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46In seismological studies, very large role played by the mapping of fracture zones and faults. These are the places where future largeearthquakes will occur. Consequently, the mapping is a priority task inthe studies of a seismic hazard area. The problem that arisesimmediately is: What faults and fracture zones should be mapped andit was always possible to do?The classical surface geological mapping can not identify all existingcracks and fracture zones. This is especially problematic when it iscreated from the surface trace of speaking any deep tectonic activity.It is also difficult to define the significance of a seismological faultdetected on the surface, without any information about the deeptectonic structure of the area studied. The previous problem has been

partially addressed by the study of spatial distribution of earthquakesin a seismogenic area disguised. An example of this process is shownin Figure (4). The seismic activity of the window (dotted line) has beenmapped for the period of June 2001. The emergence of seismicallyactivated fault is obvious. As a result of seismic activity and the

existenceof the

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47corresponding fault (Thanasoulas, 1998) at Fisherman (lower leftcorner of the window) held a large seismic event an earthquake onthe island of Psara.

Fig. (4). Highlighting the deep fracture zone - fault from seismicmapping of the activity in a disguised period.IEinai very interesting to see the coincidence of this seismicallymapped fracture zone, along with a map that has the gravitationalmethod is shown in Figure (10). This fracture zone is given in the pasttwo (2) large earthquakes with magnitude greater than 6R. Mapping of seismic faults in the study of the gravitational field of the earth.

The theoretical model.The major tectonic features (faults - fracture zones) of land arereflected in the morphology of the gravitational field. The wavelength,of the morphology of the gravitational field depends on the size of therespective faults - fracture zones. Consequently, the study of gravitational field is determined only by the large wavelengths canprovide structural information about the deep rifts - fracture zones.Moreover, the precise position of a fracture - fracture zone can be tooeasily to the study of horizontal change (gradxG) of the corresponding

gravitational field. The next figure (5), (a) represents a typical faultmodel of the earth, (b) corresponds to the amended version of thefault, gravity field, while (c) corresponds to the horizontal change inthe gravitational field. Details of these transformations can be found inany book gravimeters taught in universities.Fig (5). (A) = fault model, (b) = gravitational field, (c) = horizontalchange in gravitational fieldApplication of the methodology in the Greek.On 13 May 1995, a devastating earthquake (M = 6.1R, 400.18,210.71) was in the region of Grevena in northern Greece, whichcaused major damage to the nearest towns and villages and a smallnumber of reported victims. This is very interesting from a scientificpoint of view in this earthquake is the fact the lack of (a) any statisticalindication that a seismic event of this magnitude could happen in thisarea, which was classified on a scale of seismic hazard area as Zone1 (in the range 1 to 4), ie as a space with less in an notions, seismichazard and (b) lack any pliroforisis for major tectonic activity that

could justify an event of this magnitude seismic event. The followingstudy was prompted as a fact of occurrence of the earthquake of Grevena, the lack of statistics - tectonic / geological data that could

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48reveal the dangerous nature of the seismic area of Grevena, andprovided detailed scientific tectonic event that would justify the eventof this earthquake. The same scenario epanelifthike on September 7,1999 in Athens, capital of Greece. Although the city of Athens islocated in an area designated as "Area 2" in terms of seismic risk,lack of information about the deeper structure of the wider area wasbuild upon the culture that the capital of Greece is built upon 'Safe'territory. Unfortunately for the victims (several hundred), but also for large and ektetammenes damage to buildings were in Athens duringthis earthquake, it has proved totally wrong.So the question arises: Who really large earthquakes occur; Thestudy that follows may be the answer to that.

It is known that an earthquake occurs when the fracture zone - faultreleases the accumulated strain energy in the short time during thecollapse division. The greater the portion collapses the larger the sizeof the actual instances earthquake. The problem then arises: is itpossible to chart the deep tectonic fracture zones - faults occur wheremajor earthquakes; The statistical study of large earthquakes in theGreek little helps (Grevena earthquake, Athens) in the diagnosis of deep large structures whose existence is a prerequisite for theoccurrence of large earthquakes. The same problem, namely the

detection of large and deep tectonic structures, it is very simple if youdeal with methods of applied geophysics, as will be shown below. Thepoint of "key" of this study is that large earthquakes must agree to theposition with the major tectonic fractures - fractures of the lithosphere.Consequently, the positioning of these tectonic structures, which cannot be traced to other geological processes, is disguised aim of thisstudy. To get a clear picture of this topic in relation to major seismicevents in the Greek territory, has built the next map. The map waspresented by all earthquakes larger than 6R (Ms> = 6R) of the Greekarea and for the period 1900 to 1997. The location of each earthquakeis defined by a black dot and the circle at each site provides positionerror (+ / - 25 Km) value is very conservative compared to previousreports in the seismological literature. It should be noted that theposition of the focus of each earthquake can be anywhere in the circleof error without reducing the reliability of the map.Fig (6). Earthquakes magnitude Ms> = 6R in Greek territory for theperiod 1900-1997.

Unit scale = 10 Km.The method of transformation of gravitational field in a field of horizontal scale can be done in two dimensions in the gravitational

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49field of Greece. A simplified form of the gravitational field of the Greekarea (Bouguer anomaly) is presented in the following figure (7).Observations on mineralogical - geochemical studies onmetallogeneseis areas Brskovo / Yugoslavia Laconia / Ellada.TouAndrew C. Vgenopoulos with 6 illustrations, 2 tables The main ores of Laconia (Peloponnese) and Brskovo (Bosnia) are associated with theporphyry Triasiou period, and two sites associated with the phase of the intensity of the earth's crust during the early Mesozoic period.There are striking chemical and structural similarities in the volcanicrocks, especially where there is uptake of outdoor asvestolithou.Igeology of the two regions studied

The Brskovo / Yugoslavia and the Laconia / Greece are two areas

that are very similar on and surrounding volcanic rocks and may havea similar metallogenesi.The Brskovo is in the range of carbonate rocks in the Dinarides,

Montenegro (cf. PAMIC, JJ, 1982, and STRUCL., I., 1981). Includesmesotriasiki geosygklini-porfyritiki-volcanic region, and from thisderived Pb-Zn deposits are a series of porphyry and Keratofyresincluded among triasika shale sediments. In stratified volcanic rocksoccur mineral soak in different ways and degrees, which also extendto local sedimentary rocks. Near the volcanic rocks is also the

volcanic-sedimentary series of brecciated limestone and volcanictoffites, dolomites and dolomitic lime. Main components of the mixtureof the mineral body is silicon and the galena Sphalerite occurs onlyin minor quantities. Laconia is located in the southern Peloponneseregion indeed in geosygklini series of coal rocks and mountainsParnonos Taygetos. The ifaistites start in the middle of GythionPeloponnese peninsula from the sea and extended gaps in theNortheast. Mineral zones include areas of Molaon and Apidia,showing deposits of Pb-Zn-Cu (cf. Geol.charti, Molai Table 1: 50.000IGME 1984).National Technical University Department of Mineralogy and

Petrology, Geology, 28 42, Athens, Greece

Table 1.

Table 2.

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51samples, and in many cases different structure. Similarity in chemicalactivity, such as mineralogy and structure mainly occurs in samples,which retain their original volcanic nature, ie rocks, which were notinfluenced by collateral or postnatal influences. Examples on this arethe images 1 and 2. In both areas seem thin sections through thecharacter of typical volcanic rocks. These are mainly albite inclusions,which are operating in a core of microcrystals and glass phases.Some rocks are poor in nutrients, are of no disturbance or alteration of mineral grains and are almost always the same mineralogical andchemical concentration.Fig 1 Andesitikos ifaistitis Laconia / Greece. Photo mikroleiasmenissurface. Larger 8x10 + N.

Fig 2-Spilitis Keratofyris the Brskovo / Yugoslavia. Megethynsi8x10 +N

Fig.3 Calcium waste rock is not absorbed by the volcanic lava. Photomikroleiasmenis surface. Larger 8x10 + N

Fig 4. Gelatinous form wormlike growth subsidize Chalcedony justpassing through the vein of ore. (Laconia)In place of the partial absorption of calcium in the lava, seen together with the changing structure of a lifting of the ore, particularly copper (Fig. 3). (See VGENOPOULOS, 1980). (See Sample s / 5, 6, 7, 12,13, 14 and 15 of Table I). It also samples from Laconia. In the firstgroup of samples, especially in samples 5 and 6, it is clear that therehas been a change in the chemical and mineralogical collection. Thesample 5, for example, is richer in silica, calcium and trace elements,particularly strontium, unlike the sample 6 poorer in silica and calcium,so more rich in sodium, copper and surface components, which arelisted in Table I as a net water. The sample 7 is close to chemicalactivity, mineral concentration and structure of the typical ifaistiti asshown in images 1 and 2.The distance from one sample to another is not more than 40 million,but we can see the above significant differences, particularly asregards the structure of sample 5. Figure 4 shows a gel formation of

wormlike subsidize and development of an ore deposit and the newcrystal quartz. Figure 5 shows the evolution of silica gel-forming acidform Chalcedonian, which surrounds the crystals subsidized beyond

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53Fig 5 Chalcedon surrounding crystal subsidize recently formed Left,

Right soft quartz crystals in the middle vein. Photomikroleiasmenis surface. Larger 8x8 + N (Laconia)

Fig 6 complex structure, parallel flow to develop arodomorfi development of quartz crystal in a large mineral collection. Photo mikroleiasmenis surface. Larger 8x8 + N (Brskovo ).... calcium. The eruption of a volcanic lava takesa particular geological period. During this period there arefrequent movements, transformations and action. During these phases now separated the ore from the magma, asthe rift has promoted the release of surface components.

Bibliography PAMIC, J.J. (1982): Triassic Magmatism of the Dinarides.Zagreb.PIPER, G. (1983): The Triassic Volcanic Rocks of Tyros,Zarouhla, Kalamai and Epidavros, Peloponnese, Greece.Schweiz. Mineral. Petrogr. Mitt. Bd.63.STRUCL. I. (1961): Die schichtgebundenen Blei-Zink- Lagersttten Jugoslawiens. Mitt. Oesterr.Geol.Ges.Wien.

VGENOPOULOS, A. (1975): On the Boards Mineral Muscovite-Pigmatiti the region of Western Thrace, Greece.- (1980): About the Genesis of Copper Mineralisation in

Andesitic Basalt of Apidia Lakonias.UNESCO Intern. Symposium on Metallogeny of Mafic and Ultramafic Complexes: The Eastern Mediterranean- Western Asia Area and its Comparison with similar Metallogenic Environment in the World. Vol. 2, Athens1980.Fig (7). Simplified Gravitational (Bouguer anomaly) map of Greece.The following procedure has been applied to calculate thehorizontal field gradient: Gradx, y (G) = G (x, y) * TL (x, y)where: G (x, y) is the intensity of the gravitational field at

point x , y. TL (x, y) is the Operational converter Gradx, y (G) is the resulting field horizontal scale. The operator TLis calculated analytically for any point in the gravitational

field of the application surface to a 2nd degree gravity datawindow slides up from the original gravity map. To reject the shallow and surface tectonic features and targeting the

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54underlying tectonic structures of the earth, used "window" 20 Km in all transformations. The result of thesetransformations we propose to map chiaroscuro (Fig. 8)illuminated by BA thesi.Oi deep tectonic structures emergethus defined as the boundary between dark and light

periochon.Sch ammesos neighbors. (8). Map chiaroscuro(BA) gravity field horizontal scale of the Greek area. Thered circle indicates the location of the Athens earthquake(Ms = 5.9R, September 7, 1999) It is interesting to note that the earthquake occurred in Athens in the fracture zonewhich crosses the Attic in the NW - SE direction and whichis positioned Athens. This indicates the hazards of space.

The detailed analytical fracture zones - faults (thick black lines) found in the Greek market with the previousmethodology presented in the next figure (9).Map comparing positions of large earthquakes (1900 - 1997) of the Greek area and fracture zones / faultscalculated from the gravitational field.

Had previously reported that large earthquakes occur at deep tectonic structures, fracture zones - faults in thelithosphere. The next figure (9) is a comparative

presentation, ie the position of each major earthquake, asestimated by seismological methods, and the location of the deep fracture zones - faults derived from theconversion of gravity field in a field of horizontal change.Therefore expected at least a deep fracture zone - rift

passes through each cycle of error for each positionmapped earthquake. Obviously this fracture zone - thefault would be that triggered seismic and indicated thecorresponding earthquake. Thus the most "probable right

place" for the corresponding earthquake is not suggested by seismological methods, but that resulting from the

projection of the nearest seismic Spotlight fracture zone - fault. In this way, the new center is consistent both withthe seismological observations (still within the limits of theearthquake fault) and the requirements for the geotectonic inception. Of 97 large earthquakes used in this study only 6 differ materially from expected results. This could

apodothei the following reasons: possible conversion of the gravitational field of the used window is not able toidentify existing areas of fracture - fractures, or even the

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55 position of the focus has turned in the wrong applicationof seismological method. In each case the degree of correlation, statistically evaluated, it is extremely high.

Fig (10). Diorthomenes locations of major earthquakes inthe calculated fracture zones - faults by converting thegravitational field.

Verification of the fracture zones - faults of great earthquakes of the period 1998 - 2002 (after the

presentation of the study in 1998 IGME, A.3810)In the next drawing (11) are the major earthquakes (red

circles) of the Greek area occurred after the completion of

this work (late 1997) and during the period of 1998-2002,compared to the position of the identified fracture zones - fracturing of the lithosphere. It is obvious that all earthquakes of this period coincides (within the limits of error of + / - 25 Km) with the positions of tectonic zoneshave already been budgeted. Especially the cases of earthquakes of Karpathos, Skyros, Skopelos, regionKonitsa island of Psara, but particularly in Athens showsthe importance in this map for the classification, first, the

degree of seismic hazard in each region. Fig (11). Relatethe location of the most recent major seismic events (red circles) of the Greek area with the location of fracturezones - faults that were calculated by converting thegravitational field.

In conclusion, taking into consideration the recently increased seismicity in the Greek, it is reasonable toexpect that large earthquakes will occur in the future will occur along this fracture zone network covering the Greek territory. Therefore the seismic risk is too high along thesezones. One last tectonic point remains to be noted are thevarious stages through a geological formation during theseismic cycle and before its final collapse. This isillustrated in the following figure (12). x. (12). Change inaverage speed of rock deformation during the seismic cycle (Mjachkin et al. 1975). The main interest of Figure(12) that describes the different stages of rock deformation

during which the physical parameters of change and thusactivates mechanisms diaforiys Genesis precursory phenomena. Moreover, in themselves now, they have

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56identified the precursors of these phenomena, providesthe time window to a size where they no longer use theterm "short-term prognosis" is perfectly justified.KRHTH Earthquakes, tsunamis, climate change,landslides, forest fires ... are some of the threats that canmake life difficult for us in the not too distant future,according to the nightmarish scenarios drawn up by scientists from the European Spatial Planning ObservationNetwork-European Spatial Planning Observation Network (ESPON). The report of ESPON, completed the first days of 2006, a record of all those potential causes that could change our lives and mapping the risk in almost all its

forms. The result is a series of individual maps on whichthe risk of acquiring the means of analysis "identity", and possibly numerical likely to hit us soon the door. Thisvaluable tool for the fortification of Europe against

potential threats in 15 categories covering natural disasters, of which Crete threatened significantly at ratesranging from 10 to 25% in Lassithi and reach the 25 to 75 % for the other prefectures of the island. The seismic hazard zones Crete from all sides and scenarios scientists

ESPON seismogenesis chances for in congruence with predictive models and statistical records of historical and modern earthquakes, while largely following the final seismic hazard map of the EPPO . The risk mapping whilefollowing the boundaries of tectonic plates to the greatest extent responsible for this phenomenon. The map of CreteESPON record on the 4th level of risk (high) acrossEurope, just behind the Ionian islands which belong to thehighest risk zone. The fact that the program considers ahigh rate the chances of developing a powerful earthquakein the same time determines the likelihood of causing significant damage, which also constitutes one of the mainobjectives of the program at prevention. This risk is not allocated to the same level in all prefectures of Crete.

According to the relevant map, the prefectures of Heraklion and Rethymnon are in the 4th zone, identified in

purple, the most formidable destructive consequences of a

possible strong earthquake prefectures of Chania and Lassithi, who recorded on the relevant map in dark bluecolor. Note that the lines of risk defined and largely from

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57the "definition" of tectonic plates, which account for theintense seismicity of the region. A careful look at the mapof Europe reveals that its preparation was considered amajor parameter data, both historical and geological,economic, social, etc., which enabled the mapping of risk by region with great rigor and accuracy may at least instatistical and predictive models.Designers of the ESPON note that the main goal of mapping expressions of an assessment and evaluation of earthquake disasters that could cause it to become such avaluable study guide for the European Union and individual governments to devise an effective strategy for

minimize this risk with the obvious action. These includebetter construction, selected land use and geological studies under all relevant laws of EU institutions and instructions issued. KRITITV

Crude oil samples from five different reservoirs of the river

Before-... relation to the origin and level of thermal maturity,

... The relationship of intense tectonic movements and combinatorial ... active twinfaults with NW-SE wing, which evolved in the southern part of the tech- (Through fault zones or rogmatomenon) until caught ...

Another typetrap (trap by a combination of tectonic and stratigraphic ....lessdensity of oil compared with water the type of tectonic margin (passive or active continental margin). ... oil and gas on the continental shelf. North Sea. BGS, ..... Remember the presence of terraces (thelistrikon faults)

4. The MACHINE FRAUD& DYSTYCHIAS

Companies having their hands on maps of tectonic plates . . .

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58and traps oil the bottom, proceed to establish a legal framework in each country for the exploitation of oil reserves, even if this requires us burn all the forests. All you need is to have "infrastructure", roads, ports, etc.adjacent to areas that would make drilling for thetransportation of precious cargo. As well as first burnforests in order to buy cheap land and the burnt At undisturbed to make a drill undisturbed by smallholders.Just as it is today in the Peloponnese. NOT THEIR birdsdid a square GREEK LAND. The pretext is to install theburnt earth wind and photovoltaic systems for greengrowth. All these help a political parties to openly and

smferonton Jewish television channel to have the sameshaped emblem. They have not liars nice structured thinking about Green development, we quote the following

parts ONLY ENMEROSI DO NOT PISTTEPSETE Not asingle word

[The deterioration of climatic conditions from theexcessive use of energy, coupled with the increase in

primary energy demand is not accompanied by efficient use of energy produced, created the need for better energy

planning by making energy management an integral part of overall management.Power management is a key method for improving theenergy efficiency of the system with technical and organizational measures aimed directly at reducing theshare of energy in total production costs. Based oncontinuous monitoring of energy consumption in asystematic and organized manner, human resources,

priorities and financial means.Power management is a disciplined activity, organized and structured in the most efficient use of energy without reducing production levels without sacrificing the quality of the product, safety or environmental standards. Thefundamental principle of power management are economic efficiency. Energy management should be applied to theextent justified by the standard business and economic conditions, as each investment. Therefore, the energy

management requires both technical and economic considerations.The need for energy management, in contrast with other

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59administrative fads that came and went, would be

permanent in our society for the following reasons: In most cases lead to direct economic return. Many actions have improved the energy payback time of lessthan two years. Some of them even called the housekeeping operations or zero cost and are more oftenassociated with changes in user behavior have a zero-time

payment. Most enterprises in manufacturing seeking a competitiveadvantage. A reduction in energy costs of production canbe immediately and permanently. Furthermore, productsthat consume energy, such as machinery powered engines

evaluated to be less intensive and therefore moreattractive to the buyer. The technology for the action moving so quickly that theindividual techniques have lifetime maximum of twenty years. So someone in the company must be able tocontinuously evaluate and update the technology used. Energy security is a bit of energy management. Thecompany must be ready to face shortages of fuel and without a well thought out plan of action, it risks not have

immediate solutions to this important problem. Future shocks in fuel prices will occur immediately.Happened before, in 1973, 79, 90, 2008 and will continue tohappen in the future.People involved in energy management needs tounderstand this constant need and endeavor to gain thenecessary knowledge and skills in this emerging and dynamic profession.Energy management requires an adequate and well- designed management procedure (management). Whilemany business units around the world have successfully saved energy, examples in developed and developing countries show that only when the savings part of anoverall management plan, the savings are really significant and lasting.For this reason it is necessary to create a new section onmodern business units which has as its purpose the

management of energy and plays an important role inoverall management. This division is active in the production process, and generally the whole operation of

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60the business unit to improve energy behavior and to reapsignificant benefits as it reduces the total cost of operating the business unit.]

How to setup who rape BUSINESS NATURE

Incentives for energy management The company is encouraged by the wider environment inadopting proper energy management, particularly from thestate that provides incentives and information and itself derives significant benefits from the rational use of energy.These benefits relate to security of energy supply,

competitive energy sector and of course the environmental benefits of reducing carbon dioxide emissions, whichtranslate directly and economically, because the KyotoProtocol and the theory of emission rights, but alsoindirectly as a cleaner environment means better public health and therefore lower costs on the part of state for health care, increased productivity etc.Obstacles to the integration of energy management The most significant obstacles to the integration of energy

management at an operational unit is Lack of information on how to improve the energy efficiency of a business unit through the processes of energy management. Lack of expertise.

Energy Manager or Servant of the New Order;the person behind this process must have the necessary skills to be able

to meet its mission. As shown in the figure below, the energy manager issomehow the link between the business unit manager, financial manager and production engineer.Figure 2.7: The energy manager as a link between the other administrators.Below are the qualifications of the "ideal" energy manager: Extensive experience in management and energy technologies. Familiarity with production processes and quality requirements. Ability to gather and analyze data and interpret them in a

comprehensive report to the administration. Knowledge of equipment and energy-efficiency.

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62The staff seems to be running specialized personnel, hired by the ownersto make the necessary measurements and other procedures. The aim of the operation staff is to perform various checks system efficiency, whichis trying to raise as much as possible.UsersUsers contribute to the implementation of energy improvement measures.From their behavior depends largely the success of any energy-savingprograms. If properly implement the proposals made, is sure to be better energy behavior of the operational unit. It is therefore very important thatproper training and awareness of users in energy managementprocesses.Many times employees a company can contribute greatly to developing

an energy management plan is sufficient for the energy manager todevote some time to listen to their ideas. Especially workers inmanufacturing plants are those that have more knowledge about theplant's equipment and operation of why are they using it. They know howto use it more efficiently and therefore, if there is a mechanism wherethey can listen to their suggestions, their ideas remain unexploited.Observations on the role of human resourcesFrom the above it is evident that to properly implement energymanagement activities in an organization need to work all the manpower

employed by him. Then only the energy management program will becompleted both by the design and planning and its part of theimplementation and practical application, which includes compliance bystaff in some new "rules".The term energy audit is generally used to describe a systematic processaimed at acquiring sufficient knowledge about the energy profile of abuilding or plant. It also aims to identify and evaluate cost-effectiveopportunities for energy savings in that unit. Thus, energy audits arecrucial to implement energy saving measures, and ensure the objectivesof energy management.In an energy audit: The main objective is to save energy. The point of interest is the use of energy and their ability to save. There may be other aspects to a visa (status of equipment,environment) but it focuses mainly on energy profits. Produced reports on possible energy saving measures. The work performed may cover all energy uses of a particular facility or

limited parts (systems, equipment) of many plants (horizontal inspection)Stressed that the energy audit is a continuous action but repeatedperiodically. . . .

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63Depending on the completeness of data collected, energy inspections aredivided into two types, summary and extensive.The summary energy audits valued energy consumption and associatedcosts based on their energy bills, invoices and a brief Autopsy space. Outsome initial steps tidying and / or least-cost measures with short-termrepayment, and also proposed a list of other energy saving features,which often require significant capital investment on the basis of cost -benefit analysis.Extensive diagnostic energy audits require detailed inventory andanalysis of energy consumption data and other related elements of Inspected Unit. The energy consumption is analyzed in various end uses(eg heating, cooling, various processes, lighting, etc.) are presented and

analyzed various factors that affect these end-uses (eg, capacity or abilityservices, climatic conditions, characteristics of raw materials, etc.).In this way, defined as the total benefits and the related costs of possibleinterventions in energy savings that meet the criteria and requirements of plant management. In parallel, drawn up a list of possible energy savinginterventions that require substantial capital investment to be made, andbetter collection and processing of data, along with a detailed cost-benefitassessment for them.

Description of the overall process of energy auditThe energy audit is based on the distinct possibility of examiningindividual energy facilities, systems, and the building shell. The completeprocess includes the following three stages of recording and diagnosis(the gold, Energy Audit Guide, Part 1: Methodology and Techniques,2000):1st Stage: Design energy audit - collection of primary data andpreliminary analysis of energy dataAt this stage we must first collect information and data on current andpast energy picture, the construction and use of each business unit.These data can be collected using a structured questionnaire, summaryform, filled in after the first contact person responsible for carrying outenergy audit in the administration of the business unit to implement thedelegation of inspection. Basis for this form is the information from thetechnical and administrative managers of business units, and existingrelevant data (bills and invoices fuel projects, studies and directories,records of measurements and indices, etc.) . Preliminary analysis of the

data should lead to the identification of temporal trends and monthlyvariations of total consumption and energy costs in the analysis businessunit, which initially suggest the energy profile. The first such energy data . . .

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64collected should also lead to the first approach of distributing the energyconsumption in each region and business unit subsystem. Thus,ultimately, is expressed first in overall energy balance of monadas.Stoend of this stage, the person responsible for carrying out energy auditmay draw a first list of the potential for the building-unit energy savingsopportunities, based and requirements of property-management classesfor any operation or energy saving equipment to be exempted.2nd Stage: On-site Energy Audit SummaryThis stage is to spot quality, particularly of the shell and control of electromechanical plant building and the inventory of parts and functionalcharacteristics of construction and equipment installation in a specialform. This recording, along with indicative instantaneous measurements,

helps to better allocation of energy use and hence the energy balance of the building.This process, combined with the proposals of the previous stage, leads tothe final determination of potential energy saving measures tidying, andlow-cost interventions and direct, requiring no special economicassessment by the relevant energy studies. Also involves theidentification of potential savings in specific areas and systems to further explore these at a later stage by expert consultants or by the samemanagers of the unit, if possible. These potential savings will be divided

into three groups according to their energy resources for the building(high, medium, low).3rd Stage: Detailed Energy Audit FieldIt consists of the collection (through detailed field measurements) andanalysis of necessary data and a thorough examination of sections of theenergy systems of the building, plant, which will allow the drafting of thefinal total energy balance. This process will also allow proper techno-economic evaluation of one or more potential savings by investing inmedium and high initial costs in a given subsystem energy by therelevant special study.The process of energy audit completed with the presentation of allproposals for savings in the building or facility in the form of a summaryreport technoeconomic from the controller to execution to management,administration building, assembly or unit. 3.1.4 Design of energy auditThe performance of a sound and comprehensive energy audit requiresproper planning and preparation process. Indeed, prior to the start of measurements must be preceded by the following steps:

Define the purpose, objectives and criteria of the inspection. Establishment of units, installations and buildings for inspection system. Description of tasks and stages of inspection. . . .

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65 Scheduling of inspection to the exploitation of seasonal factors andother planned activities. Ensure access to facilities with advance information security staff. Identify those units or parts of the body are considered higher priority. Identify the standards and methods used in the survey. It should be aclear reference to both these standards and the various regulations. Define the parts of the body people will cooperate with the inspector for inspection. Identification of studies and data sources for collecting reference data. Analysis of runtime tasks of inspection. Identify team members for the inspector. Satisfaction of any confidentiality requirements.

3.1.5 Preliminary energy auditThe data on energy consumption and the capacity of a plant, whereavailable, are essential for all inspections until the simplest. For thisreason, the collection and verification of data consumption andproduction should begin from the moment decided to inspection. For thegreater time available, the better for the inspection process.Even where the availability of complete records, for example when theremonthly electricity bills, the analysis of energy use, losses and / or profits

may be very helpful and some weekly or daily measurements takenindependently. Moreover, when writing an energy balance, detailedinformation on individual consumptions help quantify the energy flow,thereby increasing the accuracy of this balance.With regard specifically to the first stage of building an energy audit, theunit is necessary to collect preliminary data related to energy behavior. Itis desirable to complete a questionnaire form, the following elements: General information about the building (building type, year of manufacture, use and type of service, ownership, senior representative,possible additions, renovations in housing and facilities, volumes andsurface areas, many people associated products and equipment supportservices operating system, sketch typical floor). Data consumption and energy costs over the last five (5) years (annualchanges in fuel consumption and electricity consumption monthlyvariation control year). energy management scheme and any existing energy saving measures.It should also be harvested the following supporting files:

Accounts and invoices for the purchase of energy (electricity, fuel) for the control period and for a period of 3-4 years earlier. Plans and studies for the building and the electromagnetic facilities. . . .

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66 Construction and operating characteristics of the basic equipment. Climatic data periods of energy analysis for the region. Any existing document file returns from existing meters and theoreticalestimates of energy consumption in the building.Filling out the form and collecting supporting data are the appropriatecharge-unit building in partnership with the person responsible for theimplementation of the Energy Audit. Also, all the data for the building-unitcan be inserted into a database for future processing, where energyanalysis of a sample of similar buildings or facilities.

3.1.6 The Activities InvolvedPower management of an organization is quite a complicated process

involving a large number of activities. Initial stage is to measure theenergy and comparison of energy consumption or indices with referencevalues to determine which parts of the business unit is more gasguzzlers, and be open to projects to improve energy efficiency. Then outof energy improvement projects, which may be work-free, low or highcost. Depending on what is required to work if there is an economicassessment and decisions on how funding. These activities takentogether constitute the concept of management as shown in the figurebelow

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67

3.1:

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(, )

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68Then this chapter will analyze the first stages of an energy managementplan relating to the measurement and processing of energy data.3.1.6.1 Energy Measurement Energy DataThe units of energy consumed in an industrial or business unit expressedin terms of physical units of measurement (kg, ton, lit, m3, kWh, etc.).Also, different forms of energy consumption can be expressed in a singleunit of energy per tonne of oil equivalent (TOE or toe), based onconversion rates. These rates reflect the calorific value of each type of fuel.The expression of energy consumption on a monthly basis use theexisting measurement systems. In the absence of such systems, it mustbe time-sharing of the energies, listed in the invoices of supplies. Such

sharing can be done either by a simple method (linear interpolation or extrapolation), or by chronological correlation functions of the energyconsumed by other series such as the size of production and the outsidetemperature. The energy manager must choose the method of timeallocation to be used after proper justification.Chronologically Energy ChartsThe development of appropriate data collected in the power managementmethodology in an operational unit, allowing a preliminary analysis of theenergy behavior. Thus, in situ mapping of the specific characteristics of

installed energy systems, has already formed a first impression of thetemporal and seasonal behavior in relation to energy use. While a clear evidence of energy consumption, it is possible to determine thechronological charts of energy.The chronological chart energy consumption of a task force is plotted ona form of energy as a function of time for a given period. Constructedbased on data recorded in the flow meters (electricity, oil, fuel gas, etc.).It provides instant information and allows some initial estimates on howand key sectors of energy use, on an hourly, daily, monthly and seasonalbasis.On the basis of supervisory observation chronological profile of energyconsumption can be identified in principle with the various parts of consumption, and hence the base and peak loads, ie: Independent of climatic conditions (constant in time parts), as cargo lifts,fixed-volume pumps, office equipment, hot water and cooking. Dependent on the weather parts, such as heating and air cargo space. Dependent on time and specific parts, such as charges related to

opening of windows, the response of the heating / air conditioning in thechanging conditions of occupation and programming operation of energysystems. . . .

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69May therefore be an initial distribution of energy consumption per use,based on a one time data, and thus to determine the initial energybalance of electricity and fuel.Energy Measurement TechniquesFor assessment and measurement of the required parameters requiresaccurate and complete data for a long time. In practice there are rarelyavailable in such data. Also, sometimes the available measuringinstruments have not undergone the prescribed maintenance procedures,calibration, leading to a low degree of reliability / The energy manager isinvestigating the status of operation and maintenance of establishedinstitutions and makes estimates of the potential of measuring error.The measurements made using different portable instruments for

measuring each class. These instruments depending on the type of measurement are classified in the following table.Table 3.1: Metering EquipmentMeasurand EquipmentElectrical Ammeter, Voltmeter, Wattmeter, synf Meter, Multimeter,Electrical Power Analyzer Temperature Resistance Temperature Detectors, Thermocouples,Temperature Sensors Semiconductors, Radiation pyrometers,thermographic camera

Provide Differential Pressure Gauges, sandwich counters, not interferingMeters, Gauges MassHumidity psychrometers, blister Lithium Chloride, hygrometer probeResin Ion Rotation, digital hygrometer, Thermo-Thermo-hygrographFlue gas exhaust gas analyzer Time Counters hours, RecordersOther measures luminance meter, total dissolved solids meters, countersConditions spray trap, heat permeability coefficient Meters, Countersventilation losses, Anemologikoi Meters, Counters total solar irradianceThe most common measurements made are: Benefits of liquid or gaseous fuels Electrical measurements (voltage, amperage, power and power factor). Temperatures of liquid and solid surfaces. Pressure fluids in pipes, furnaces, or containers (including vacuummeasurements). Recommendations and exhaust emissions (CO2, CO, O2, smoke). Relative humidity.

light intensity.2.1.6.2 Energy Data Processing . . .

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70Energy BalancesThe flow of energy in a unit from this distribution to final consumption per useful energy use and system understood directly through an overview of the energy balance of each system with a diagram Sankey. In thediagrams depicted quantitatively and proportionately, than the total inputenergy, the energy loss-output, profit and energy inputs and theremaining useful energy use in each unit's energy system, based on datafrom existing accounts invoices, computational considerations and fieldmeasurements.The local presentation of energy flows through diagrams Sankey, helps infinding the most critical areas of consumption in a plant, while the size of the different energy losses in it. This observation leads to a proper

assessment of the behavior of each considered system, and better prioritization of proposed energy-saving interventions.In devising a balance of energy requires expression of all forms of energyequivalent unit (TOE). This conversion is accomplished by the factorsshown in the table below.

Table 3.2: Factors for conversion of primary energy to ToeAn energy conversion factor (in TOE)Coal (1 ton) 0.700

Dry Lignite (1 ton) 0.380Lignite (1 ton) 0.140LPG (1 ton) 1195Heating oil (1 ton) 1095Fuel (1 ton) 1055Petrol (1 ton) 1128Kerosene (1 ton) 1133Electricity (1 MWh) 0,0861 kcal 10-7

Correlation between energy consumption and degree daysThe correlation of the monthly energy consumption with thecorresponding parameters change, such as heating degree days in thearea where the plant is built, allows the theoretical prediction of theconsumption data with climate information and use of the unit and thencomparing these predictions the recorded values of future consumption inorder to evaluate the model and change if projections show significant

error. Statistics show a direct correlation is the basis of graph-analyticalmethod of cumulative differences (CUSUM), which can be used for continuous monitoring of the benefit arising from the implementation of . . .

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71mitigation measures of consumption.Specific Energy consumption-IndexDetermine the specific consumption of fuel and electricity-energy indices,in the form kWh/m2 (or m3) ofelimou area, kWh per unit, service unit or equipment to support it. Comparing these energy indicators of energytargets, indicators like unit standards for construction and / or rational useof energy, such as those resulting from measurements or financialcalculations for sample buildings of various categories, leading to a better understanding of rational and non-use of energy the studied building.

Table 3.3: Example of Building Standards Performance IndicatorsType of Building Operation (Monastery shifts, days / week) Hours

Indicator (GJ/m2)Good Satisfactory Medium Low Very LowOffice 5 1.2Factory 5-6 1.5Store 5-6 1.2School 5 1.2Shopping shop 6 1.2Hotel 7 2.2

Listed in the table above indicative prices of energy efficiency indicatorsobtained based on results of study on a wide range of typical buildings inGreat Britain.Measures to improve energyIn Figure 3.2 below outlines the key types of actions to which energyimprovements.

Figure 3.2: Energy Improvement ProjectsThe energy improvements are possible interventions in the housing andan electromechanical plant building, whose implementation cansignificantly reduce the energy consumption. Depending on the energymeasurements are calculated possible savings amounts, which can beachieved with three actions to improve energy (tidying, low cost,reconstruction). From the above activities only the first category does notrequire any kind of techno-economic study, as it requires financial capital(the gold, Energy Audit Guide-Part 2: Potential Energy Savings, 2000).

Production ProcessesThe first key strand is for energy improvement in processes designed tobring savings in the production process of a business unit. . . .

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73Specifically, a check and repair the cracks presented in the context of openings and the walls, seal the joints, closing the channels of heat flowin wells and stairwells, with regard to the provisions of shading, they aredictated by age and orientation to the sun influence of exposure to whichthey apply.Low-cost measures include: The removal of unnecessary exposure to heat while protecting thesurfaces they cover. The replacement of cracked or broken glass. The mechanisms of automatic doors restored. The addition of insulating layer in parts of the exterior walls behindradiators heating layers.

The implementation of internal shading devices (curtains, blinds) inopenings with high unwanted summer heat gain.The above measures, although they have low or no cost application doesnot yield significant energy savings. To achieve significant energysavings in building envelope is essential to implement measures for energy reconstruction, as follows (the gold, Energy Audit Guide-Part 2:Potential Energy Savings, 2000): Thermal insulation of external walls. Reduce the volume of heated-air-conditioned premises with an

excessive amount of such integration ceilings. Add a passive solar heating and lighting. Implementation of mobile or fixed external shading devices such asawnings, shutters, etc.

3.2.3 Heating-Cooling - VentilationOne of the plants, which have high energy losses, is the boiler burner assembly of the building. The activities mainly include tidying the periodicmaintenance of the burner and secondary cleaning surface heattransaction deposits. For better functioning of the system requires low-cost interventions, such as the repair or upgrade the insulation of thesurfaces of the boiler. Finally, in case of severe energy losses isimperative that the reconstruction measures, such as replacing oldboilers and boilers.A large percentage of loss also occurs in hot water. One of the traditionalactivities of tidying to optimize the energy efficiency of the plant is thereduction of storage temperature and hot water is fed to the limits of

sufficient use for cleanliness and safety from bacteria and viruses.Standard low-cost measure is the installation flange for pipelines andhigh-cost interventions is to change the size of the storage tank to meet . . .

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74the real needs of the system and the installation of solar panels.Maintaining adequate ventilation and air condition is an importantparameter for energy consumption in modern business units. There arethree general types of air conditioning systems, with many variationsavailable for everyone.concentrated (or central) air system in which all heating and cooling loadsgenerated at a central plant room and transferred to the rooms through apipeline. Partially assembled systems for air / water, in which the head cold or warm air is cooled or heated further when entering the rooms. Local systems on which all operations are performed locally at the sitesneed to air conditioners.

As cooling and ventilation systems consist of many mechanicalcomponents, maintenance is complex and should be done according tostrict planning for each of the system. We always followed closely themaintenance schedules of equipment, which is proposed by themanufacturer, although there are some simple checks that can be madeeasier by the same administrator, such as verification of proper operationof pumps, fan coils and compressor of the list are filters, etc.Improving and maintaining high efficiency, a cooling system andventilation is a continuous process. As mentioned mean that it can save

10 to 30% of energy when used in these systems, if faithfully followed thepractice of maintenance.The main interventions in freezer for an optimal performance and savingsinclude (the gold, Energy Audit Guide-Part 2: Potential Energy Savings,2000): Installation of recording and measurement systems and controls for monitoring and recording of energy quantities and also check all theparameters affecting the efficiency of refrigeration plants. Use heat coolant - water. Correct choice of insulation, which seeks the establishment of better and more efficient insulation material in the freezer and in the piping. Ithas been estimated that by strengthening and optimization of arefrigeration chamber insulation and to reduce losses from the openingand closing the doors is achieved average savings of electricity 10 to20%.

3.2.4 Electrical Equipment

Significant electricity savings can be achieved through proper management of electrical systems for buildings of the residential sector.The reduction in wastage can be achieved using the following actions . . .

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75tidying: Clear light bulbs in rooms not used. Check the temperature and the mode of air conditioning. Stop the engine when operating in a vacuum. decoupling of aftometaschimatiston, when operating in a vacuum.The maintenance of electrical appliances and basic electrical equipmentto ensure the smooth functioning of the system may be emergency or planned. The maintenance of equipment owned by the actions of low cost(the gold, Energy Audit Guide-Part 2: Potential Energy Savings, 2000).The modernization of the electrical system, a remodeling activity,undertaken only when they have exhausted the possibilities of rationalization and taken all necessary measures tidying. Key measures

to modernize the electrical installations are (Liveris P., 1996): Power Factor Correction mainly through compensation, while couplingcapacitors. Other ways to power factor correction is to upgrade andregulate the supply voltage, the operation of the engine at full load (inproper application), change the wiring of the engine from the triangle tothe star at the start and replacing existing engines with engines of highspeed for optimum load distribution. Modifications to the power distribution network to eliminate the lossesare mainly in the old power distribution networks of plant and include:

o Upgrading ypodiastasiologimenon pipelines.o Topographic better circuits.o Upgrading of transformers or aftometaschimatiston.o Reducing the fortunes of high resistance of the secondary equipment.o Compensation for low cosf at strategic points in the network.

3.2.5 Alternative MeasuresAlternative actions that can implement a business unit are mostlyreconstruction activities and may include: Connection to the gas network. Install photovoltaic. Installation of solar systems. Shift load using pagodexamenon. Combined heat and power.

3.3 Energy ConservationIn addition to actions to improve energy that can contribute to increasing

the energy efficiency of a building and which are the responsibility of energy transmission, the electrical engineer should take into account thegeneral principles and energy saving construction phase of the building. . . .

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76

3.3.1 Energy Conservation in Buildings3.3.1.1 Bioclimatic DesignBioclimatic design is a building design which given the climate of eachregion, aimed at ensuring the necessary indoor climate (thermal andvisual comfort, air quality) with minimal energy consumption, using theavailable environmental resources (sun, wind - wind, water, soil). Thebioclimatic design contributes to energy savings for heating, cooling andlighting. Bioclimatic design techniques are thermal protection shell,passive solar systems, techniques and systems of natural cooling andnatural lighting and other technical rational use of energy (thermal zonesstore heat in the components of the building).

In Greece bioclimatic buildings, as shown by measurements, energysurveys and simulations show energy savings of 30% compared withstandard conventional buildings, and compared with previous amonotabuildings the savings of energy at a rate of 80% .The bioclimatic design depends on the local climate and is based on thefollowing principles: Thermal protection of buildings both winter and summer usingappropriate techniques applied in the outer shells of buildings, particularlyin proper insulation and aerosteganosi the building and its openings.

Utilization of solar energy for heating buildings in winter and natural lightthroughout the year. This is achieved by the orientation of countries,particularly the exposure (the southern direction is the most appropriate)and the layout of the interior where the heat needs and passive solar systems collect solar radiation and are 'natural' heating systems andlighting. Protection of buildings from the sun, mainly through shading, and theproper construction of the shell. Removal of the summer heat builds up inside the building in a naturalway to the external environment with systems and passive coolingtechniques, such as natural ventilation at night. Ensure adequate natural light and control light radiation so that there isadequate and even distribution of light in the rooms. Improve the climate outside and around buildings, with bioclimaticdesign of outdoor spaces and, in general, the built environment, followingall the above principles.The bioclimatic design including passive solar, which are integral parts -

components of a building, which operate without mechanical parts or additional power supply and naturally warm, and cool buildings.The passive system is divided into three categories: . . .

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77 Passive solar heating. passive and naturalcooling techniques. Systems andTechniques of NaturalLight.The bioclimatic design abuilding involves thecoexistence andcombined operation of all systems, so as toobtain thermal and

optical benefitsthroughout the year.

3.3.1.2 Thermal buildingenvelopeThe thermal protectionshell is essential for proper thermalperformance of any

building. The insulationis a basic principle of thermal protection,reducing the heatexchange between the building and the environment.The insulation consists of a whole-building components (hardware andsystems) and directly related to the cost of construction and operation of buildingsTypical insulating materials prevent the application of heat from thebuilding to the outside environment (or vice versa in the summer)because they contain trapped air or property to fibers (eg wool) or inclosed cells (eg, polystyrene).The thermal resistance and therefore the insulation ability of eachcomponent depends on the thermal conductivity of the material andincreases with thickness.In general, recommended that the insulating material to be placed outsideor in between the walls, ceilings and floors, so that disabled the thermal

mass (heat capacity) of the shell. Their position, however depends ontechno-economic factors but also by use (hours of operation) of space.A carefully insulated building is required by the applicable building . . .

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78regulations, generally cover the needs of a well-designed energy-efficientbuilding, sufficient attention to the insulation of all components to avoidthermal bridges (amonota or limited insulating capacity of the shellelements) which can create 'sensitive' items in the building, evencondensation.Apart from the opaque parts of the shell (walls, ceilings, floors) shouldensure the thermal protection of openings, using double (or triple for verycold regions, are generally not recommended for Greek climaticconditions), either straight or improved glass, vacuum frames, and inmany cases, using a mobile night insulation (eg, insulated shutters or blinds, Energy Saving, etc.).The insulation of the building contributes positively to the thermal

protection of the building during the summer months, especially if combined with the required ventilation, especially in the night. Whenthere is adequate ventilation of the building, the increased insulation of envelope beyond the stipulated by the regulations, to complicate theoperation of the heat in summer and prevent "unloading" of the buildingfrom the accumulated heat.

3.3.1.3 insolationSignificant contribution to energy savings for heating a building is to use

solar energy.All buildings receiving solar radiation that passes through openings(windows) indoors and warm.For the effective utilization of solar energy, ie there is significant energysavings should be satisfied the following conditions: to have sufficient surface openings (windows), to "see" the direct sun for several hours a day in winter. For these reasons, the south orientation,which is the only one who "sees" several hours in the sun in winter. To be the building well insulated, to prevent 'lost' heat from the exterior surfaces (walls, windows, ceilings, floors). Be there inside the building, the materials to "store" part of the heat fromsolar energy and so we have enough space (not too) warm at all times of day during which they serve. These materials must be massive (asceramic tiles on the floor, concrete, solid brick or stone interior walls) tohave the required thermal capacity. To be the building properly equipped, that the areas that require moreheat to receive more solar radiation.

The pio important element in the exploitation of solar energy for heatingbuildings in winter (and to avoid overheating in summer) is the correctorientation of the openings. . . .

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79Southern exposures receive the most sunlight in winter and with theappropriate horizontal shade, little summer.Openings in the north to help improve quality of lighting in the areabecause they accept only a diffuse rather than direct light, arerecommended for summer, but should be limited because they havelarge surface losses and lower profits in winter

Figure 3.5: Combination of land for proper orientationSource: www.cres.gr East and west exposures have the worst attitude the whole time, so thisis recommended only where necessary for reasons of light or view.Especially the western exposures are very difficult summer, and receive

direct sunlight at noon. Generally east and west openings should beprovided shade, preferably foreign and upright.The insolation of the buildings and even the position of the desiredorientation, it is often difficult to impossible, especially in dense areas. Butthere are many solutions for improving energy behavior of buildings in thenegative direction and with little access to sunlight, just require morearchitectural flexibility and imagination (such as skylights or suitableopenings in the roof).There are many examples of successful solar buildings within the densely

built fabric of cities.Besides, the objective of energy planning is to cover all energy shipmentsfrom the sun, but simply to provide the best conditions with the mosteconomical way to locally relevant data.

3.3.1.4 Passive Solar Heating SystemsGenerally known as passive solar heating systems or components of thebuilding, which, using the principles of physics (the laws of heat transfer)to collect solar energy, stored as heat and distributed in space. Thecollection of solar energy based on the greenhouse effect and especiallythe entrance of sunlight through glass or other transparent material andthe entrapment of the resulting heat within the area covered by the glass.The most common passive solar system (a system of direct profit) basedon the use of proper window orientation.There are also indirect passive solar gain (solar walls, solar rooms,greenhouses, sun terraces) and passive solar gain isolated (solar panels,panel outside the building envelope).

Passive solar systems are attached to sides of the building facing south(within a range of up to 30 east or west of the south net), which shouldnot be shaded during the winter. . . .

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80Moreover combined with the required thermal protection (insulation) andthe required thermal mass of the building, which stores and delivers heatat a time lag, thereby normalizing the distribution of temperature in theday.Passive solar systems should be combined in the summer with sunprotection (eg use of deciduous trees, horizontal shading, awnings,blinds) and often with the possibility of ventilation.

3.3.1.5 Natural coolingThe natural cooling is a practical alternative to ensure the thermal comfortin buildings in summer, at a time when the increasing deployment anduse of air conditioning units and systems are rapidly and generate

significant energy, environmental and economic problems and air conditioning systems consume very large amounts of electricity,significantly increase the electrical peak load of the country, and heat totheir function, the external environment.Technical gas and hybrid cooling techniques can be applied both inresidences and other buildings. For certain types of buildings (eg homesand schools) the application involves removing the need for air conditioning system installation, and other categories of significantlyreducing the cooling load, and uptime of these systems.

Basic bioclimatic techniques and systems of natural and hybrid cooling isthe sun protection / shadowing the building and appropriate physical (or ahybrid, using a fan) ventilation.With natural cooling, save energy savings, significantly improve thecomfort conditions in the rooms, even at relatively high temperatures.From measurements drosizomenes bioclimatic houses in Greece showsthat the temperature inside the buildings are significantly lower than theoutdoor temperature (up to 10 C), while there are the well-being muchhigher temperatures (up to 31,5 C), and because of the coolcomponents and air currents within the area to remain tenants isenjoyable.Unlike air conditioners, which operate with relatively low temperaturethermostat (eg 26 C) heat and harm the surrounding environment, their natural cooling systems, have gentle heat exchange with the externalenvironment.

3.4.1.6 Air conditioning system variable air volume (Variable Air Volume -

VAV)In central air conditioning installations, where fans of air conditioning unitsoperate at constant speed and thus steady air flow and constant power . . .

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81consumption, reducing air flow is achieved by stifling the flow dampers(dampers), the following effects: increased energy consumption Increasing pressure Noise in the network of pipelines high mechanical burden effects on installed instrumentationSignificantly better operating conditions and significant energy savingsoccur when the regulation of air flow is achieved with a correspondingchange in speed fan motor using technology INVERTER. The electricpower absorbed by the fan is proportional to the third power of thenumber of speed operation.

The variable speed fans can be used in conventional plants (withoutVAV), primarily for regulating the amount of fresh air in large rooms withpuffy numbers during the day.

3.3.1.7 Lighting3.3.1.7.1 Natural Lighting Concepts, Systems and Techniques of NaturalLightThe use of natural lighting aims to achieve visual comfort inside buildingsand in electricity savings, and to generally improve living conditions in the

rooms, combining light, views and possible ventilation, use and regulationof the incoming solar energy.Of particular importance in the design of daylighting systems is also thegreatest possible coverage requirements in lighting from natural light,depending on the use of the building and the work done in the rooms.To exploit the natural light for the benefit of the building to achieve visualcomfort should, through appropriate systems and techniques to ensurethe internal functional areas sufficient quantity (illumination level), andevenly to avoid sharp variations of levels which cause the phenomenonof 'glare'. Both the adequacy and distribution of light depends on thegeometric elements of space and exposure, and the photometriccharacteristics of opaque surfaces (color / texture) and glass (lighttransmission / reflectivity).Daylighting system means all: windows or other translucent element Background shading device (either a component or otherwise)

Daylighting systems are divided into four major categories: openings invertical walls, roof openings, atriums and skylights.Similarly, the various techniques applied to the system or in the interior . . .

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82increase system performance and improve visual comfort conditions.The most natural lighting techniques are: Vertical openings (windows, skylights) appropriate geometricdimensions sunroof Patios wells Special glazing Prismatic fotodiaperata materials Transparent insulation materials Shelves, lighting reflectors, louvers Shades

The architectural design of both sites, and the lighting (exposure) shouldensure the desired levels of illumination required to view the externalenvironment (and highlight the architectural features, as appropriate),again in conjunction with other requirements of energy planning for thermal comfort and air quality.

3.3.1.7.2 Artificial lightingLighting is one of the most important factors for ensuring organic indoor comfort in buildings.

------The aim of the design of lighting systems is to provide visual comfort by: providing the required quantity of lighting, set by international standards,based on the use and operational requirements of each site, the quality of lighting, secured with good distribution and preventing theglare, appropriate color performance and light color, elevation dataspace, lighting direction and create appropriate contrast etc.In the setting of international standards, incorporating energy parameter,and the need for energy conservation.However, in modern buildings Often the oversizing of systems of artificiallighting, so as to prevent problems resulting from insufficient trials (or complete lack of study).

o This phenomenon, coupled with the use of finite or conventional technology in lighting installations,leading to high electricity consumption for operationof systems of artificial lighting with a 'disappointing'results in terms of quality and visual comfort.

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83This consumption can be a significant percentage of the total energy consumption of the building.

Investigations carried out in different use categoriesshows that energy consumption for lighting is:Table 3.4: Energy consumption for lighting by usinga rate per 100Using consumption for lighting(% Of total energy consumption)Office Buildings 30-50Shops 25-50Hospitals 10-20

Hotels 10-25But it has found a large number of installationspossible energy savings at a rate of 30-50% byadopting appropriate measures and techniques.Such measures are: the appropriate design of artificial lighting the use of natural lighting using high efficiency bulbs and low energy

consumption selection of appropriate lighting fixtures, the use of electronic ballasts provisions the installation of control Proper maintenance of lighting fixtures3.3.1.8 ElectricalIn electrical devices consume large amounts of electricity because of the large crowd and their frequent use in each dwelling.Improved energy efficiency of electrical appliancesincluded in the energy policy measures to reduceelectricity demand, which will contribute to: Reduce emissions of CO2. Technological development and growth of industryproduction of more efficient appliancesThe programs and policies adopted aim to fullyexploit the potential of energy efficiency

improvement offered by available technology.3.3.1.9 Interference with existing buildings

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84Energy savings in existing buildings can first beachieved through operational streamliningoperations, including: optimize the startup and shutdown of equipment The shutdown of equipment during periods of lowdemand and, consequently, low efficiency the phased startup of the equipment so as to avoidsharp edges setting the operating point in accordance withother data (schedule, time, external temperature) reduce peak consumption by selectively shuttingdown systems at times exceeding the maximum

level.Moreover, there are various possibilities for intervention in the housing and anelectromechanical plant building, whose applicationcan lead to savings in energy consumption.These fall into the following categories: tidying Actions: Measures without special financingor capital investment. These measures, applied on aregular basis and are part of the routine operation

and maintenance of the building and often relate tochanging behavior of users of the building) Low Cost Interventions (Single interventions canbe funded from the existing annual budget for themanagement of the building. The cost of surgery isoften repaid within the same administrative year,usually in less than two years) Reconstruction Operations (Single capital-intensive operations because of the high initial costand implementation of medium-or long therepayment period. Such interventions often requirespecial economical design review).

3.3.2 Energy saving in industry3.3.2.1 CoolingCooling systems used in industry to maintain lowtemperatures in certain places, each time under the

requirements of the production process and themaintenance of finished products in cold storage,but in larger areas.

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85The main interventions for energy in industrialcooling systems are: Maintaining low temperatures at specific locationsduring the manufacturing process and maintenanceof finished products in cold storage is requiredprimarily in food industries (allantoviomichania,dairy, etc.). Replacing old cooling assemblies with modern,which have significantly higher performance (COP).This means that to achieve the same cooling effectconsumed significantly less electricity. Good thermal insulation of cold storage and

cooling loss reduction from the opening-closingthem with appropriate information for staff planningand proper use. Good insulation in air conditioned spaces, whether production sites or stores the finished products. Good thermal insulation of pipes of the coolantsystem to minimize losses to the environment. Recover heat from the cooling system

3.3.2.2 Productive EquipmentAn important factor for the consumption of electricityin an industry is the situation of the productiveequipment. Significant energy savings can beachieved by replacing and / or modernization of oldequipment, or because the wear and tear causedthe consumption of energy, either because of technological progress leads to new devices withsignificantly improved energy performance.Thus, the management of an industrial unit shouldfirst be clear and full picture of the situation lies inthe productive equipment and to be constantlyupdated on technological developments and newproducts in terms of the production equipment usedin the industry, so that the technical and economiccriteria to decide each time for its modernization.

3.3.2.3 Premises IndustryThe buildings in the industrial sector are, like allbuildings, major consumers of energy. To reduce

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87The aim of economic evaluation of energyimprovement projects is examining the economicviability of an investment from existing technical andfactual determination to ensure that optimum benefitwith the least investment risk.The steps in the evaluation of alternativeinvestments is (Weston JF, 1986): Identify alternatives Identify the study period Identify cash per case Determination of rate reduction Comparison of alternative investments

Sensitivity Analysis Risk Assessment Select the best proposalThe definition of cash in each case and the ratereduction is essentially the indicators describe theeconomic viability of an energy managementproject, and related conditions that develop, andanalyzed subsequently.

4.1.2 CriteriaThe Net Present Value (NPV) is the total net benefitof investment resulting from the difference betweenoperating profit and total expenditure during the lifecycle of an investment. All amounts are expressedin present value, usually reduced to the top of thefirst year of investment. The net present value isdetermined by the equation:4.1

where: K: initial investment Ft: annual net benefit N: economic life of the investment d: discount rate discounted SVn: residual value of the investment at end of lifeFor the project to be financially viable should the NetPresent Value is positive or at worst, zero (NPV

0). Obviously, the higher the NPV, is both efficientwork. Often this method is called net present valuemethod of saving because the income from

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88operational savings due to its project.The internal rate of return (IRR) is the value of market rate, which nullifies the present value of aseries of payments and receipts. Defined as thesolution of the equation:4.2

When the ROE is higher than the discount rate, theinvestment is acceptable, but when the opposite istrue, the investment is rejected.The cost-benefit ratio is the ratio of the total benefitto the total cost of investment over the life cycle of all the figures opened in present value. This ratio is

defined by the relationship4.3where: Bt: the benefit in year t Ct: costs in year t (C0 value corresponds to theinitial investment)An investment is economically viable if the benefit-cost ratio is greater than or equal to the unit.The Treasury Repayment Period is the time

required to repay the initial investment and interestcould be obtained from an alternative placement of the principal. Determined as a solution to theequation:4.4A business unit is considered economically viable if the price of the repayment period remunerated meetthe expectations of investors as to the time of repayment.When comparing alternative investment projects byusing the above criteria for economic evaluation,selected according to the criterion, those with thehighest NPV or for any one lifetime investment,whether those systems, most DAC or what have ahigher benefit-cost grounds, and finally, what are thelowest CPC.Of course, it should be noted that there is enough to

compare alternative savings only in purely financialterms. Suitable for this process is the method of lifecycle analysis (LCA), which allows the quantification

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89of environmental damage caused by products,processes and services. Used to compare theenvironmental impacts for two or a few differentproducts, product groups, systems, processes andbehaviors, and helps to uncover weaknesses inproduct improvement, environmental properties, thecomparison of alternative models of behavior for reasons Recommendation of actions (GermanFederal Environmental Agency, 1992).The structure and requirements of the LCA isdefined in Regulation standards DIN / ISO 140/40-14043. According to these standards, the LCA is

divided into four parts: Define the purpose and scope Census analysis Impact Assessment InterpretationPotential Finance Classic Finance FormsThe importance of energy management and itscontribution to increasing energy efficiency is crucialfor the competitiveness of a business unit. This is

the most important reasons why an investor turns toan energy management project. In order to financean energy management project, the investor hastwo options. To turn to the traditional forms of financing or the modern financial mechanisms.Classical form of financing is primarily self-financing,ie the use of capital to finance the project. There is awidespread method of financing, even if thecompany has the necessary funds if there isavailable for the project to exclude other moreattractive investment, which can not be made withother funding mechanisms.Second case of traditional forms of financing isborrowing. The loan taken out to balance theoperational unit. The downside is that this way thebusiness unit's profits are reduced, which isparticularly interested in companies that are in

stock, while there is always the case in a financialdifficulty exposed to seize the business unit or anyguarantees.

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90The third form of classical funding is state aid,particularly through the Community SupportFrameworks in the EU average rates of publicgrants usually range from 30-50% depending on thetype of investment.

Modern Financial MechanismsAbandoning traditional forms of funding andconsidering the case of modern financialinstruments held that the Third Party Financing (TPFand TPF) energy-efficiency projects is anopportunity for the investor to overcome the

obstacle of the necessary capital investment and therisk entailed and successfully installed energymanagement projects.The mechanism of TPF-based model of "projectfinance", ie the fundamental elements in themselvesinvestment (technical & financial) to make theproject able to finance itself on the basis of strictcriteria for banks in the financial system. The"production" is also one such project, a project that

is guaranteed by the self is a primary responsibilityand main contribution of the investment firm at anearly stage of development and promotion of theproject. In short, the TPF, the user, either becausethey want or because they can not actually grant therole of donor conditions to any third party who isinvesting in renewing equipment at user site andearned from savings brought about by theAgreement has done with him.Users may be buildings such as schools,universities, hospitals, sports facilities etc. or industries and related interventions is the upgradingof equipment in heating, lighting, etc. or creation of units combined heat and power, improving theefficiency of the production facility, etc.TPF is possible vectors or the supplier of equipment, either the state or the specialized energy

service companies (ESCO), but the preferredsolution is IF, as have all the features you cancreate goodwill and benefit to the user. An

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92are: high efficiency heaters and air conditioning,central energy management systems, replacing or repairing boilers, refrigerators and refrigeratingmachines, high efficiency insulation, replacing water heaters, pipes, steam traps, pumps, motion sensors,refrigeration systems and water saving. In somecases it may be included in the activities of companies and other innovative applications of efficiency, such as cogeneration or renewableenergy technologies.The IF according to the historical origins can bedivided into three main categories:

"Classic IF-paid": The IFs were obtained bytransforming engineering consultancy, specializingin energy projects and public savings. Initially, theengineers are remunerated by the standard fees.Then, responding to the needs of the times -customers not willing to take risks and shortage of funds - to widen the circle of work and became a"project developers. For the design, ie the workdone, while made to ensure efficiency and to ensure

the financing of the project, with a gradualrepayment of capital and profits from guaranteed togenerate interest savings. "Manufacturers of automatic control": controlsystems manufacturers had a similar development.Along with the supply of control systems specificallydesigned to reduce energy costs to their customers,expanded their business activity by providingcomprehensive services package savings. Indicativeof the pressure that competition in the free marketand of the evolution of IF is that in order to expandits market share to invest in energy projects, controlthe orientation of their clients, although they maycome from competitors their own parents. "IF created by electricity companies" The marketdemand for energy demand management programs,IF created as subsidiaries of major electricity

companies to objectively possessed the experienceand expertise to meet these market needs. Thesecompanies set up subsidiaries in IF in the mid 90s to

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94respective institutional / professional bodies(Chambers) for collective representation and actionof their members. In the U.S., is the "NationalChamber IF" in Canada "Canadian Chamber of IF'and in Britain the" Chamber to restrain theconsumption of energy.The main concern of these bodies is the constantassurance of the completeness and conformity of energy service members through the system of certification and continuous monitoring of compliance with the Code of Conduct.

Certification NAESCOIn the U.S., for example, to obtain a IFs concernedNAESCO certification from the application to besubmitted with the documents considered byCommittee of Independent Experts in the industrywith predetermined criteria which includes thefollowing: the exact scope of work, scope of servicesand measures for customers, adopting attitudesenergy efficiency investments, maintain professional

standards, design (basic and detailed) project,capital adequacy, project management, procedures,technical capacity maintenance, and capable of measuring, monitoring and certification of energysaving items . The certification process is extremelydifficult and take suggestions from players.The IF certified judged to have the following skillsand abilities, technical and administrative capabilityto develop complex projects energy efficiency,efficient engines and axles, heating, ventilation andair conditioning, ability and administrative skill toprovid