Automation in industry: Bleaching the blue collar: Computerization can increase workers' output, but...
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Automation in industry: bleaching the blue collar ComputerizatiGn can increase workers* output, but it may also distance product designers from assembly and process requirements At iirst glance, there appears t o b e a n enonnous contrast be- tween the Chrysler Οοφ's Jefferson Avenue plant, an agin^. assembiy faciiity buiii i n 1907 o n Detroit's now deteriorating East Side, a n d t h e John Hancock Building, a gleaming glass and steel skyscraper near one of Boston's poshest neighborhoods. Inside, however, new forms of automation, based on computers and microelectronics, are being used to transform both. At the Jef- ferson Avenue plant, robots accomplish 98 percent of the welds υπ new car bodies auiomaiicaiiy, while ai John H a n c o c k , w o r d processors and other electronic office technologies are laying the basis for a restructured office. The exploding technical capabili- ties of these new machines and systems, combined in many cases with their plummeting costs, are extending automation to every sector of the economy. Tlie widely held expectation is that a dazzling array of new oc- cupations and skills will accompany the increase of computers in the industrial work place. Although some boring and undesirable jobs m a y b e eliminated, manual skiiis in general will be replaced by the demand for intellectual skills. Instead of needing machin- ists, for example, industry will require computer programmers. Many people anticipate a change in the structure of manage- r»>or»* Wi»V» ψ>»\\ι olo/**r/xr»i/-» rr»I»»U<-»^C • \ r r » t r i H t r » I * t i m o l i / ir»fr^rrr*C»_ tion about production, managers will be able to make better and f?is*er decisions. The minimizatiGn of hiiman invclvemeni in nro- duction will hself result in more predictability and greater effi- ciency in manufacturing. This rosy view is challenged, however, by a darker vision: the creation o f a pyramid of skills that concentrates a few creative and meaningful occupations at t h e t o p , while the rest wind up with fewer skills AIIU SUbjcci iu NEW funiib υί luuuiiuriiig anu electronic control. David Rockefeller, chairman of the Chase Manhattan Bank and hardly the premier U.S. social critic, has forms of automation may lead to a "two-tier society, with satis- fying and well-rewarded work for some, while the rest are left to grapple for unskilled jobs." Not only will skills be eroded, ac- cording to this view, but managerial control will be increased and the work environment will become more and more authoritarian. Microelearonics and computer technology, however, do not necessitate a more hierarchical work structure with fewer skills. Instead, they offer a number of critical choices: increased work autonomy or extended managerial authority, enhanced human input o r t h e elimination of human decision making, a wide distri- bution of skills, or a concentration of skills. Unfortunately, rather than exploring different technological alternatives a n d t h e ways in which they affect people, management and the engineer- ing commimity frequently assume that there is only one best way lo develop technology, and ccnsiaeraoie efforts go mto adjusting workers to the result. Knowing the purposes technology is designed to serve is therefore vital in understanding the effects of computerization. The danger is that the exceptional capabilities Harley Shaiken Massachusetts Institute of Technology of twentieth-century technology will be molded by nineteenth- cMitnrv forms of work Of anization. The final report of the Machine Tool Task Force, a two-and-a- half-year project funded and guided b y t h e U . S . A i r Force, of- fers some key insights into the design criteria of new technology and contains five volumes filled with valuable engineering detail. The assumption is made, however, that increased productivity and profitability will flow from a work environment in which all variatJles are eliminated. Since human participation is certainly a variable., a central conclusion of the study is that machines should be designed to "reduce operator involvement." O n e w a y to achieve this is to "simplify controls to allow use of lower- skilled labor" and to "approach unmanned operation." The report recommends that industry should: * 'Reduce the skill levels required to operate or maintain certain machine tools (or to plan the manufacture of a part), an ap- proach ah-eady practiced by .seme of the technically more ad- vanced companies. This c a n b e done by using more automation and substituting computers for people in executing certain deci- sions or operations." (The emphasis is in the original.1 Some managers go beyond this and view automation as a sub- stitute for good labor relations. !n other words, s worker might not show u p o n Monday, b u t y o u c a n b e sure that a robot will. a sur\'ey of managers in the metal-working industry concerning flexible manufacturing systems (FMS), a highly advanced and in- tegrated form of computerized metal working: "... labor's role in manufacturing, particuiariy as regards control over production rates and product quality, is being thor- oughly re-examined. Workers and their unions have too much say in manufacturers' destiny, many metal-working executives feel, and large, sophisticated FMS's can help wrest some of that . 1 . C 1-1 -I . -Ά I ••^niixii c.v.».> iiv>iii iuuv;; iiitw ii « ment, where they feel it belongs." Developing technology in the direction of fracturing skills and more closely monitored work almost always is done in the name of increasing productivity. In some cases productivity can be aug- mented in this way, but at the cost of destroying job satisfaction and demeaning the lives of the workers. In other cases, the appli- cation of scientific management to high technology throttles rather than expands productiviiy. Loss of human sensibility? The same techniques used to control workers make it difficult to use skills, creativity, and experience in ways that will improve production. This throttling of output is often observed because the productivity gains of robots or computerized machine tools are generally compared with the productivity of the conventional systems they replace. Given that the new SYSTEMS ARE MORE CAPI- tal-intensive, this one-to-one comparison tells only part of the story. A more accurate w a y t o measure productivity would com- pare the actual use o f a system with what its potential might be, in terms of improving both production and life o n t h e j o b . IEEE SPECTRUM JUNE 1984 77
Transcript of Automation in industry: Bleaching the blue collar: Computerization can increase workers' output, but...
Automation in industry: bleaching the blue collar ComputerizatiGn can increase workers* output, but it may also distance product designers from assembly and process requirements
A t i i rs t g l a n c e , t h e r e a p p e a r s t o b e a n e n o n n o u s c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n t h e C h r y s l e r Ο ο φ ' s Jefferson Avenue plant, a n agin^. a s s e m b i y f a c i i i t y b u i i i i n 1907 o n D e t r o i t ' s n o w d e t e r i o r a t i n g E a s t S i d e , a n d t h e J o h n H a n c o c k B u i l d i n g , a g l e a m i n g g lass a n d steel s k y s c r a p e r n e a r o n e o f B o s t o n ' s poshes t n e i g h b o r h o o d s . I n s i d e , h o w e v e r , n e w f o r m s o f a u t o m a t i o n , b a s e d o n c o m p u t e r s a n d m i c r o e l e c t r o n i c s , a re b e i n g u s e d t o t r a n s f o r m b o t h . A t t h e J e f f e r s o n A v e n u e p l a n t , r o b o t s a c c o m p l i s h 98 p e r c e n t o f t h e w e l d s υ π n e w c a r b o d i e s a u i o m a i i c a i i y , w h i l e a i J o h n H a n c o c k , w o r d p r o c e s s o r s a n d o t h e r e l e c t r o n i c o f f i c e t e c h n o l o g i e s a r e l a y i n g t h e bas is f o r a r e s t r u c t u r e d o f f i c e . T h e e x p l o d i n g t e c h n i c a l c a p a b i l i t ies o f these n e w m a c h i n e s a n d s y s t e m s , c o m b i n e d i n m a n y cases w i t h t h e i r p l u m m e t i n g c o s t s , are e x t e n d i n g a u t o m a t i o n t o e v e r y s e c t o r o f t h e e c o n o m y .
T l i e w i d e l y h e l d e x p e c t a t i o n is tha t a d a z z l i n g a r r a y o f n e w o c c u p a t i o n s a n d sk i l l s w i l l a c c o m p a n y t h e i n c r e a s e o f c o m p u t e r s i n t h e i n d u s t r i a l w o r k p l a c e . A l t h o u g h s o m e b o r i n g a n d u n d e s i r a b l e j o b s m a y b e e l i m i n a t e d , m a n u a l sk i i is i n g e n e r a l w i l l b e r e p l a c e d b y t h e d e m a n d f o r i n t e l l e c t u a l sk i l ls . I n s t e a d o f n e e d i n g m a c h i n i s t s , f o r e x a m p l e , i n d u s t r y w i l l r e q u i r e c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m m e r s .
M a n y p e o p l e a n t i c i p a t e a c h a n g e i n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f m a n a g e -r»>or»* W i » V » ψ>»\\ι olo/**r/xr»i /-» rr»I»»U<-»^C • \ r r»t r iHtr»I* t i m o l i / ir»fr^rrr*C»_
t i o n a b o u t p r o d u c t i o n , m a n a g e r s w i l l b e a b l e t o m a k e b e t t e r a n d f?is*er decisions. The m i n i m i z a t i G n o f h i i m a n i n v c l v e m e n i i n n r o -d u c t i o n w i l l h s e l f resu l t i n m o r e p r e d i c t a b i l i t y a n d g r e a t e r e f f i c i e n c y i n m a n u f a c t u r i n g .
T h i s r o s y v i e w is c h a l l e n g e d , h o w e v e r , b y a d a r k e r v i s i o n : t h e c r e a t i o n o f a p y r a m i d o f ski l ls that c o n c e n t r a t e s a f e w c r e a t i v e a n d m e a n i n g f u l o c c u p a t i o n s at t h e t o p , w h i l e t h e rest w i n d u p w i t h f e w e r sk i l l s AIIU S U b j c c i i u NEW f u n i i b υ ί l u u u i i u r i i i g a n u e l e c t r o n i c c o n t r o l . D a v i d R o c k e f e l l e r , c h a i r m a n o f t h e C h a s e M a n h a t t a n B a n k a n d h a r d l y the p r e m i e r U . S . s o c i a l c r i t i c , h a s
f o r m s o f a u t o m a t i o n m a y lead t o a " t w o - t i e r s o c i e t y , w i t h sat isf y i n g a n d w e l l - r e w a r d e d w o r k f o r s o m e , w h i l e the rest a r e left t o g r a p p l e f o r u n s k i l l e d j o b s . " N o t o n l y w i l l sk i l ls b e e r o d e d , a c c o r d i n g t o t h i s v i e w , b u t m a n a g e r i a l c o n t r o l w i l l be i n c r e a s e d a n d t h e w o r k e n v i r o n m e n t w i l l b e c o m e m o r e a n d m o r e a u t h o r i t a r i a n .
M i c r o e l e a r o n i c s a n d c o m p u t e r t e c h n o l o g y , h o w e v e r , d o n o t necess i ta te a m o r e h i e r a r c h i c a l w o r k s t r u c t u r e w i t h f e w e r s k i l l s . I n s t e a d , t h e y o f f e r a n u m b e r o f c r i t i c a l c h o i c e s : i n c r e a s e d w o r k a u t o n o m y o r e x t e n d e d m a n a g e r i a l a u t h o r i t y , e n h a n c e d h u m a n i n p u t o r t h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f h u m a n d e c i s i o n m a k i n g , a w i d e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s k i l l s , o r a c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f sk i l l s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , r a t h e r t h a n e x p l o r i n g d i f f e r e n t t e c h n o l o g i c a l a l t e r n a t i v e s a n d t h e w a y s i n w h i c h t h e y a f f e c t p e o p l e , m a n a g e m e n t a n d t h e e n g i n e e r i n g c o m m i m i t y f r e q u e n t l y a s s u m e t h a t t h e r e is o n l y o n e best w a y l o d e v e l o p t e c h n o l o g y , a n d c c n s i a e r a o i e e f f o r t s g o m t o a d j u s t i n g w o r k e r s t o t h e r e s u l t . K n o w i n g t h e p u r p o s e s t e c h n o l o g y is d e s i g n e d t o s e r v e is t h e r e f o r e v i t a l i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e e f f e c t s o f c o m p u t e r i z a t i o n . T h e d a n g e r is tha t t h e e x c e p t i o n a l c a p a b i l i t i e s
Harley Shaiken Massachusetts Institute of Technology
o f t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y t e c h n o l o g y w i l l be m o l d e d b y n i n e t e e n t h -cMi tn rv f o r m s o f w o r k O f a n i z a t i o n .
T h e final r e p o r t o f t h e M a c h i n e T o o l T a s k F o r c e , a t w o - a n d - a -h a l f - y e a r p r o j e c t f u n d e d a n d g u i d e d b y t h e U . S . A i r F o r c e , o f fers s o m e k e y i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e d e s i g n c r i t e r i a o f n e w t e c h n o l o g y a n d c o n t a i n s five v o l u m e s filled w i t h v a l u a b l e e n g i n e e r i n g d e t a i l . T h e a s s u m p t i o n is m a d e , h o w e v e r , that i n c r e a s e d p r o d u c t i v i t y a n d p r o f i t a b i l i t y w i l l flow f r o m a w o r k e n v i r o n m e n t i n w h i c h a l l var ia tJ les a r e e l i m i n a t e d . S i n c e h u m a n p a r t i c i p a t i o n is c e r t a i n l y a var iab le . , a c e n t r a l c o n c l u s i o n o f the s t u d y is tha t m a c h i n e s s h o u l d be d e s i g n e d t o " r e d u c e o p e r a t o r i n v o l v e m e n t . " O n e w a y t o a c h i e v e th is is t o " s i m p l i f y c o n t r o l s t o a l l o w use o f l o w e r -sk i l l ed l a b o r " a n d t o " a p p r o a c h u n m a n n e d o p e r a t i o n . " T h e r e p o r t r e c o m m e n d s tha t i n d u s t r y s h o u l d :
* 'Reduce the skill levels r e q u i r e d t o o p e r a t e o r m a i n t a i n c e r t a i n m a c h i n e t o o l s ( o r t o p l a n t h e m a n u f a c t u r e o f a p a r t ) , a n a p p r o a c h ah-eady p r a c t i c e d b y .seme o f t h e t e c h n i c a l l y m o r e a d v a n c e d c o m p a n i e s . T h i s c a n b e d o n e b y u s i n g m o r e a u t o m a t i o n a n d s u b s t i t u t i n g c o m p u t e r s f o r p e o p l e i n e x e c u t i n g c e r t a i n d e c i s ions o r o p e r a t i o n s . " ( T h e e m p h a s i s is i n t h e or ig ina l .1
S o m e m a n a g e r s g o b e y o n d t h i s a n d v i e w a u t o m a t i o n as a s u b s t i tu te f o r g o o d l a b o r r e l a t i o n s . ! n o t h e r w o r d s , s w o r k e r m i g h t n o t s h o w u p o n M o n d a y , b u t y o u c a n b e s u r e t h a t a r o b o t w i l l .
a s u r \ ' e y o f m a n a g e r s i n t h e m e t a l - w o r k i n g i n d u s t r y c o n c e r n i n g flexible m a n u f a c t u r i n g s y s t e m s ( F M S ) , a h i g h l y a d v a n c e d a n d i n t e g r a t e d f o r m o f c o m p u t e r i z e d m e t a l w o r k i n g :
" . . . l a b o r ' s r o l e i n m a n u f a c t u r i n g , p a r t i c u i a r i y as r e g a r d s c o n t r o l o v e r p r o d u c t i o n ra tes a n d p r o d u c t q u a l i t y , is b e i n g t h o r o u g h l y r e - e x a m i n e d . W o r k e r s a n d the i r u n i o n s h a v e t o o m u c h say i n m a n u f a c t u r e r s ' d e s t i n y , m a n y m e t a l - w o r k i n g e x e c u t i v e s f e e l , a n d l a r g e , s o p h i s t i c a t e d F M S ' s c a n h e l p w r e s t s o m e o f that
. 1 . C 1-1 -I . -Ά I
••^niixii c.v.».> i i v > i i i i u u v ; ; i i i t w i i «
m e n t , w h e r e t h e y feel it b e l o n g s . " D e v e l o p i n g t e c h n o l o g y i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f f r a c t u r i n g sk i l l s a n d
m o r e c l o s e l y m o n i t o r e d w o r k a l m o s t a l w a y s is d o n e i n t h e n a m e o f i n c r e a s i n g p r o d u c t i v i t y . I n s o m e cases p r o d u c t i v i t y c a n b e a u g m e n t e d i n th is w a y , b u t at t h e cost o f d e s t r o y i n g j o b s a t i s f a c t i o n a n d d e m e a n i n g t h e l ives o f t h e w o r k e r s . I n o t h e r cases , t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f s c i e n t i f i c m a n a g e m e n t t o h i g h t e c h n o l o g y t h r o t t l e s r a t h e r t h a n e x p a n d s p r o d u c t i v i i y .
Loss of human sensibility? T h e s a m e t e c h n i q u e s u s e d t o c o n t r o l w o r k e r s m a k e it d i f f i c u l t
t o use s k i l l s , c r e a t i v i t y , a n d e x p e r i e n c e i n w a y s t h a t w i l l i m p r o v e p r o d u c t i o n . T h i s t h r o t t l i n g o f o u t p u t is o f t e n o b s e r v e d b e c a u s e t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y ga ins o f r o b o t s o r c o m p u t e r i z e d m a c h i n e t o o l s are g e n e r a l l y c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y o f t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l s y s t e m s t h e y r e p l a c e . G i v e n t h a t the n e w SYSTEMS ARE MORE CAPI
t a l - i n t e n s i v e , t h i s o n e - t o - o n e c o m p a r i s o n tells o n l y p a r t o f t h e s t o r y . A m o r e a c c u r a t e w a y t o m e a s u r e p r o d u c t i v i t y w o u l d c o m p a r e t h e a c t u a l use o f a s y s t e m w i t h w h a t its p o t e n t i a l m i g h t b e , i n t e r m s o f i m p r o v i n g b o t h p r o d u c t i o n a n d l i fe o n t h e j o b .
I E E E S P E C T R U M J U N E 1984 77
t h e p o t e n t i a l t o e x p a n d h u m a n i n p u t , b u t i n p r a c t i c e m a n a g e m e n t i n m a n y cases seeks t o l i m i t i t . C o n s i d e r t h r e e e x a m p l e s c f th is c e n t r a -d i c t i o n : f i r s t , a u s e c f c o m p u t e r - a i d e d d e s i g n ( C A D ) t h a t s e v e r s t h e
r e a l i t ies o f p r c K i u c t i o n ; sec o n d , a d e p l o y m e n t o f c o m p u t e r i z e d m a c h i n e t o o l s t h a t r e m o v e s m o s t
t h e w o r k e r ; a n d t h i r d ,
t e c h n o l o g y t o m o n i t o r mid t * i tC^ w u i k c l ^ i r o r i -Ica l ly .
C o n v e n t i o n a l d e s i g n m e t h o d s i n m a n u f a c t u r i n g a r e , b y n a t u r e , i te r a t i v e . A d e s i g n e r w h o d r a w s a p a r t m u s t t a k e t h a i d r a w i n g d o w n l o { h e s h o p Π ο Ο Γ ; e x p l a i n it t o t h e m a c h i n i s t , l is ten t o t h e m a c h i n i s t ' s s u g g e s t i o n s , a n d , i n g e n e r a l , i n t e r a c t w i t h t h e w o r k i n g e n v i r o n m e n t . T h i s r e q u i r e s s o m e i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e Les CU^mimcttm (TTie Consiraction d e s i g n e r a n d t h e r e a l i t ies o f t h e s h o p f l o o r . W i t h c o m p u t e r - a i d e d d e s i m i , h o w e v e r , it b e c o m e s p o s s i b l e t o m o d e l a d e s i g n w i t h i n t h e c o m p u t e r i tse l f . T h u s , p r o t o t y p e s o f t e n d o n o t h a v e t o be b u i l t t o test v a r i o u s d e s i g n ?^iern?U!ves T h e d e s i g n c^j i e v e n h e r j o n v e r t e f i i n t o i n s t r u c t i o n s t o g u i d e a m a c h i n e t o o l , a n d these i n s t r u c t i o n s c a n be
T h e t e m p t a t i o n is t o accept t h e c o m p u t e r m o d e l i n p lace o f t h e r e a l i t y o f t h e s h o p f l o o r . T h e t w o . h o w e v e r , a r e n o t t h e s a m e . W h e n c o m p u t e r - a i d e d d e s i g n is u s e d t o e n h a n c e a c lose r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e d e s i g n e r a n d t h e m a c h i n i s t , it e x p a n d s t h e p o s s i b i l i t ies o f p r o d u a i o n , b u t c o m p u t e r - a i d e d d e s i g n as a r e p l a c e m e n t i o r t h a i i n t e r a a i o n p o s e s s o m e r e a l d a n g e r s . It b e c o m e s v e r \ ' e^^sy t o lose t h e feel o f m a k i n g t h i n g s , t h e i n t a n g i b l e e x p e r i e n c e t h a t c o m e s o n l y f r o m c l o s e c o n t a a w i t h t h e rea l i t ies o f p r o -
A n e x a m p l e o f t h i s loss o c c u r r e d i n a B r i t i s h a i r c r a f t f a c t o r y . A y o u n g d e s i g n e r , u s i n g t h e latest i n c o m p u t e r i z e d e q u i p m e n t , d e s i g n e d a n i g n i t e r f o r a g a s t u r b i n e e n g i n e . T h e i g n i t e r w a s t h e n m a d e o n a c o m p u t e r i z e d m a c h i n e t o o l . I t w a s a b r i l l i a n t d e s i g n , b u t s o m e w l i c r e i n t h e p r o c e s s t h e d e c i m a l p o i n t w a s m o v e d a c c i d e n t a l l y o n e p lace t o the r i g h t . T h e c o m p u t e r i z e d i n s t r u a i o n s c a m e d o w n t o t h e s h o p floor, a n d t h e w o r k e r i n v o l v e d bui l t t h e i g n i t e r a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n s . T n e o n i y p r o b l e m w : ^ its s i z e : 10 l i m e s t h e p r o j c a e d d e s i g n . W h e n t h e w o r k e r c a r r i e d it u p t o t h e y o u n g d e s i g n e r i n t h e s h o p o f f i c e , t h e d e s i g n e r l o o k e d at it a n d d i d n o t i m m e d i a t e l y n o t i c e a n y p r o b l e m w i t h t h e p a n .
W h i l e t h i s m a v be a p a n i c u l a r l v o u t r a g e o u s e x a m p l e , e r r o r s o f t h i s k i n d t h a t a r e o n l y 10 p e r c e n t o f f m i g h t n o t b e d i s c o v e r e d . H o w d o m a n u f a c t u r e r s c o m o e n s a i e f o r these m i s t a k e s w h e n t h e d e s i g n e r h a s b e c o m e s e v e r e d f r o m t h e rea l i t ies o f t h e s h o p floor?
Workers^ Femand Leger, 1950
I s m a c h i n e t o o l . C o m -I p a r e d w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l
e q u i p m e n t , C N C o f f e r s i m p r e s s i v e t e c h n i c a l a d v a n t a g e s , s u c h as b e t t e r q u a l i t y , f e w e r f i x t u r e s a n d set -ups* t h e c a p a b i l i t y t o m a c h i n e m o r e c o m p l e x p a r t s , a n d p r e c i s e r e p e a t a b i l i t y s t ^ n m i n g f r o m t h e a b i l i t y t o reuse a p r o g r a m t o repea t a p a r t i c u l a r j o b . T h e p r o m i s e f o r m a c h i n i s t s is t h a t t h e j o b chaTiges f r o i " i h e r n a n -u a l t u r n i n g o f d ia ls a n d l e v e r s t o t h e s u p e r / i s i o n o f a c o m p u t e r - c o n t r o l l e d a c t i v i t y ,
A r e p o r t t h a t I p r e p a r e d f o r t h e U . S . O f fice o f T e c h n o l o g y A s sessment i O X A ) la te last yesn—Impact of Pro-grammable A utomation on the Work Environ-ment—points t o a m u c i i less g l a m o r o u s r e a l i t y . O n e o f t h e f o u r c a s e s t u d i e s i n t h e r e p o r t c o n c e r n e d t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f c o m p u t e r i z e d m a c h i n e t o o l s i n t o s e v e n s m a l l m e t a l w o r k -i n g s h o p s . T h e s t u d y
o f c o m p u t e r i z e d m a c h i n e t o o l s . k n o w T i as C N C ( o r N C ) , f o r c o m p u t e r n u m e r i c a l c o n t r o l . W i t h C N C a p r e p r o g r a m m e d c o m p u t e r , r a t h e r t h a n a m a c h i n i s t , c o n t r o l s t h e bas ic o p e r a t i o n o f t h e
f o u n d that c e n t r a l i z e d c o n t r o l o f s h o p o p e r a t i o n s h a d i n c r e a s e d , o v e r a l l sk i l l r e q u i r e m e n t s h a d d e c r e a s e d , a n d m a n y s k i l l e d w o r k ers c o m p l a i n e d tha t t h e i r j o b s h a d b e c o m e r o u t i n e a n d b o r i n g .
Who should instruct the computer?
p r e p a r e s t h e i n s t r u a i o n s o f t h e p r o g r a m that w i l l g u i d e t h e m a c h i n e t o o l . T e c h n i c a l l y , t h e c h o i c e s r a n g e f r o m t h e m a c h i n i s t p r e p a r i n g t h e i n s t r u a i o n s o n t h e s h o p floor t o a f u l l - t i m e p a r t s p r o g r a m m e r w r i t i n g t h e p r o g r a m o f f t h e s h o p floor. I n t h e fu-st i n s t a n c e , t h e m a c h i n i s t w o u l d b e u s i n g t h e c o m p u t e r as a t o o l t o c a r r y o u t t h e s a m e d e c i s i o n s t h a t a r e m a d e at t h e m a c h i n e w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l e q u i p m e n t ; i n t h e s e c o n d , t h e d a a i l e d p l a n n i n g a n d c o n t r o l o f w o r k is r e m o v e d f r o m t h e s h o p floor.
i n SOIT ic CdScS i h c i c a r c C O i u p e i u l i g l e v i i i i i v . ^ i c o d u i i s , S u c i i t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e p a r t , f o r p r o g r a n u n i n g t o b e d o n e o f f t h e s h o p floor; i n o t h e r cases t h e r e a r e c lear a d v a n t a g e s t o m o v i n g p r o g r a m m i n g d e c i s i o n s c l o s e r t o w h e r e t h e o p e r a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e . T h e d e c i s i o n , h o w e v e r , is b a s e d n o t s i m p l y o n t e c h n i c a l m e r i t b u t o n soc ia l a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l g o a l s as w e l l .
A m o n g t h e s e v e n s m a l l s h o p s v i s i t e d f o r t h e O T A s t u d y , a l l h a v e c h o s e n i o m o ^ e i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f m o r e c e n t r a l i z e d c o n t r o l o v e r t h e p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s , u s i n g C N C as a k e y v e h i c l e . . A l t h o u g h there w e r e i m p o r t a n t v a r i a t i o n s i n the o r g a n i z a t i o n o f p r o d u a i o n a n d t h e l o c u s o f d e c i s i o n m a k i n g in these s h o p s , m o s t o f the C N C p r o g r a m m i n g w a s d o n e b y p r o g r a m m e r s r a t h e r t h a n b y the n i a c h i n i s t s . .A. c e n t r a l r e a s o n f o r m o v i n g i n th is d i r e c t i o n , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s h o p o w n e r s i n v o l v e d , w a s t o r e d u c e t h e r e l i a n c e o n h i g h l v s k i l l e d w o r k e r s , a n d t h e r e b y l imi t t h e i r n o w e r . O n e s h o p o w n e r s u m m a r i z e d t h e f e e l i n g o f m a n y b y s a y i n g :
* T i v c , six y e a r s a g o , w c w e r e v e r y d e p e n d e n t u p o n s k i l l e d l a b o r , t o t h e p o i n t w h e r e I s p e n t h a l f m y l i f e o n m y h a n d s a n d knees b e g g i n g s o m e b o d y t o s t a y a n d d o s o m e t h i n g . T h e y t e n d e d t o be p r i m a d o n n a s . T h i s is o n e o f t h e m o t i v a t i n g f a c t o r s i n
78 I E E E S P E C T R U M J U N E 1984
b r i n g i n g i n N C e q u i p m e n t — r e d u c e d d e p e n d e n c y o n s k i l l e d l a b o r . "
A n o t h e r s h o p o w n o " c o m m e n t e d : **! b e l i e v e i n h a v i n g c o n t r o l o v e r e v e r y p r o g r a m a n d e v e r y
p a r t , b e c a u s e t h e r e ' s a lo t i n v o l v e d . I k n o w n o w a d a y s t h e r e ' s a l o t o f n e w e q u i p m e n t o u t o n t h e m a r k e t t h a t y o u c a n p r o g r a m r i g h t o n the c o n t r o l o r right o n the m a c h i n e , but t h a t is a c o n c e p i t h a t I d o n ' t b e l i e v e i n f o r o u r s i t u a t i o n . "
W h e n w o r k is o r g a n i z e d i n th is w a y , the m a c h i n i s t b e c o m e s a m o n i t o r r a t h e r t h a n a n a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a n t i n p r o d u c t i o n . T h e w o r k e r loses c o n s i d e r a b l e p o w e r t o m a k e d e c i s i o n s o n t h e s h o p f l o o r ; a n d less sk i l l is r e q u i r e d t o r u n t h e m a c h i n e . F o r s o m e w o r k e r s , t h e s e c h a n g e s c a n b e p a i n f u l . O n e s k i l l e d m a c h i n i s t at a n a e r o s p a c e c o m p a n y r e m a r k e d :
* * Y o u d o n ' t h a v e t o t h i n k a n y m o r e . Y o u lose t o u c h w i t h w h a t y o u ' r e a c t u a l l y d o i n g . . . . Y o u ' v ? got β s t o f docurn^ntSj y o u ' v e g o t y o u r t a p e s , a n d y o u ' v e g o t a set o f i n s t r u a i o n s as t o h o w t o set t h e m a c h i n e u p a n d r u n i t , a n d 1 b e l i e v e y o u y o u r s e l f b e c o m e a r o b o t , b e c a u s e y o u d o n ' t get t o use y o u r m i n d . "
A skul led r n a c h i n i s t i n cne o f the srnal l metoi lworking shops s a i d , * * Y o u get t o b e , i n m y o p i n i o n , o n a n N C , a l i t t le w e a k -m i n d e d . " A n o t h e r w o r k e r c o m p l a i n e d , " Y o u c a n h i r e a c h i m p a n z e e — t h e l i g h t g o e s o n , p u s h a b u t t o n . " T h i s w o r k e r a l s o s^Q, '"I start walking back and for th like a rat in a cage," hardly a n i m a g e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e c o m p u t e r age .
Problems of boredom U n d e r t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , m a n y w o r k e r s c o m p l a i n e d o f
b o r e d o m . O n e a e r o s p a c e m a c h i n i s t s a i d , **i c a n sit a l l n i g h t o n t h e m a c h i n e a n d g o h o m e a n d be t i r e d . I ' v e t o l d m y s e l f t o s t o p b e i n g t i r e d . I ' m n o t t i r e d — I ' m j u s t b o r e d . " T h i s p r o b l e m w a s c o n f i r m e d b y a r e p o r t f r o m t h e M a c h i n e T o o l I n d u s t r y R e s e a r c h A s s o c i a t i o n i n G r e a t B r i t a i n , a n i n d u s t r y b o d y t h a t h a s s t u d i e d t h e i m p a c t o f n u m e r i c a l c o n t r o l o n the m a c h i n i s t . * * T h e o p e r a t i o n o f s o m e N C m a c h i n e t o o l s has a l r e a d y b e c o m e m e r e m a c h i n e m i n d i n g , a n d o p e r a t o r c o n c e n t r a t i o n is d i f f i c u l t t o m a i n t a i n , " t h e r e p o r t s ta tes . * * B o r e d o m c a n l e a d t o loss o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n a n d t h u s t o i n c r e a s e d r i s k o f a c c i d e n t . "
W h i l e c o m p u t e r i z e d m a c h i n e t o o l s m a y be d e s i g n e d t o m i n i -iTiizs opsrsior i n p u t , there a r c l.imiis t o the r e d u c t i o n o f s k i l l find w o r k e r i n t e r v e n t i o n , g i v e n t h e e n o r m o u s v a r i a b i l i t y o f b a t c h m a n u f a c t u r i n g a n d t h e c u r r e n t state o f the t e c h n o l o g y , i n t h e s e v e n s m a l l s h o p s v i s i t e d , t h e d a y - t o - d a y rea l i t y w a s filled w i t h t h e u n e x p e c t e d : b u g s i n p a r t s p r o g r a m s , u n f o r e s e e n p r o b l e m s v V i i h the n i a C h i n e S , o f f - 5 t a i i d a i d C a S t i T i g S , S l i d i T i a T i y O i l i C l V i a i i -a b l e s . U n d e r these c i r c u m s t a n c e s , o p e r a t o r i n t e r v e n t i o n is c r i t i c a l , e v e n t h o u g h t h e n e e d f o r m a n y i m p o r t a n t sk i l ls is e l i m i n a t e d o r r e d u c e d . I r o n i c a l l y , s o m e o f t h e m o s t s a t i s f y i n g e x p e r i e n c e s o n t h e j o b that w o r k e r s s p o k e o f o c c u r r e d w h e n m a c h i n e s and s y s t e m s w e r e n o t o p e r a t i n g a c c o r d i n g t o p l a n .
R a t h e r t h a n a d d r e s s t h e b o r e d o m s y n d r o m e b y r e d e s i g n i n g w o r k , e m p l o y e r s o f t e n i n t r o d u c e m o r e t e c h n o l o g y . T o c o m p e n sate f o r b o r e d o m a n d l a c k o f o p e r a t o r i n v o l v e m e n t , e n g i n e e r s a r e a s k e d t o d e s i g n m o r e a n d m o r e c o m p l e x m a c h i n e s t o r e p l a c e t h e f e w r e m a i n i n g h u m a n f u n c t i o n s that e x i s t . T h e i n c r e a s e d c o m p l e x i t y c a n l e a d t o i n c r e a s e d u n r e l i a b i l i t y . S i n c e h u m a n sk i l ls a t r o p h y u n d e r these c i r c u m s t a n c e s , w h e n t h e sk i l l s a r e n e e d e d , t h e y m a y n o t be t h e r e . D o n a l d G e r w i n , a p r u f e s s o r o f b u s i n e s s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n at t h e u n i v e r s i t y o f W i s c o n s i n i n M a d i s o n w h o h a s s t u d i e d c o m p u t e r i z e d m a n u f a c t u r i n g s y s t e m s , s u m m a r i z e d t h e p r o b l e m :
" S y s t e m d e s i g n e r s , i n theh- has te t o d e v e l o p s m o o t h l y f u n c t i o n i n g s y s t e m s f r e e o f h u m a n v a r i a b i i i i y , h a v e c o m m i i i e d t h e i f a g l c fiaw o f o v e r l o o ' s i i i g t h e s i n i p i e fact t h a i h u m a n s a r e a l s o c r i t i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e s o f c o n t r o l f o r s y s t e m v a r i a b i l i t y . I t is t i m e t o r e c o g n i z e t h i s a n d g i v e g r e a t e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n t o t h e d e s i g n o f t r a n s i t i o n a l s y s t e m s , w h e r e h u m a n s a n d m a c h i n e s i n t e r a c t , r a t h e r t h a n t o t h e d e s i g n o f i n c r e a s i n g l y c o m p l e x , less r e l i a b l e t e c h n o l o g y w h e r e h u m a n s m e r e l y c o p e . "
T h e final e x a m p l e o f t h e e o n t r a d i c d o n b e t w e e n t h e p o t e n t i a l
o f c o m p u t e r s t o e n r i c h W O r k a n d t h e i r a c t u a l u s e i n p r o d u c t i o n i n v o l v e s c o m p u t e i i z e d m o n i t o r i n g a n d s c h e d u l i n g s y s t e m s . T h a e m s r s a g e m e n t i n f o r m a t i o n s y s t e m s c a n go b e y o n d s i m p l y c o o r d i n a t i n g p r o d u c t i o n : t h e w a y d a t a a r e d e f i n e d , c o l l e c t e d , a n d u s e d c a n resu l t i n n e w f o r m s o f c o n t r o l , b o t h s u b t l e a n d d i r e c t , o v e r w h a t w o r k e r s do . This c o n t r o l c a n d i m i n i s h t h e a u t o n o m y t h a t b o t h w o r k e r s a n d s u p e r v i s o r s h a v e i n p r o d u c t i o n .
O n e s u c h s y s t e m w a s i n s t a l l e d i n t w o p l a n t s o f a l a r g e m a n u f a c t u r i n g c o m p a n y v i s i t e d f o r t h e O f f i c e o f T e c h n o l o g y A s s e s s m e n t s t u d y . W h e n a w o r k e r c o m p l e t e s a j o b , s t o p s w o r k f o r o t h e r r e a s o n s , o r p u n c h e s i n o r o u t , t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n is k e y e d n : -t o a t e r m i n a l n e a r t h e w o r k a r e a . A t a t o u c h , a s u p e r v i s o r c a n ca l l u p de ta i l ed i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t e v e r y aspect o f a d e p a r t m e n t ' s a c t i v i t i es . U s i n g t h i s d a t a , a w o r k e r ' s o n - t h e - j o b a c t i v i t i e s c a n b e c o n t r o l l e d a s w e l l as m o n i t o r e d .
Using t h i s s y s t e m , a s u p e n ' i s G r g a i n s i n s i g h t n e t cn l> ' i n t o t h e t o t a l n u m b e r o f p a r t s p r o d u c e d on a s h i f t , b u t a l s o i n t o h o w t h ^ w o r k e r s a r t u a l l y s p e n d t h e i r t i m e . T h i s c a p a b i l i t y c a n be u s e d t o e n s u r e tha t w o r k e r s f o l l o w e s t a b l i s h e d m e t h o d s o n j o b s o r t o see i h a t t h e p a y r a t e f o r j o b s is c h a n g e d w h e n a w o r k e r h a s d e v e l o p e d a s u p e r i o r s y s t e m . A n i m p o r t a n t t a r g e t o f t h e s y s t e m is " b a n k i n g , " a p r a c t i c e w h e r e b y a w o r k e r a e e i u n u l a t e s a s t o c k p i l e o f p a r t s b y w o r k i n g fa.ster t h a n t h e p r e s c r i b e d m e t h o d s . T h i s bank can t h e n be u s e d to even o u t incentive earnings and to put t h e pace o f t h e j o b m o r e u n d e r t h e w o r k e r ' s c o n t r o l .
B u t s o m e w o r k e r s e x p r e s s e d a p p r e h e n s i o n a b o u t t h e s y s t e m ' s m o n i t o r i n g c a p a b i l i t i e s . A s o n e o p e r a t o r p u t i t :
" I t ' s 1 o ' c l o c k . I ' m n o t d o n e u n t i l 3:30, b u t I g o o v e r a n d I p u n c h i n t h a t I ' v e g o t 24 pieces d o n e . T h e m a n a g e r s h a p p e n t o g o i n t o t h e s y s t e m , a n d t h e c o m p u t e r tel ls t h e m , * H e y , t h i s o p e r a t o r p u n c h e d i n h i s w o r k at 1. K o w c a n h e p u n c h i n h i s w o r k b e f o r e he 's d o n e ? ' h i o t h e r w o r d s , t h a t c o m p u t e r is s a y i n g , * H e y , t h i s g u y g o t d o n e at 1.' T h a t scares t h e h e l l o u t o f m e . "
I n o t h e r m o n i t o r i n g s y s t e m s , t h e c o m p u t e r is l i n k e d d i r e c t i y t o t h e m a c h i n e t o o l . W h e n t h e m a c h i n e is d o w n , f o r w h a t e v e r r e a s o n . , t h e s u p e r v i s o r is n o t i f i e d , s e v e r e l y l i m i t i n g a n y a b i l i t y t o c o n t r o l t h e p r o d u c t i o n ra tes o n t h e s h o p floor. ( O n t h e i n c e n t i v e s y s t e m , w o r k e r s o f t e n r e c e i v e l o w e r p a y f o r d o v m t i m e . I n t h e past , t h e y h a d t h e o p t i o n t o s p e e d u p t h e i r w o r k p a c e t o m a k e u p f o r lost t i m e . R u t t h i s n e w s y s t e m p r o h i b i t s t h i s . ) B e c a u s e a l l t r a n s a c t i o n s a r e l o g g e d i n t h e c o m p u t e r , t h e f o r e m a n is n o l o n g e r ab le t o w m k at a f t e r - t h e - f a c t e o r r e a i o n s , t h u s b r e a k i n g u p a n y i n f o r m a l a r r a n g e m e n t s b e t w e e n w o r k e r s a n d s u p e r v i s o r s , e v e n t h o s e tha t i n c r e a s e p r o d u c t i v i t y .
A t ΰ π € plofizt o n t h e i n c e n t i v e s y s t e m , f o r e x o j u p l ^ , α vvorkss w h o s e m a c h i n e w a s d o w n f o r r e p a i r m i g h t t a k e a " b o n u s " d a y o f f . A l t h o u g h these c o n t r a c t u a l l y p r o v i d e d floating h o l i d a y s r e q u i r e o n e - w e e k a d v a n c e n o t i c e , a s u p e r v i s o r c o u l d , u n d e r t h e o l d s y s t e m , b a c k d a t e r e q u e s t s . N o w t h e w o r k e r s t a n d s a r o u n d w h i l e t h e m a c h i n e is b e i n e fixed.
A use o f c o m p u t e r - b a s e d a u t o m a t i o n t h a t t r i v i a l i z e s w o r k is b o t h h u m a n l y t r a g i c a n d t e c h n i c a l l y i m n e e e s s a r y . A n a l t e r n a t i v e d i r e c t i o n t h a t f u l l y uses t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y ab i l i t ies a n d sk i l l t h a t p e o p l e possess r e q u i r e s a n e w v i s i o n o f w h a t t e c h n o l o g y c a n a c c o m p l i s h . T h i s v i s i o n w o u l d n o t c o u n i e r p o s e c o m p u t e r s t o p e o p le ; it w o u l d n o t r e l e g a t e h u m a n abi l i t ies t o t h e s t a t u s o f s y s t e m stat ic . I n s t e a d , c o m p u t e r s w o u l d a m p l i f y r a t h e r t h a n e l i m i n a t e the u n i q u e q u a l i t i e s t h a t o n l y h u m a n s c a n b r i n g t o p r o d u c t i o n , seek ing t o i n c r e a s e e f f i c i e n c y b y t a p p i n g r a t h e r t h a n d e s t r o y i n g h u m a n c r e a t i v i t y . A n a l t e r n a t i v e v i s i o n a lso r e q u i r e s t h e i n v o l v e m e n t o f t h o s e w h o a r e a f f e c t e d b y c h a n g e , w h e t h e r t h e y a r e d e s i g n e n g i n e e r s o r m a c h i n i s t s .
S e p a r a t i n g t h e p r o c e s s o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t f r o m t h o s e a f f e c t e d b y it r e s u l t s a i best i n b e n e v o l e n t s y s t e m s b a s e d o n t h e n e e d s o f m a c h i n e s r a t h e r t h a n p e o p l e ; at w o r s t it leads t o a m o r e a u t h o r i t a r i a n w o r k p l a c e . T h e d e s i g n o f m a c h i n e s r e f l e c t s social v a l u e s as w e l l as t e c h n i c a l n e e d s , i n e ideas a n d e x p e r i e n c e o f t h o s e w h o a re a f f e c t e d b y n e w d e s i g n s c a n h e l p e n s u r e t h a t c o m p u t e r i z a t i o n r e s u l t s i n be t te r c o o r d i n a t i o n a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n i n c r e a s e d a u t h o r i t y a n d e o n U " o l . •
Shaikcn—Automation in industry: bleaching the blue collar 79
