guevara speaking about the Bay of Pigs, (0:17), En-glish subtitles, from El Che: Investigating a Legend– Kultur Video 2001, video clip

• Guevara speaking against imperialism, (1:20), En-glish subtitles, from El Che: Investigating a Legend– Kultur Video 2001, video clip

• Guevara interviewed in Paris and speaking French in1964, (4:47), English subtitles, interviewed by JeanDumur, video clip

11.2 Audio recording

• Guevara interviewed on ABC’s Issues and An-swers, (23:53), English translation, narrated by LisaHoward, March 24, 1964, audio clip

12 List of English works

Main article: Bibliography of Che Guevara

• ANew Society: Reflections for Today’sWorld, OceanPress, 1996, ISBN 1-875284-06-0

• Back on the Road: A Journey Through Latin Amer-ica, Grove Press, 2002, ISBN 0-8021-3942-6

• Che Guevara, Cuba, and the Road to Socialism,Pathfinder Press, 1991, ISBN 0-87348-643-9

• Che Guevara on Global Justice, Ocean Press (AU),2002, ISBN 1-876175-45-1

• Che Guevara: Radical Writings on Guerrilla War-fare, Politics and Revolution, Filiquarian Publishing,2006, ISBN 1-59986-999-3

• Che Guevara Reader: Writings on Politics & Revolu-tion, Ocean Press, 2003, ISBN 1-876175-69-9

• Che Guevara Speaks: Selected Speeches and Writ-ings, Pathfinder Press (NY), 1980, ISBN 0-87348-602-1

• Che Guevara Talks to Young People, Pathfinder,2000, ISBN 0-87348-911-X

• Che: The Diaries of Ernesto Che Guevara, OceanPress (AU), 2008, ISBN 1-920888-93-4

• Colonialism is Doomed, Ministry of ExternalRelations: Republic of Cuba, 1964, ASINB0010AAN1K

• Congo Diary: The Story of Che Guevara’s “Lost”Year in Africa Ocean Press, 2011, ISBN 978-0-9804292-9-9

• Critical Notes on Political Economy: A RevolutionaryHumanist Approach to Marxist Economics, OceanPress, 2008, ISBN 1-876175-55-9

• Diary of a Combatant: The Diary of the Revolu-tion that Made Che Guevara a Legend, Ocean Press,2013, ISBN 978-0-9870779-4-3

• Episodes of the Cuban RevolutionaryWar, 1956–58,Pathfinder Press (NY), 1996, ISBN 0-87348-824-5

• GuerrillaWarfare: Authorized Edition, Ocean Press,2006, ISBN 1-920888-28-4

• Latin America: Awakening of a Continent, OceanPress, 2005, ISBN 1-876175-73-7

• Latin America Diaries: The Sequel to TheMotorcycleDiaries, Ocean Press, 2011, ISBN 978-0-9804292-7-5

• Marx&Engels: An Introduction, Ocean Press, 2007,ISBN 1-920888-92-6

• Our America And Theirs: Kennedy And The AllianceFor Progress, Ocean Press, 2006, ISBN 1-876175-81-8

• Reminiscences of the Cuban Revolutionary War:Authorized Edition, Ocean Press, 2005, ISBN 1-920888-33-0

24 14 REFERENCES

• Self Portrait Che Guevara, Ocean Press (AU), 2004,ISBN 1-876175-82-6

• Socialism and Man in Cuba, Pathfinder Press (NY),1989, ISBN 0-87348-577-7

• The African Dream: The Diaries of the Revolution-ary War in the Congo, Grove Press, 2001, ISBN 0-8021-3834-9

• The Argentine, Ocean Press (AU), 2008, ISBN 1-920888-93-4

• The Awakening of Latin America: Writings, Lettersand Speeches on Latin America, 1950–67, OceanPress, 2012, ISBN 978-0-9804292-8-2

• The Bolivian Diary of Ernesto Che Guevara,Pathfinder Press, 1994, ISBN 0-87348-766-4

• The Great Debate on Political Economy, OceanPress, 2006, ISBN 1-876175-54-0

• The Motorcycle Diaries: A Journey Around SouthAmerica, London: Verso, 1996, ISBN 1-85702-399-4

• The Secret Papers of a Revolutionary: The Diary ofChe Guevara, American Reprint Co, 1975, ASINB0007GW08W

• To Speak the Truth: Why Washington’s “Cold War”Against Cuba Doesn't End, Pathfinder, 1993, ISBN0-87348-633-1

13 See also

14 References[1] The date of birth recorded on his birth certificate was

June 14, 1928, although one tertiary source, (Julia Con-stenla, quoted by Jon Lee Anderson), asserts that he wasactually born on May 14 of that year. Constenla allegesthat she was told by Che’s mother, Celia de la Serna, thatshe was already pregnant when she and Ernesto GuevaraLynch were married and that the date on the birth certifi-cate of their son was forged to make it appear that he wasborn a month later than the actual date to avoid scandal.(Anderson 1997, pp. 3, 769.)

[2] Partido Unido de la Revolución Socialista de Cuba, a.k.a.PURSC.

[3] Unknown, Autor. “Guevara, Che”. Encyclopædia Britan-nica Online. Retrieved 30 September 2001.

[4] The various sound clips on this site of international Span-ish speakers: Forvo.com pronounce the G in the name“Guevara” as [ɡ] or [ɣ] depending on how carefully theyenunciate. When the names are spoken together, it is [ɣ];when enunciated separately, [ɡ].

[5] Casey 2009, p. 128.

[6] On Revolutionary Medicine Speech by Che Guevara tothe Cuban Militia on August 19, 1960. “Because of thecircumstances in which I traveled, first as a student andlater as a doctor, I came into close contact with poverty,hunger and disease; with the inability to treat a child be-cause of lack of money; with the stupefaction provokedby the continual hunger and punishment, to the point thata father can accept the loss of a son as an unimportant ac-cident, as occurs often in the downtrodden classes of ourAmerican homeland. And I began to realize at that timethat there were things that were almost as important to meas becoming a famous or making a significant contribu-tion to medical science: I wanted to help those people.”

[7] Beaubien, NPR Audio Report, 2009, 00:09–00:13.

[8] "Castro’s Brain", 1960.

[9] Taibo 1999, p. 267.

[10] Kellner 1989, pp. 69–70.

[11] Anderson 1997, pp. 526–530.

[12] “On Development” Speech delivered by Che Guevara atthe plenary session of the United Nations Conference onTrade and Development in Geneva, Switzerland onMarch25, 1964. “The inflow of capital from the developedcountries is the prerequisite for the establishment of eco-nomic dependence. This inflow takes various forms: loansgranted on onerous terms; investments that place a givencountry in the power of the investors; almost total tech-nological subordination of the dependent country to thedeveloped country; control of a country’s foreign trade bythe big international monopolies; and in extreme cases,the use of force as an economic weapon in support of theother forms of exploitation.”

[13] At the Afro-Asian Conference in Algeria A speech by CheGuevara to the Second Economic Seminar of Afro-AsianSolidarity in Algiers, Algeria on February 24, 1965."Thestruggle against imperialism, for liberation from colonialor neocolonial shackles, which is being carried out bymeans of political weapons, arms, or a combination of thetwo, is not separate from the struggle against backward-ness and poverty. Both are stages on the same road leadingtoward the creation of a new society of justice and plenty.... Ever since monopoly capital took over the world, it haskept the greater part of humanity in poverty, dividing allthe profits among the group of the most powerful coun-tries. The standard of living in those countries is basedon the extreme poverty of our countries. To raise the liv-ing standards of the underdeveloped nations, therefore, wemust fight against imperialism. ... The practice of prole-tarian internationalism is not only a duty for the peoplesstruggling for a better future, it is also an inescapable ne-cessity.”

[14] Ryan 1998, p. 4.

[15] Dorfman 1999.

[16] Maryland Institute of Art, referenced at BBC News May26, 2001.

25

[17] Che’s last name “Guevara” derives from the Castilianizedform of the Basque "Gebara", a habitational name fromthe province of Álava. Through his grandmother, AnaLynch, he was a descendant of Patrick Lynch, who em-igrated from County Galway, Ireland in the 1740s.

[18] Guevara Lynch 2011, p. i.

[19] In Spanish a person may carry the surname of his/her fa-ther as well as that of his/her mother, albeit in that order.Some people carry both, others only that of their father.In Guevara’s case many people of Irish descent will add“Lynch” to emphasize his Irish relations. Others will add“de la Serna” to give respect to Guevara’s mother.

[20] Lavretsky 1976.

[21] Kellner 1989, p. 23.

[22] Argentina: Che’s Red Mother Time Magazine, July 14,1961.

[23] Anderson 1997, pp. 22–23.

[24] Sandison 1996, p. 8.

[25] Kellner 1989, p. 24.

[26] Argentine Rugby Inspired by Che Guevara by BrendanGallagher, The Daily Telegraph, October 5, 2007

[27] Cain, Nick & Growden, Greg. “Chapter 21: Ten PeculiarFacts about Rugby” in Rugby Union for Dummies (2ndEdition), John Wiley and Sons; ISBN 978-0-470-03537-5, p. 293.

[28] Anderson 1997, p. 28.

[29] Hart 2004, p. 98.

[30] Haney 2005, p. 164.

[31] (Anderson 1997, pp. 37–38).

[32] Sandison 1996, p. 10.

[33] Kellner 1989, p. 26.

[34] Ratner 1997, p. 25.

[35] Anderson 1997, p. 64.

[36] Anderson 1997, p. 59–64.

[37] Anderson 1997, p. 89.

[38] Anderson 1997, pp. 75–76.

[39] Kellner 1989, p. 27.

[40] NYT bestseller list: #38 Paperback Nonfiction on 2005-02-20, #9 Nonfiction on 2004-10-07 and on more occa-sions.

[41] CheGuevara spent time inMiami byAlfonso Chardy, TheMiami Herald July 8, 2008

[42] Anderson 1997, p. 98.

[43] A copy of Guevara’s University transcripts showing con-ferral of his medical diploma can be found on p. 75 ofBecoming Che: Guevara’s Second and Final Trip throughLatin America, by Carlos 'Calica' Ferrer (Translated fromthe Spanish by Sarah L. Smith), Marea Editorial, 2006,ISBN 987-1307-07-1. Ferrer was a longtime childhoodfriend of Che, and when Guevara passed the last of his12 exams in 1953, he gave him a copy to prove to Ferrer,who had been telling Guevara that he would never finish,that he had finally completed his studies.

[44] A Very Modern Icon by George Galloway, New States-man, June 12, 2006

[45] Anderson 1997, p. 126.

[46] Taibo 1999, p. 31.

[47] Kellner 1989, p. 31.

[48] Guevara Lynch 2000, p. 26.

[49] Ignacio 2007, p. 172.

[50] Anderson, Jon (2010). Che Guevara: A RevolutionaryLife. New York, New York: Grove/Atlantic, Inc. p. 139.ISBN 978-0-802-19725-2. Retrieved 25 July 2015.

[51] “Anderson (2010)", p 126

[52] “Publican en Guatemala la primera antología de poemasescritos por el 'Che'" (in Spanish). Mexico: Terra. EFE.9 October 2007. Retrieved 25 July 2015.

[53] Anderson 1997, p. 144.

[54] July 8: 1954, Colonel Castillo Armas takes power inGuatemala by The History Channel

[55] Kellner 1989, p. 32.

[56] Taibo 1999, p. 39.

[57] Che Guevara 1960–67 by Frank E. Smitha.

[58] Sinclair, Andrew (1970). Che Guevara. The VikingPress. p. 12.

[59] Kellner 1989, p. 33.

[60] Rebel Wife, A Review of My Life With Che: The Makingof a Revolutionary by Hilda Gadea by Tom Gjelten, TheWashington Post, October 12, 2008.

[61] Taibo 1999, p. 55.

[62] Fidel and Che: A Revolutionary Friendship by SimonReid-Henry audio slideshow by The Guardian, January 9,2009

[63] Sandison 1996, p. 28.

[64] Kellner 1989, p. 37.

[65] Anderson 1997, p. 194.

[66] Snow, Anita. "'My Life With Che' by Hilda Gadea".Associated Press at WJXX-TV. August 16, 2008; re-trieved February 23, 2009.

[67] Anderson 1997, p. 213.

26 14 REFERENCES

[68] Anderson 1997, p. 211.

[69] Sandison 1996, p. 32.

[70] DePalma 2006, pp. 110–11.

[71] Latin lessons: What can we Learn from the World’smost Ambitious Literacy Campaign? by The Independent,November 7, 2010

[72] Kellner 1989, p. 45.

[73] Anderson 1997, pp. 269–270.

[74] Castañeda 1998, pp. 105, 119.

[75] Anderson 1997, pp. 237–238, 269–270, 277–278.

[76] Luther 2001, pp. 97–99.

[77] Anderson 1997, p. 237.

[78] Sandison 1996, p. 35.

[79] Cuba Remembers Che Guevara 40 Years after his Fall byRosa Tania Valdes, Reuters, October 8, 2007

[80] Ignacio 2007, p. 177.

[81] Ignacio 2007, p. 193.

[82] Poster Boy of The Revolution by Saul Landau, The Wash-ington Post, October 19, 1997, p. X01.

[83] Moore, Don. “Revolution! Clandestine Radio and theRise of Fidel Castro”. Patepluma Radio.

[84] Kellner 1989, p. 42.

[85] Bockman 1984.

[86] Kellner 1989, p. 40.

[87] Kellner 1989, p. 47.

[88] Castro 1972, pp. 439–442.

[89] Dorschner 1980, pp. 41–47, 81–87.

[90] Sandison 1996, p. 39.

[91] Kellner 1989, p. 48.

[92] Kellner 1989, p. 13.

[93] Kellner 1989, p. 51.

[94] Castañeda, pp. 145–146.

[95] Castañeda, p. 146.

[96] Anderson 1997, 397.

[97] Anderson 1997, pp. 400–401.

[98] Anderson 1997, p. 424.

[99] Castañeda, p. 159.

[100] (Castañeda 1998, pp. 264–265).

[101] Skidmore 2008, pp. 273.

[102] Gómez Treto 1991, p. 115. “The Penal Law of the Warof Independence (July 28, 1896) was reinforced by Rule1 of the Penal Regulations of the Rebel Army, approvedin the Sierra Maestra February 21, 1958, and published inthe army’s official bulletin (Ley penal de Cuba en armas,1959)" (Gómez Treto 1991, p. 123).

[103] Gómez Treto 1991, pp. 115–116.

[104] Anderson 1997, pp. 372, 425.

[105] Anderson 1997, p. 376.

[106] Kellner 1989, p. 52.

[107] Niess 2007, p. 60.

[108] Gómez Treto 1991, p. 116.

[109] Anderson 1997, p. 388.

[110] Rally For Castro: One Million Roar “Si” To Cuba Ex-ecutions – Video Clip by Universal-International News,narrated by Ed Herlihy, from January 22, 1959

[111] Power Kills R.J. Rummel

[112] Niess 2007, p. 61.

[113] Castañeda 1998, pp. 143–144.

[114] The Legacy of Che Guevara – a PBS online forum withauthor Jon Lee Anderson, November 20, 1997

[115] Different sources cite differing numbers of executions at-tributable to Guevara, with some of the discrepancy re-sulting from the question of which deaths to attribute di-rectly to Guevara and which to the regime as a whole.Anderson (1997) gives the number specifically at LaCabaña prison as 55 (p. 387.), while also stating that“several hundred people were officially tried and executedacross Cuba” as a whole (p. 387). (Castañeda 1998) notesthat historians differ on the total number killed, with dif-ferent studies placing it as anywhere from 200 to 700 na-tionwide (p. 143), although he notes that “after a certaindate most of the executions occurred outside of Che’s ju-risdiction” (p. 143). These numbers are supported bythe opposition-based Free Society Project / Cuba Archive,which gives the figure as 144 executions ordered by Gue-vara across Cuba in three years (1957–1959) and 105“victims” specifically at La Cabaña, which according tothem were all “carried out without due process of law”.Of further note, much of the discrepancy in the estimatesbetween 55 versus 105 executed at La Cabaña revolvesaround whether to include instances where Guevara haddenied an appeal and signed off on a death warrant, butwhere the sentence was carried out while he traveled over-seas from June 4 to September 8, or after he relinquishedhis command of the fortress on June 12, 1959.

[116] Anderson 1997, p. 375.

[117] Kellner 1989, p. 54.

[118] Kellner 1989, p. 57.

[119] Kellner 1989, p. 58.

[120] Taibo 1999, pp. 282–285.

27

[121] Anderson 1997, p. 423.

[122] Ramadhian Fadillah (13 June 2012). “Soekarnosoal cerutu Kuba, Che dan Castro” (in Indonesian).Merdeka.com. Retrieved 15 June 2013.

[123] Anderson 1997, p. 431.

[124] Taibo 1999, p. 300.

[125] Che Guevara’s Daughter Visits Bomb Memorial in Hi-roshima by The Japan Times, May 16, 2008

[126] Anderson 1997, p. 435.

[127] Casey 2009, p. 25.

[128] Casey 2009, pp. 25–50.

[129] Kellner 1989, p. 55.

[130] Kellner 1989, p. 61.

[131] Latin America’s New Look at Che by Daniel Schweimler,BBC News, October 9, 2007.

[132] Anderson 1997, p. 449

[133] Notes for the Study of the Ideology of the Cuban Revolu-tion by Che Guevara, published in Verde Olivo, October8, 1960

[134] Man and Socialism in Cuba by Che Guevara

[135] Crompton 2009, p. 71.

[136] Kellner 1989, p. 60.

[137] Dumur 1964 a 1964 video interview of Che Guevaraspeaking French (with English subtitles).

[138] Hansing 2002, pp 41–42

[139] “Socialism and Man in Cuba” A letter to Carlos Quijano,editor ofMarcha, a weekly newspaper published in Mon-tevideo, Uruguay; published as “From Algiers, for Mar-cha: The Cuban Revolution Today” by Che Guevara onMarch 12, 1965.

[140] Kellner 1989, p. 62.

[141] Kellner 1989, p. 59.

[142] PBS: Che Guevara, Popular but Ineffective.

[143] Kellner 1989, p. 75.

[144] “Latin America Report” (PDF) (JPRS–LAM–84–037).Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS). 1984-03-23: 24. Retrieved 2010-10-30.

[145] Kellner 1989, p. 63.

[146] Kellner 1989, p. 74.

[147] Vargas Llosa 2005.

[148] The Spirit of Che Guevara by I.F. Stone, New Statesman,October 20, 1967.

[149] Anderson 1997, p. 507.

[150] Anderson 1997, p. 509.

[151] Jones, Nate. “Document Friday: Che Guevara Thanks theUnited States for the Bay of Pigs Invasion”. NSAArchive.Retrieved May 4, 2012.

[152] “Economics Cannot be Separated from Politics” speechby Che Guevara to the ministerial meeting of the Inter-American Economic and Social Council (CIES), in Puntadel Este, Uruguay on August 8, 1961.

[153] Kellner 1989, p. 78.

[154] Anderson 1997, p. 492.

[155] Anderson 1997, p. 530.

[156] Anderson 1997, p. 545.

[157] Guevara 1997, p 304

[158] Kellner 1989, p. 73.

[159] “Colonialism is Doomed” speech to the 19th General As-sembly of the United Nations in New York City by Cubanrepresentative Che Guevara on December 11, 1964.

[160] Bazooka Fired at UN as Cuban Speaks by Homer Bigart,The New York Times, December 12, 1964, p. 1.

[161] Hart 2004, p. 271.

[162] Anderson 1997, p. 618.

[163] “Che Guevara: Father Of Revolution, Son Of Galway”.Fantompowa.net. Retrieved 2010-10-31.

[164] Gerry Adams Featured in New Che Guevara Documen-tary by Kenneth Haynes, Irish Central, September 8, 2009

[165] Guevara 1969, p. 350.

[166] Guevara 1969, pp. 352–59.

[167] Message to the Tricontinental A letter sent by Che Gue-vara from his jungle camp in Bolivia, to the TricontinentalSolidarity Organisation in Havana, Cuba, in the Spring of1967.

[168] Brand Che: Revolutionary as Marketer’s Dream byMichiko Kakutani, The New York Times, April 20, 2009

[169] Che Guevara’s Final Verdict on the Soviet Economy byJohn Riddell, Centre for Research on Globalization, June13, 2008.

[170] Ernesto 'Che' Guevara: A Rebel Against Soviet PoliticalEconomy by Helen Yaffe (author of Che Guevara: TheEconomics of Revolution), 2006

[171] Guevara 1965.

[172] Ben Bella 1997.

[173] Anderson 1997, p. 624.

[174] Anderson 1997, p. 629.

[175] Gálvez 1999, p. 62.

[176] Gott 2004 p. 219.

28 14 REFERENCES

[177] Kellner 1989, p. 86.

[178] DR Congo’s Rebel-Turned-Brain Surgeon by MarkDoyle, BBC World Affairs’, December 13, 2005.

[179] BBC News January 17, 2001.

[180] “The intercept operators knew that Dar-es-Salaam wasserving as a communications center for the fighters, re-ceiving messages from Castro in Cuba and relaying themon to the guerrillas deep in the bush.” (Bamford 2002, p.181)

[181] Ireland’s Own 2000.

[182] Kellner 1989, p. 87.

[183] From Cuba to Congo, Dream to Disaster for Che Guevaraby The Guardian, August 12, 2000

[184] Guevara 2000, p. 1.

[185] Castañeda 1998, p. 316.

[186] Che Guevara’s Central Bohemian Hideaway article andaudio by Ian Willoughby, Český rozhlas, June 27, 2010

[187] Guevara 2009, p. 167.

[188] Mittleman 1981, p. 38.

[189] Jacobson, Sid and Ernie Colón. Che: A Graphic Biogra-phy. Hill and Wang, 2009. 96–97.

[190] Jacobson, Sid and Ernie Colón. Che: A Graphic Biogra-phy. Hill and Wang, 2009. 98.

[191] Selvage 1985.

[192] Anderson 1997, p. 693.

[193] Members of Che Guevara’s Guerrilla Movement in Bo-livia by the Latin American Studies Organization

[194] Kellner 1989, p. 97.

[195] US Army 1967 and Ryan 1998, pp. 82–102, inter alia.“US military personnel in Bolivia never exceeded 53 ad-visers, including a sixteen-man Mobile Training Team(MTT) from the 8th Special Forces Group based at FortGulick, Panama Canal Zone" (Selvage 1985).

[196] "Bidding for Che", Time Magazine, Dec. 15, 1967.

[197] Guevara 1972.

[198] Castañeda 1998, pp. 107–112; 131–132.

[199] Wright 2000, p. 86.

[200] Guevara 2009, p. II.

[201] Shadow Warrior: The CIA Hero of 100 Unknown Battles,Felix Rodriguez and John Weisman, Simon & Schuster,October 1989.

[202] Barbie “Boasted of Hunting Down Che” by David Smith,The Observer, December 23, 2007.

[203] Green Beret Behind the Capture of Che Guevara byRichard Gott, The Age, September 8, 2010

[204] Anderson 1997, p. 733.

[205] "The Man Who Buried Che" by Juan O. Tamayo, MiamiHerald, September 19, 1997.

[206] Ray, Michèle (March 1968). “In Cold Blood: The Exe-cution of Che by the CIA”. Ramparts Magazine: 33.

[207] Grant 2007

[208] Grant 2007. René Barrientos has never revealed his mo-tives for ordering the summary execution of Guevararather than putting him on trial or expelling him from thecountry or turning him over to the United States authori-ties.

[209] Almudevar, Lola. "Bolivia marks capture, execution of'Che' Guevara 40 years ago", San Francisco Chronicle.October 9, 2007; retrieved November 7, 2009.

[210] Time magazine 1970.

[211] Anderson 1997, p. 739.

[212] Obituary: Che Guevara, Marxist Architect of Revolutionby Richard Bourne, The Guardian, October 11, 1967

[213] Almudevar 2007 and Gott 2005.

[214] Casey 2009, p. 179.

[215] Casey 2009, p. 183.

[216] The Death of Che Guevara by Bjorn Kumm, The NewRepublic, Originally published on November 11, 1967.

[217] Lacey 2007a.

[218] Watch blog image of Guevara’s GMT Master.

[219] Anderson 1997, p. 740.

[220] Anderson 1997, p. 741.

[221] Kellner 1989, p. 101.

[222] "Bidding for Che", Time Magazine, December 15, 1967.

[223] Guevara 1967b.

[224] Ryan 1998, p. 45.

[225] Ryan 1998, p. 104.

[226] Ryan 1998, p. 148.

[227] Ramírez 1997.

[228] Nadle, Marlene (August 24, 1968). “Régis Debray Speaksfrom Prison”. Ramparts Magazine: 42.

[229] Durschmied 2002, pp. 307–09.

[230] Durschmied 2002, p. 305.

[231] Durschmied 2002, pp. 305–06.

[232] Durschmied 2002, p. 306.

[233] Cuba salutes 'Che' Guevara: Revolutionary Icon FinallyLaid to Rest, CNN, October 17, 1997

29

[234] Bolivia unveils original Che Guevara diary by EduardoGarcia, Reuters, July 7, 2008.

[235] Slain Che Guevara Soldiers Found? video report byNational Geographic, August 21, 2009.

[236] McLaren 2000, p. 7.

[237] Löwy 1973, p. 7.

[238] Löwy 1973, p. 33.

[239] The 10 Best Revolutionaries by Ed Vulliamy, TheGuardian, August 28, 2015

[240] Löwy 1973, pp. 7, 9, 15, 25, 75, 106.

[241] The Spark That Does Not Die by Michael Löwy, Interna-tional Viewpoint, July 1997

[242] Che’s Second Coming? by David Rieff, November 20,2005, New York Times.

[243] Moynihan 2006.

[244] Sinclair 1968/2006, p. 80.

[245] Sinclair 1968/2006, p. 127.

[246] McLaren 2000, p. 3.

[247] Sinclair 1968/2006, p. 67.

[248] by Rothbard, Murray. “Ernesto Che Guevara R.I.P.”, Leftand Right: A Journal of Libertarian Thought, Volume 3,Number 3 (Spring-Autumn 1967).

[249] Just a Pretty Face? by Sean O'Hagan, The Observer, July11, 2004.

[250] Kellner 1989, p. 106.

[251] Behind Che Guevara’s mask, the cold executioner TimesOnline, September 16, 2007.

[252] "'Che' Spurs Debate, Del ToroWalkout”, TheWashingtonTimes, January 27, 2009.

[253] Short interview on Che Guevara with Carlos AlbertoMontaner for the Freedom Collection

[254] Che is the “Patron Saint” of Warfare by William Ratliff,The Independent Institute, October 9, 2007.

[255] People’s Weekly 2004.

[256] Argentina pays belated homage to “Che” Guevara by He-len Popper, Reuters, June 14, 2008.

[257] Statue for Che’s '80th birthday' by Daniel Schweimler,BBC News, June 15, 2008.

[258] On a tourist trail in Bolivia’s hills, Che’s fame lives on ByHector Tobar, Los Angeles Times, October 17, 2004.

[259] Schipani 2007.

[260] Casey 2009, pp. 235, 325.

[261] BBC News May 26, 2001.

[262] see also Che Guevara (photo).

[263] Lacey 2007b.

[264] BBC News 2007.

[265] O'Hagan 2004.

15 Further reading• Almudevar, Lola (October 9, 2007). "Bolivia markscapture, execution of 'Che' Guevara 40 years ago".San Francisco Chronicle.

• Anderson, Jon Lee (1997). Che Guevara: A Revo-lutionary Life. New York: Grove Press. ISBN 0-8021-1600-0.

• Bamford, James (2002). Body of Secrets: Anatomyof the Ultra-Secret National Security Agency (Reprintedition). New York: Anchor Books. ISBN 0-385-49908-6.

• BBC News (January 17, 2001). "Profile: LaurentKabila". Accessed April 10, 2008.

• BBC News (May 26, 2001). Che Guevara photog-rapher dies. Accessed January 4, 2006.

• BBC News (October 9, 2007). "Cuba pays tributeto Che Guevara". BBC News, International version.

• Beaubien, Jason (2009). Cuba Marks 50 Years Since'Triumphant Revolution'. NPR: All Things Consid-ered, Audio Report.

• Ben Bella, Ahmed (October 1997). "Che as I knewhim". Le Monde diplomatique. mondediplo.com.Accessed February 28, 2008.

• Bockman, USMC Major Larry James (April 1,1984). The Spirit of Moncada: Fidel Castro’s Riseto Power 1953–1959. United States: Marine CorpsCommand and Staff College.

• Casey, Michael (2009). Che’s Afterlife: The Legacyof an Image. Vintage. ISBN 0-307-27930-8.

• Castañeda, Jorge G (1998). Che Guevara: Com-pañero. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-679-75940-9.

• Castro, Fidel (editors Bonachea, Rolando E. andNelson P. Valdés; 1972). Revolutionary Struggle1947–1958. Cambridge, Massachusetts and Lon-don: MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-02065-3.

• Crompton, Samuel (2009). Che Guevara: The Mak-ing of a Revolutionary. Gareth Stevens. ISBN 1-4339-0053-X.

• DePalma, Anthony (2006). The Man Who InventedFidel: Castro, Cuba, and Herbert L. Matthews of theNew York Times. New York: Public Affairs. ISBN1-58648-332-3.

30 15 FURTHER READING

• Dorfman, Ariel (June 14, 1999). Time 100: CheGuevara. Time magazine.

• Dorschner, John and Roberto Fabricio (1980). TheWinds of December: The Cuban Revolution of 1958.New York: Coward, McCann & Geoghegen. ISBN0-698-10993-7.

• Dumur, Jean (interviewer) (1964). L'interview deChe Guevara (Video clip; 9:43; with English subti-tles).

• Durschmied, Erik (2002). The Blood of Revolution:From the Reign of Terror to the Rise of Khomeini.Arcade Publishing. ISBN 1-55970-607-4.

• Free Society Project Inc. / Cuba Archive (Septem-ber 30, 2009). "Documented Victims of Che Gue-vara in Cuba: 1957 to 1959 PDF (244 KB)". Sum-mit, New Jersey: Free Society Project.

• Gálvez, William (1999). Che in Africa: Che Gue-vara’s Congo Diary. Melbourne: Ocean Press,1999. ISBN 1-876175-08-7.

• Gómez Treto, Raúl (Spring 1991). "Thirty Years ofCuban Revolutionary Penal Law". Latin AmericanPerspectives 18(2), Cuban Views on the Revolution.114–125.

• Gott, Richard (2004). Cuba: A New History. YaleUniversity Press. ISBN 0-300-10411-1.

• Gott, Richard (August 11, 2005). "Bolivia on theDay of the Death of Che Guevara". LeMonde diplo-matique. Accessed February 26, 2006.

• Grant, Will (October 8, 2007). "CIA man recountsChe Guevara’s death". BBC News. Accessed Febru-ary 29, 2008.

• Guevara, Ernesto “Che” (1995). Motorcycle Diaries.London: Verso Books.

• Guevara, Ernesto “Che” (editor Waters, Mary Al-ice) (1996). Episodes of the Cuban RevolutionaryWar 1956–1958. New York: Pathfinder. ISBN 0-87348-824-5.

• Guevara, Ernesto “Che” (1965). “Che Guevara’sFarewell Letter”.

• Guevara, Ernesto “Che” (1967a). “English Transla-tion of Complete Text of his Message to the Tricon-tinental"

• Guevara, Ernesto “Che” (1967b). “Diario (Bo-livia)". Written 1966–1967.

• Guevara, Ernesto “Che” (editors Bonachea,Rolando E. and Nelson P. Valdés; 1969). Che:Selected Works of Ernesto Guevara, Cambridge,Massachusetts: MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-52016-8

• Guevara, Ernesto (2009). Che: The Diaries ofErnesto Che Guevara. Ocean Press. ISBN 1-920888-93-4.

• Guevara, Ernesto “Che” (1972). Pasajes de laguerra revolucionaria.

• Guevara, Ernesto “Che” (translated from the Span-ish by Patrick Camiller; 2000). The African Dream.New York: Grove Publishers. ISBN 0-8021-3834-9.

• Guevara, Ernesto “Che” (2005). "Socialism andman in Cuba" (First published March 12, 1965 as“From Algiers, for Marcha. The Cuban Revolu-tion Today”). Che Guevara Reader. (1997). OceanPress. ISBN 1-875284-93-1

• Guevara, Ernesto; Deutschmann, David (1997).Che Guevara Reader: Writings by Ernesto Che Gue-vara on Guerrilla Strategy, Politics & Revolution.Ocean Press. ISBN 1-875284-93-1.

• Guevara Lynch, Ernesto (2000). Aquí va un soldadode América. Barcelona: Plaza y Janés Editores, S.A.ISBN 84-01-01327-5.

• Guevara Lynch, Ernesto (2011). Young Che: Mem-ories of Che Guevara by His Father. Random HouseDigital. p. 350. ISBN 0-307-80645-6.

• Hall, Kevin (2004). "In Bolivia, Push for CheTourism Follows Locals’ Reverence". CommonDreams. commondreams.org. Accessed November15, 2008.

• Haney, Rich (2005). Celia Sánchez: The Legendof Cuba’s Revolutionary Heart. New York: AlgoraPub. ISBN 0-87586-395-7.

• Katrin Hansing (2002). Rasta, Race and Revolution:The Emergence and Development of the RastafariMovement in Socialist Cuba. LIT Verlag Münster.ISBN 3-8258-9600-5.

• Hari, Johann (October 6, 2007). "Johann Hari:Should Che be an icon? No". The Independent.

• Hart, Joseph (2004). Che: The Life, Death, andAfterlife of a Revolutionary. New York: Thunder’sMouth Press. ISBN 1-56025-519-6.

• Ireland’s Own (August 12, 2000). From Cuba toCongo, Dream to Disaster for Che Guevara. Ac-cessed January 11, 2006.

• Kellner, Douglas (1989). Ernesto “Che” Guevara(World Leaders Past & Present). Chelsea HousePublishers (Library Binding edition). p. 112. ISBN1-55546-835-7.

• Kornbluh, Peter (1997). Electronic Briefing BookNo. 5. National Security Archive. Accessed March25, 2007.

31

• Lacey, Mark (October 26, 2007). "Lone BidderBuys Strands of Che’s Hair at U.S. Auction". NewYork Times.

• Lacey, Mark (October 9, 2007). "A RevolutionaryIcon, and Now, a Bikini". The New York Times.

• Lavretsky, Iosif (1976). Ernesto Che Guevara.translated by A. B. Eklof. Moscow: Progress. p.5. ASIN B000B9V7AW. OCLC 22746662.

• Löwy, Michael (1973). The Marxism of Che Gue-vara: Philosophy, Economics, Revolutionary War-fare. Monthly Review Press. ISBN 0-85345-274-1.

• Luther, Eric (2001). Che Guevara (Critical Lives).Penguin Group (USA). p. 276. ISBN 0-02-864199-X.

• McLaren, Peter (2000). Che Guevara, Paulo Freire,and the Pedagogy of Revolution. Rowman & Little-field. ISBN 0-8476-9533-6.

• Mittleman, James H (1981). Underdevelopment andthe Transition to Socialism – Mozambique and Tan-zania. New York: Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-500660-8

• Moynihan, Michael. “Neutering Sartre at DagensNyheter”. Stockholm Spectator. Accessed February26, 2006.

• Murray, Edmundo (November–December 2005)."Guevara, Ernesto [Che] (1928–1967)". Irish Mi-gration Studies in Latin America (www.irlandeses.org).

• Che Guevara, by Frank Niess, Haus Publishers Ltd,2007, ISBN 1-904341-99-3.

• O'Hagan, Sean (July 11, 2004). "Just a prettyface?". The Guardian. Accessed October 25, 2006.

• Ramírez, Dariel Alarcón (1997). Le Che en Bolivie.Paris: Éditions du Rocher. ISBN 2-268-02437-7.

• Ramonet, Ignacio (2007). Translated by AndrewHurley. Fidel Castro: My Life London: PenguinBooks. ISBN 978-0-14-102626-8

• Ratner, Michael (1997). Che Guevara and the FBI:The U.S. Political Police Dossier on the Latin Amer-ican Revolutionary. Ocean Press. ISBN 1-875284-76-1.

• Rodriguez, Félix I. and John Weisman (1989).Shadow Warrior/the CIA Hero of a Hundred Un-known Battles. New York: Simon & Schuster.ISBN 0-671-66721-1.

• Ryan, Henry Butterfield (1998). The Fall of CheGuevara: A Story of Soldiers, Spies, and Diplomats.New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-511879-0.

• Sanati, Kimia (October 3, 2007). "Islamist, Social-ist Revolutions Don't Mix". IPS News. (Reportingfrom Tehran, Iran). Accessed October 13, 2010.

• Sandison, David (1996). The Life & Times of CheGuevara. Paragon. ISBN 0-7525-1776-7.

• Schipani, Andres (September 23, 2007). "The FinalTriumph of Saint Che". The Observer. (Reportingfrom La Higuera.)

• Selvage, Major Donald R. – USMC (April 1, 1985).Che Guevara in Bolivia. Globalsecurity.org. Ac-cessed January 5, 2006.

• Sinclair, Andrew (2006) [1968]. Viva Che!: TheStrange Death and Life of Che Guevara. Sutton pub-lishing. ISBN 0-7509-4310-6.

• Skidmore, Thomas E.; Smith, Peter H. (2008).Modern Latin America. Oxford University Press. p.436. ISBN 0-19-505533-0.

• Taibo II, Paco Ignacio (1999). Guevara, AlsoKnown as Che. St Martin’s Griffin. 2nd edition. p.691. ISBN 0-312-20652-6.

• Time Magazine (October 12, 1970). "Che: A MythEmbalmed in a Matrix of Ignorance".

• Time Magazine cover story (August 8, 1960)."Castro’s Brain".

• U.S. Army (April 28, 1967). Memorandum of Un-derstanding Concerning the Activation, Organizationand Training of the 2d Ranger Battalion – BolivianArmy. Accessed June 19, 2006.

• Vargas Llosa, Alvaro (July 11, 2005). "The KillingMachine: Che Guevara, from Communist Fire-brand to Capitalist Brand". The Independent Insti-tute. Accessed November 10, 2006.

• “World Combined Sources” (October 2, 2004)."Che Guevara remains a hero to Cubans". People’sWeekly World.

• Wright, Thomas C. (2000). Latin America in theEra of the Cuban Revolution (Revised ed.). Praeger.ISBN 0-275-96706-9.

16 External links

32 17 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

17 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

17.1 Text• Che Guevara Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Che_Guevara?oldid=694674835 Contributors: Jimbo Wales, The Epopt, Mav, Bryan

Derksen, The Anome, Tarquin, Koyaanis Qatsi, Jeronimo, Ffaker, Guppie, Ed Poor, Eclecticology, Danny, Deb, Detritus, Hephaestos,JDG, Ericd, Moravice, Stevertigo, Edward, Kchishol1970, Infrogmation, Paul Barlow, Zocky, Pit~enwiki, Kwertii, Sam Francis, Menchi,172, IZAK, Theanthrope, Delirium, Pcb21, Ahoerstemeier, Ronz, Angela, Kingturtle, DropDeadGorgias, Punkche, Error, Bogdangiusca,Vzbs34, Kimiko, Dpol, Jiang, Evercat, Caffelice~enwiki, Jonik, Ideyal, Jengod, Saint-Paddy, Rbraunwa, Dcoetzee, Nohat, Lfh, Viajero,Dysprosia, Fuzheado, WhisperToMe, Polaris999, Gustavobernhardt, Timc, IceKarma, DJ Clayworth, Tpbradbury, Kaare, Maximus Rex,Furrykef, Taxman, K1Bond007, Argus~enwiki, JonathanDP81, Carltonwilliams, Raul654, Bcorr, Pakaran, Secretlondon, Pilaf~enwiki,Flockmeal, Lumos3, Jni, The lorax, Phil Boswell, Robbot, Dale Arnett, Palnu, Moriori, PBS, Rolando, Chris 73, Jredmond, Jmabel,Altenmann, Modulatum, Big Jim Fae Scotland, Burn the asylum, Academic Challenger, Meelar, Rasmus Faber, Sunray, Catbar, Hadal,JackofOz, Cbm, Aetheling, Mushroom, Twiin, Walloon, Seth Ilys, SaltyPig, Alphaxer0, GreatWhiteNortherner, Pablo-flores, Enochlau,Rdash, DocWatson42, MaGioZal, Paul Richter, JohnWoolsey, Nikodemos, Dinomite, Seabhcan, Ævar Arnfjörð Bjarmason, Lethe, Tomharrison, Lupin, Mark Richards, TDC,Monedula, Peruvianllama, Ds13, Everyking, Fleminra, Peter Boertz, Michael Devore, Henry Flower,Varlaam, Cantus, DO'Neil, Avsa, BigHaz, Jason Quinn, Elgaard, Solipsist, Gzornenplatz, Matt Crypto, Chameleon, SWAdair, Bobblewik,Jurema Oliveira, Chaerani, Mateuszica, Joseph Dwayne, Wmahan, MSTCrow, Chowbok, Etaonish, Gadfium, SoWhy, Pgan002, Pamri,Ruy Lopez, Bact, Lst27, Geni, Mike R, R. fiend, Xmnemonic, Seba~enwiki, LiDaobing, Abu badali, Slowking Man, Formeruser-81,Quadell, Antandrus, HorsePunchKid, Beland, GD~enwiki, ClockworkLunch, Ravikiran r, Piotrus, Jossi, Rdsmith4, Mista-X,Mikko Paana-nen, Comandante, Tothebarricades.tk, Bumm13, Turrican, Icairns, ErikNY, M4-10, Caufman, Sam Hocevar, Soman, TiMike, Grossdo-mestic, Neutrality, Joyous!, Salimfadhley, Klemen Kocjancic, MementoVivere, Now3d, Acsenray, Gazpacho, Yazman, SYSS Mouse,Corti, Dostal, Mubli, D6, Ta bu shi da yu, Robophilosopher, Freakofnurture, DanielCD, Dcfleck, EugeneZelenko, Marlowe~enwiki, MarkZinthefer, A-giau, RossPatterson, Discospinster, Brianhe, Rich Farmbrough, Rhobite, Pmsyyz, Cnyborg, Vsmith, Pie4all88, Moki80,Dave souza, Bishonen, Lulu of the Lotus-Eaters, David Schaich, AlanBarrett, El Coronado, Pavel Vozenilek, Trey Stone, Paul August,Gronky, MDCore, Jayc12, Bender235, Patton1138, ESkog, Kbh3rd, Kjoonlee, Kaisershatner, Jonathanischoice, Pedant, MyNameIsNot-Bob, Brian0918, MisterSheik, Zscout370, El C, Tirdun, Bletch, Kwamikagami, QuartierLatin1968, Kross, Koenige, The bellman, Ed-ward Z. Yang, Chairboy, Shanes, Art LaPella, RoyBoy, Mark R Johnson, Cigarette, Bacon lettuce, Femto, Jpgordon, Bobo192, Chey Marijuana, Vanished user sdfkjertiwoi1212u5mcake, NetBot, Mike Schwartz, Feitclub, Smalljim, Che090572, Cmdrjameson, AngieY., Palmiro, La goutte de pluie, Sasquatch, Jojit fb, Nk, Rajah, ריינהארט ,לערי TheProject, Peacenik, Roy da Vinci, David Gale, Rje,SecretAgentMan00, Saluyot, Lokifer, MPerel, Ral315, Polylerus, Hagerman, Pearle, Foxandpotatoes, Erri4a, Knucmo2, Phils, Vizcarra,Jumbuck, Spoonman~enwiki, CAnc, Shirimasen, Brianboru, Red Winged Duck, Polarscribe, Aardwolf, Hydriotaphia, Neo-Comm, Hip-ocrite, Crazynorvegian, Diablosnuevos, Ninio, Riana, Ashley Pomeroy, Derumi, Gaytan, SlimVirgin, Hoary, Lightdarkness, Mattley,Mlessard, Sligocki, Esrob, Mailer diablo, InShaneee, Plange, Spangineer, Malo, Marianocecowski, LordViD, Mtiedemann, Db pr, Al-mafeta, Yuckfoo, Evil Monkey, Omphaloscope, Anthony Ivanoff, RainbowOfLight, Sciurinæ, Cmapm, Teilas, Kevinskogg, Computer-joe, Mattbrundage, HGB, TheCoffee, Blaxthos, Bookandcoffee, Dryman, Bastel, N0thingness, Adrian.benko, TimMartin, RyanGerbil10,User44, GreatGatsby, Hijiri88, A D Monroe III, Gotten, Dejvid, Centralman, DarTar, Weyes, Gavin86, Kelly Martin, Alvis, Bushy-tails, Woohookitty, TigerShark, Etacar11, PoccilScript, Uncle G, Jpers36, Thivierr, Mark K. Jensen, Oliphaunt, NotSuper, TomTheHand,Deeahbz, Bratsche, Canaen, Pol098, Lapsed Pacifist, GurraJG, Nolamgm, Bkwillwm, Ferg2k, Terence, Bluemoose, Mb1000, Pictureu-ploader, Junes, Tutmosis, Wayward, Jon Harald Søby, Bubeck, Stefanomione, Dynamax, Dysepsion, MrSomeone, RichardWeiss, Marskell,WBardwin, Alienus, Magister Mathematicae, Descendall, BD2412, Eamoniski, Deusexmachina~enwiki, SwarthyWolf, Pacoworld, Fre-plySpang, DanielAmelang, Adking80, The Disco King, NubKnacker, Nlsanand, RxS, Dwaipayanc, Icey, Jshadias, CrazyLucifer, Jd-cooper, Abizern, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Angusmclellan, Tim!, Koavf, Саша Стефановић, Brendan Vox, Jake Wartenberg, Shayborg, Vary,Tangotango, Harro5, TheRingess, Salix alba, MZMcBride, US-Patriot, Ligulem, H2d2, Mexaguil, Infosocialist, SeanMack, Bubba73,Durin, Brighterorange, Zambani, Guttlekraw, Ttwaring, Jbamb, Sango123, DirkvdM, Antimatt, Yamamoto Ichiro, Hanshans23, Mag-mafox, FayssalF, Dinosaurdarrell, Titoxd, Mikecron, FlaBot, Johnnyw, Eyeflash, Jason Gillman Jr., Ian Pitchford, Mirror Vax, RobertG,Ground Zero, Aquastor, Estrellador*, Alhutch, TheMidnighters, DickRangers, Sanbeg, Narxysus, MacRusgail, Nivix, Hottentot, RexNL,Gurch, Bennie Noakes, Jrtayloriv, Str1977, Pete.Hurd, Alphachimp, Naturally, Gurubrahma, Escobar600ie, Jfiling, Psantora, King ofHearts, Chobot, Daekharel, Raymond Cruise, Russmack, Oipolloi, Sundevilesq, Parallel or Together?, Tarasi, Mmx1, Hermitage, Bg-white, Cactus.man, Hall Monitor, NSR, Mysekurity, Albrozdude, Kralahome, Elfguy, The Rambling Man, YurikBot, Wavelength, Space-potato, Personman, Patman2648, RobotE, Tommyt, Sceptre, Huw Powell, Garsanllean, Cwphd97, Brandmeister (old), Snappy, Phan-tomsteve, RussBot, Jovan66102, Rowan Moore, John Smith’s, Jtkiefer, Conscious, AVM, Splash, Chris Capoccia, Anders.Warga, Chaser,Vladislaus Draculea, Fabricationary, Davidhatten, 1Winston, Chemandante, Hydrargyrum, Cate, Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather,Amitsanyal34, Lavenderbunny, Barneygumble, Wimt, RadioKirk, Big Brother 1984, Daveswagon, Manxruler, Nis81, Lanceka, Nawlin-Wiki, Zhaladshar, Wiki alf, LaszloWalrus, Johann Wolfgang, Nebogipfel~enwiki, Bayle Shanks, Aesculapius75, Gillis, Lexicon, Irishguy,Lawrence59, Brian1975, Bobak, Raven4x4x, Moe Epsilon, Rockero, TDogg310, Grafikm fr, Nanten, Night prowler, PonyToast, Tony1,Bucketsofg, Xompanthy, Palpalpalpal, M2k41, BOT-Superzerocool, Gadget850, Bota47, Smith120bh, Rosalesdaniel10, Maunus, Mart-inwilke1980, Bronks, Ccgrimm, Sarkar112, Nlu, Deltalima, NWOG, Wknight94, Caroline Sanford, Joda87, TransUtopian, Takethemud,Johntriggs, Versewriter, Theprivateer83, FF2010, Ario, Getcrunk, Paul Magnussen, Melca, Dast, Lt-wiki-bot, TheMadBaron, Teiladnam,Goliathus, Theda, Jwissick, Errabee, Rms125a@hotmail.com, Elgodosimp, SMcCandlish, Vino s, Opes, Cybjorg, Sean Whitton, JuJube,Rcpage2001, GraemeL, JoanneB, Croat Canuck, LeonardoRob0t, Andyluciano~enwiki, Windyjarhead, Scoutersig, Kevin, HereToHelp,Whobot, RenamedUser jaskldjslak904, Spliffy, Mandingojones, Nlitement, Curpsbot-unicodify, Roldan, MagneticFlux, Kungfuadam,Junglecat, Spiiikes, Meegs, Thomas Blomberg, Manmonk, SkerHawx, DVD R W, Brentt, Andman8, Eitch, Krótki, C mon, Adbarn-hart, Attilios, Chicocvenancio, A bit iffy, SmackBot, Nahald, YellowMonkey, DannyBoy7783, Kellen, Ashenai, Zazaban, Slashme, In-verseHypercube, KnowledgeOfSelf, Royalguard11, Rokbas~enwiki, Lambejim, Wrinehart, Probert, Dwdp, Unyoyega, PRA, Silverfoxx,WikiSceptic, Chapeye~enwiki, Jfg284, Thunderboltz, KenCar, Esaborio, Piccadilly, Delldot, Monty Cantsin, Kintetsubuffalo, Canderra,Aivazovsky, Nscheffey, Alsandro, Hdstubbs, Peter Isotalo, Gilliam, Gregjgrose, Hmains, Kaiwen1, Nfgii, Honbicot, Bluenile, JSpudeman,Psiphiorg, Squiddy, KDRGibby, Chris the speller, Bluebot, CheDolphin, Keegan, Audacity, Dahn, Kfranco, Ismoot, Mayopi, Kaliz, Baltika-troika, Jprg1966, Andrew Parodi, Djln, Liamdaly620, Fluri, Silly rabbit, Roscelese, Zwirks, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg,Victorgrigas, Sadads, Bigbear590, Ikiroid, Nberger, Kostmo, Lance Corporal Everett T. Myers, Da Vynci, Colonies Chris, Yanksox, Scw-long, Tulipq, RussellMcKenzie, MKB, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Arthmus, Sniggity, Derekbridges, Volphy, Lbbzman, Gerkinstock,JohnWheater, Zleitzen, AP1787, Zone46, OrphanBot, Colbane117, Jennica, TheKMan, EvelinaB, Rrburke, Kittybrewster, Addshore, Bo-livian Unicyclist, Edivorce, SundarBot, Phaedriel, The tooth, Khoikhoi, Steven X, Dharmabum420, Ferr, Soosed, Krich, PiMaster3, Fly-

17.1 Text 33

guy649, Jquazimodor, Amphytrite, Tapered, Mister Jinxy, Savidan, Nfleming, TedE, VegaDark, Nihilo 01, Chris3145, El fil, JanCeuleers,SnappingTurtle, TGC55, Bigmantonyd, RandomP, KRBN, Dakilang Isagani, Astarf, Cdmstewart, Banbury, AMProSoft, Lacha, Noahgh,Mitchumch, Buidinhthiem, Ligulembot, SSVegeta184, Swedenman, Vina-iwbot~enwiki, Kukini, Gabbahead~enwiki, Ohconfucius, Cy-berevil, Agcala~enwiki, Byelf2007, Catch, SashatoBot, Lambiam, Esrever, Nishkid64, Rory096, Krashlandon, Ser Amantio di Nicolao,DavidGC, Giovanni33, DO11.10, Battlemonk, John, AmiDaniel, Ocee, Jpogi, Eshafoshaf, Sklero, JohnI, Soumyasch, Giordaano, Breno,GCW50, Blinutne, Vom, NYCJosh, Vanished user 56po34it12ke, MickPurcell, Sagafg65675673, Todd661, Mr. Lefty, Jake-helliwell, Jer-ryLewisOverdrive, PseudoSudo, Camilo Sanchez, Nobunaga24, The Man in Question, Speedboy Salesman, Ernestleonard, Rkmlai, Svend-larose, AdaAlicia, Agathoclea, Andypandy.UK, Slakr, Critic-at-Arms, Beetstra, Optimale, Yvesnimmo, Jlujanzilbermann, Mr Stephen,SandyGeorgia, Dcflyer, Michael J Swassing, Midnightblueowl, Ryulong, Onetwo1, Dr.K., Citicat, PJB, Peyre, LaMenta3, Lancini87, Ce-realkiller13, ShakingSpirit, The Real Walrus, Hu12, Tawkerbot, Iridescent, BobbyLee, Amedeus, LeyteWolfer, Joseph Solis in Australia,Brian H, AkaDada, Casull, Skitzouk, Eequalsmcsquared, K2cfd30, 03rryanc, Cbrown1023, Saturday, Tony Fox, CapitalR, Newyorkbrad,LunaSkye17, Mepat111, Gil Gamesh, Vijeth, Vascaino4, Dunne409, Tyrealhsm, Woodshed, Fullerene~enwiki, Malickfan86, Tawkerbot2,Daniel5127, Koen VdB, Slyke, LessHeard vanU, Dcapeaton, Editous, Cesar Tort, Swordman182, Xcentaur, Bootleg42, Mrghost~enwiki,Wolfdog, CmdrObot, Alan Flynn, Hermitage17, Sjmcfarland, Shyland, Bobfrombrockley, Zarex, Ilphin, Van helsing, Iced Kola, VisionThing, Victoriagirl, KyraVixen, Maester mensch, Poppie~enwiki, Jcaragonv, Sadena, Jcoffland, Ondrej.par, Argon233, SelfStudyBuddy,Chazsylvester, Neelix, Pi Guy 31415, Incorrect, Richard Keatinge, Tim1988, Chicheley, Ispy1981, JettaMann, Mike 7, MiszaBot, Justdapper, Nebbione, Adhanali, Roar1, Migdiachinea, AndrewHowse, Cydebot, Honk squeak, Valentimd, Andreasegde, Ricardo72, Rey-was92, Gatoclass, Steel, Ragnarok Addict, Gogo Dodo, Travelbird, Corpx, Bornsommer, ST47, Lugnuts, NRZarrugh, JamesLucas, DanielJ. 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34 17 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Egyptian Liberal, Jack1755, CaritasUbi, Vladmirfish, Sigge365, Az88, Quindie, Motorizer, Henrig, Kgrad, FoxBot, TobeBot, 2cody.harris,Lotje, Oupals, Roy McCoy, Louis Taylor, Wikichaval, Big Axe, Stephen MUFC, Tbhotch, EyeKnows, Souled4, Xaphnir, Andrewdavid-haynes, TjBot, IANVS, Alph Bot, Ripchip Bot, Bhawani Gautam, Yaush, Sbrianhicks, Mukogodo, EmausBot, Fil usa, And we drown,John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, Ai6z83xl3g, Newrednight, GoingBatty, Sp33dyphil, Solarra, Masahiro Naoi, Mz7, JSquish, The Madras,ZéroBot, Yoki11, DJ Tricky86, Unused000705, SporkBot, Fanofnaruto2, Demiurge1000, Brandmeister, Sahimrobot, Kavitakosi, Sirach-Matthews, Polisher of Cobwebs, Philiv2, ChuispastonBot, Brad78, Kgldude, Joseph5234, Mjbmrbot, SgtPetsounds, MIKHEIL, Joefrom-randb, American Idiot1, Bright Darkness, Benjamin9832, Thejavadrinker, RJFF, Frietjes, Hazhk, Braincricket, WKS Śląsk Wrocław,MillingMachine, Neogeolegend, Helpful Pixie Bot, AlterBerg, Wbm1058, Ibarabi, Flix11, Smallerjim, Eb00kie, Dzlinker, Hhn1776,Yerevantsi, TROPtastic, CitationCleanerBot, Toccata quarta, RadicalRedRaccoon, Jediknightelectro1997, Vvven, Wattosacrim, BattyBot,Guanaco55, Comatmebro, GWU-NSA, Khazar2, Stumink, IjonTichyIjonTichy, Dexbot, Hmainsbot1, Charles Essie, Mogism, Zeitgeist-page, MarshalRight, Yrkidding17, Hakumaie, Plant’s Strider, Dubhlad, SPhotographer, Vanamonde93, TRGUY, Correctrix, Pietro13,Rossfan 2013, DrRNC, 294.3511.47I.65, Ryan5685, Ulcerspar12, Muhib mansour, 1982vdven, Disparador, Zozs, Ttocserp, Monkbot,ReachOutAndTouch, Trackteur, Leonina666444, Emanuelito martinez, Thedanielcampbell, SusunW, Tiseptiko, Prinsgezinde, KasparBot,Srednuas Lenoroc, Realmmb and Anonymous: 1727

17.2 Images• File:4CheFaces.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/4CheFaces.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:

Own work Original artist: Redthoreau• File:Beauvoir_Sartre_-_Che_Guevara_-1960_-_Cuba.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Beauvoir_

Sartre_-_Che_Guevara_-1960_-_Cuba.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Revista Verde Oliva, 1960; Museo Che Guevara (Centrode Estudios Che Guevara en La Habana, Cuba) Original artist: Alberto Korda

• File:Camera-photo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/80/Camera-photo.svg License: Public domainContributors:? Original artist: ?

• File:CheFishing.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/CheFishing.jpg License: Public domain Contribu-tors: Museo Che Guevara (Centro de Estudios Che Guevara en La Habana, Cuba) + Several books on Che Guevara, and books of photosby Alberto Korda Original artist: Alberto Korda

• File:CheG1951.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/CheG1951.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:Museo Che Guevara Original artist: His Father

• File:CheGuevaraCountries.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/CheGuevaraCountries.jpg License:Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Redthoreau

• File:CheGuevaraSignature.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/CheGuevaraSignature.svg License:Public domain Contributors:

• CheGuevaraSignature.jpg Original artist: CheGuevaraSignature.jpg: Redthoreau• File:CheInCongo1965.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/CheInCongo1965.jpg License: Public domainContributors: Museo Che Guevara (Centro de Estudios Che Guevara en La Habana, Cuba) Original artist: Anonymous

• File:CheMuleFull.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/CheMuleFull.jpg License: Public domain Contrib-utors: Museo Che Guevara (Centro de Estudios Che Guevara en La Habana, Cuba) Original artist: Perfecto Romero

• File:CheOnRaft1952.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/CheOnRaft1952.jpg License: Public do-main Contributors: Museo Che Guevara (Centro de Estudios Che Guevara en La Habana, Cuba) Original artist: Un-known<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590'/></a>

• File:ChePipe.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/ChePipe.jpg License: Public domainContributors: Museo Che Guevara (Centro de Estudios Che Guevara en La Habana, Cuba) Original artist: Un-known<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11'srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050'data-file-height='590' /></a>

• File:Che_Guevara-Granado_-_Mapa_1er_viaje_-_1952.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/Che_Guevara-Granado_-_Mapa_1er_viaje_-_1952.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Mapa tomado de World Wind 1.3 (NASA-PD).Itinerario confeccionado por el autor Original artist: Pepe Robles

• File:Che_Guevara_-_2do_Viaje_-_1953-55.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/Che_Guevara_-_2do_Viaje_-_1953-55.png License: Public domain Contributors: Mapa tomado de World Wind 1.3 (NASA-PD). Itinerario confeccionadopor el autor Original artist: Pepe Robles

• File:Che_Guevara_-_Grab_in_Santa_Clara,_Kuba.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/Che_Guevara_-_Grab_in_Santa_Clara%2C_Kuba.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Che_Guevara_June_2,_1959.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Che_Guevara_June_2%2C_1959.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Museo Che Guevara (Centro de Estudios Che Guevara en La Habana, Cuba) Original artist:Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590'/></a>

17.2 Images 35

• File:Che_Guevara_in_Gaza.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Che_Guevara_in_Gaza.jpg License:Public domain Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/62381475@N03/6062734262 Original artist: luludereven

• File:Che_SClara.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/Che_SClara.jpg License: Public domain Contribu-tors: Oficina de Asuntos Históricos de Cuba. Publicada en la Revista Verde Oliva 1959. Original artist: anonimous

• File:Che_por_Jim_Fitzpatrick.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Che_por_Jim_Fitzpatrick.svg Li-cense: Public domain Contributors: self-made, based on Jim Fitzpatrick’s painting. Jim Fitzpatrick made it free of copyright Originalartist: Jgaray

• File:Chefamily.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Chefamily.jpg License: Public domainContributors: Museo Che Guevara Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a>

• File:Cheguevaracongo.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Cheguevaracongo.jpg License: Public do-main Contributors: This photo is owned by the Cuban government and was released by it. Cuba did not sign the Berne Convention until1997, and this photo was taken and publicized many years before that. Original artist: ?

• File:CheinBolivia1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/CheinBolivia1.jpg License: Public domain Con-tributors: Museo Che Guevara (Centro de Estudios Che Guevara en La Habana, Cuba) Original artist: Anonymous

• File:CheinMoscow.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/CheinMoscow.jpg License: Public domain Con-tributors: Museo Che Guevara (Centro de Estudios Che Guevara en La Habana, Cuba) Original artist: anonimous

• File:CheyFidel.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/CheyFidel.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:Museo Che Guevara, Havana Cuba Original artist: Alberto Korda

• File:Chile_quema_libros_1973.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Chile_quema_libros_1973.JPGLicense: Public domain Contributors: CIA Freedom of Information Act Original artist: Weekly Review

• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Originalartist: ?

• File:Communist_star.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Communist_star.svg License: Public domainContributors: File:Red star.svg, File:Hammer and sickle.svg Original artist: Zscout370, F l a n k e r,Penubag

• File:Flag_of_Cuba.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Flag_of_Cuba.svg License: Public domain Con-tributors: Drawn by User:Madden Original artist: see below

• File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:FreddyAlbertoChe.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/49/FreddyAlbertoChe.jpg License: Fair use Contribu-tors:Taken by photographer Freddy Alborta on October 10, 1967 in Vallegrande, Bolivia. Can be found in a myriad of sources includingAlborta’s website and in most books chronicling the life of Che Guevara - including Compañero: The Life and Death of Che Guevara byJorge Castañeda (1998) pg 268 & Che Guevara: A Revolutionary Life, by Jon Lee Anderson (1997) pg 623. Original artist: ?

• File:GuerrilleroHeroico.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/CheHigh.jpg License: Public domain Con-tributors: Museo Che Guevara, Havana Cuba Original artist: Alberto Korda

• File:Hilda_Gadea_y_Che_Guevara_-_Luna_de_miel_-_Yucatán_1955.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Hilda_Gadea_y_Che_Guevara_-_Luna_de_miel_-_Yucat%C3%A1n_1955.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:Museo Che Guevara Original artist: anonimous

• File:KordaOfCheWalking.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/KordaOfCheWalking.jpg License: Pub-lic domain Contributors: Museo Che Guevara (Centro de Estudios Che Guevara en La Habana, Cuba) Original artist: Alberto Korda

• File:Manuel_Urrutia2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Manuel_Urrutia2.jpg License: Public do-main Contributors: Oficina de Asuntos Históricos de Cuba Original artist: anonimous

• File:Marx_and_Engels.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Marx_and_Engels.jpg License: Public do-main Contributors: Transferred from Wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was Σ at English Wikipedia

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