History 1

HistoryThose who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it.[1]

—George Santayana

Historia (Allegory of History)By Nikolaos Gysis (1892)

History (from Greek ἱστορία - historia, meaning "inquiry, knowledgeacquired by investigation"[2] ) is the study of the human past. Historycan also mean the period of time after writing was invented. Scholarswho write about history are called historians. It is a field of researchwhich uses a narrative to examine and analyse the sequence of events,and it sometimes attempts to investigate objectively the patterns ofcause and effect that determine events.[3] [4] Historians debate thenature of history and its usefulness. This includes discussing the studyof the discipline as an end in itself and as a way of providing"perspective" on the problems of the present.[3] [5] [6] [7] The storiescommon to a particular culture, but not supported by external sources(such as the legends surrounding King Arthur) are usually classified ascultural heritage rather than the "disinterested investigation" needed bythe discipline of history.[8] [9] Events of the past prior to written recordare considered prehistory.

The title page to The Historians' History of theWorld

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Etymology

History by Frederick Dielman (1896)

The word history comes from the root *weid- "know" or "see".[2]

Ancient Greek ἱστορία[[Category:Articles containing Ancient Greeklanguage text [10]]] means "inquiry" or "knowledge from inquiry",from ἵστωρ[[Category:Articles containing Ancient Greek language text[11]]] (hístōr) "judge" (from the Proto-Indo-European agent noun*wid-tor: "one who knows").[12] It was in that sense that Aristotle usedthe word in his Περὶ Τὰ Ζῷα Ἱστορίαι[13] (Perì Tà Zôa Ηistoríai"Inquiries about Animals"). The ancestor word ἵστωρ is attested earlyon in Homeric Hymns, Heraclitus, the Athenian ephebes' oath, and in Boiotic inscriptions (in a legal sense, either"judge" or "witness", or similar).

It was still in the Greek sense that Francis Bacon used the term in the late 16th century, when he wrote about"Natural History". For him, historia was "the knowledge of objects determined by space and time", that sort ofknowledge provided by memory (while science was provided by reason, and poetry was provided by fantasy).The word entered the English language in 1390 with the meaning of "relation of incidents, story". In Middle English,the meaning was "story" in general. The restriction to the meaning "record of past events" arises in the late 15thcentury. In German, French, and most Germanic and Romance languages, the same word is still used to mean both"history" and "story". The adjective historical is attested from 1661, and historic from 1669.[14]

Historian in the sense of a "researcher of history" is attested from 1531. In all European languages, the substantive"history" is still used to mean both "what happened with men", and "the scholarly study of the happened", the lattersense sometimes distinguished with a capital letter, "History", or the word historiography.[13]

DescriptionHistorians write in the context of their own time, and with due regard to the current dominant ideas of how tointerpret the past, and sometimes write to provide lessons for their own society. In the words of Benedetto Croce,"All history is contemporary history". History is facilitated by the formation of a 'true discourse of past' through theproduction of narrative and analysis of past events relating to the human race.[14] The modern discipline of history isdedicated to the institutional production of this discourse.All events that are remembered and preserved in some authentic form constitute the historical record.[15] The task ofhistorical discourse is to identify the sources which can most usefully contribute to the production of accurateaccounts of past. Therefore, the constitution of the historian's archive is a result of circumscribing a more generalarchive by invalidating the usage of certain texts and documents (by falsifying their claims to represent the 'truepast').The study of history has sometimes been classified as part of the humanities and other times as part of the socialsciences.[16] It can also be seen as a bridge between those two broad areas, incorporating methodologies from both.Some individual historians strongly support one or the other classification.[17] In modern . In the 20th century,French historian Fernand Braudel revolutionized the study of history, by using such outside disciplines aseconomics, anthropology, and geography in the study of global history.Traditionally, historians have recorded events of the past, either in writing or by passing on an oral tradition, andhave attempted to answer historical questions through the study of written documents and oral accounts. For thebeginning, historians have also used such sources as monuments, inscriptions, and pictures. In general, the sources ofhistorical knowledge can be separated into three categories: what is written, what is said, and what is physicallypreserved, and historians often consult all three.[18] But writing is the marker that separates history from what comesbefore.

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Archaeology is a discipline that is especially helpful in dealing with buried sites and objects, which, once unearthed,contribute to the study of history. But archaeology rarely stands alone. It uses narrative sources to complement itsdiscoveries. However, archaeology is constituted by a range of methodologies and approaches which areindependent from history; that is to say, archaeology does not "fill the gaps" within textual sources. Indeed,Historical Archaeology is a specific branch of archaeology, often contrasting its conclusions against those ofcontemporary textual sources. For example, Mark Leone, the excavator and interpreter of historical Annapolis,Maryland, USA has sought to understand the contradiction between textual documents and the material record,demonstrating the possession of slaves and the inequalities of wealth apparent via the study of the total historicalenvironment, despite the ideology of "liberty" inherent in written documents at this time.There are varieties of ways in which history can be organized, including chronologically, culturally, territorially, andthematically. These divisions are not mutually exclusive, and significant overlaps are often present, as in "TheInternational Women's Movement in an Age of Transition, 1830–1975." It is possible for historians to concernthemselves with both the very specific and the very general, although the modern trend has been towardspecialization. The area called Big History resists this specialization, and searches for universal patterns or trends.History has often been studied with some practical or theoretical aim, but also may be studied out of simpleintellectual curiosity.[19]

History and prehistory

Human historyand prehistory

↑ before Homo (Pliocene)

Three-age system prehistory

• Stone Ages

• Lower Paleolithic: Homo, Homo erectus,• Middle Paleolithic: early Homo sapiens• Upper Paleolithic: behavioral modernity• Neolithic: civilization

• Bronze Age

• Near East • India • Europe • China • Korea• Iron Age

• Bronze Age collapse • Ancient Near East • India • Europe • China • Japan • Korea • Nigeria

Recorded History

• Earliest records

• Antiquity

• Middle Ages

• Early modern

• Modern

• Contemporary

see also: Modernity, Futurology

↓Future

The history of the world is the memory of the past experience of Homo sapiens sapiens around the world, as that experience has been preserved, largely in written records. By "prehistory", historians mean the recovery of knowledge of the past in an area where no written records exist, or where the writing of a culture is not understood. Human history is marked both by a gradual accretion of discoveries and inventions, as well as by quantum leaps — paradigm shifts, revolutions — that comprise epochs in the material and spiritual evolution of humankind. By

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studying painting, drawings, carvings, and other artifacts, some information can be recovered even in the absence ofa written record. Since the 20th century, the study of prehistory is considered essential to avoid history's implicitexclusion of certain civilizations, such as those of Sub-Saharan Africa and pre-Columbian America. Historians in theWest have been criticized for focusing disproportionately on the Western world.[20] In 1961, British historian E. H.Carr wrote:

The line of demarcation between prehistoric and historical times is crossed when people cease to live only inthe present, and become consciously interested both in their past and in their future. History begins with thehanding down of tradition; and tradition means the carrying of the habits and lessons of the past into thefuture. Records of the past begin to be kept for the benefit of future generations.[21]

This definition includes within the scope of history the strong interests of peoples, such as Australian Aboriginalsand New Zealand Māori in the past, and the oral records maintained and transmitted to succeeding generations, evenbefore their contact with European civilization.

HistoriographyHistoriography has a number of related meanings. Firstly, it can refer to how history has been produced: the story ofthe development of methodology and practices (for example, the move from short-term biographical narrativetowards long-term thematic analysis). Secondly, it can refer to what has been produced: a specific body of historicalwriting (for example, "medieval historiography during the 1960s" means "Works of medieval history written duringthe 1960s"). Thirdly, it may refer to why history is produced: the Philosophy of history. As a meta-level analysis ofdescriptions of the past, this third conception can relate to the first two in that the analysis usually focuses on thenarratives, interpretations, worldview, use of evidence, or method of presentation of other historians. Professionalhistorians also debate the question of whether history can be taught as a single coherent narrative or a series ofcompeting narratives.

Philosophy of history

History's philosophical questions

• What is the proper unit for the study of the human past — the individual? The polis? The civilization? The culture? Or the nation state?• Are there broad patterns and progress? Are there cycles? Is human history random and devoid of any meaning?

Philosophy of history is a branch of philosophy concerning the eventual significance, if any, of human history.Furthermore, it speculates as to a possible teleological end to its development—that is, it asks if there is a design,purpose, directive principle, or finality in the processes of human history. Philosophy of history should not beconfused with historiography, which is the study of history as an academic discipline, and thus concerns its methodsand practices, and its development as a discipline over time. Nor should philosophy of history be confused with thehistory of philosophy, which is the study of the development of philosophical ideas through time.

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Historical methods

A depiction of the ancient Library of Alexandria

Historical method basics

The following questions are used by historians in modern work.

1. When was the source, written or unwritten, produced (date)?2. Where was it produced (localization)?3. By whom was it produced (authorship)?4. From what pre-existing material was it produced (analysis)?5. In what original form was it produced (integrity)?6. What is the evidential value of its contents (credibility)?

The first four are known as higher criticism; the fifth, lower criticism; and, together, external criticism. The sixth and final inquiry about a source iscalled internal criticism.

The historical method comprises the techniques and guidelines by which historians use primary sources and otherevidence to research and then to write history.Herodotus of Halicarnassus (484 BC – ca.425 BC)[22] has generally been acclaimed as the "father of history".However, his contemporary Thucydides (ca. 460 BC – ca. 400 BC) is credited with having first approached historywith a well-developed historical method in his work the History of the Peloponnesian War. Thucydides, unlikeHerodotus, regarded history as being the product of the choices and actions of human beings, and looked at causeand effect, rather than as the result of divine intervention.[22] In his historical method, Thucydides emphasizedchronology, a neutral point of view, and that the human world was the result of the actions of human beings. Greekhistorians also viewed history as cyclical, with events regularly recurring.[23]

There were historical traditions and sophisticated use of historical method in ancient and medieval China. Thegroundwork for professional historiography in East Asia was established by the Han Dynasty court historian knownas Sima Qian (145–90 BC), author of the Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian). For the quality of his timelesswritten work, Sima Qian is posthumously known as the Father of Chinese Historiography. Chinese historians ofsubsequent dynastic periods in China used his Shiji as the official format for historical texts, as well as forbiographical literature.Saint Augustine was influential in Christian and Western thought at the beginning of the medieval period. Throughthe Medieval and Renaissance periods, history was often studied through a sacred or religious perspective. Around1800, German philosopher and historian Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel brought philosophy and a more secularapproach in historical study.[19]

In the preface to his book, the Muqaddimah (1377), the Arab historian and early sociologist, Ibn Khaldun, warned of seven mistakes that he thought that historians regularly committed. In this criticism, he approached the past as

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strange and in need of interpretation. The originality of Ibn Khaldun was to claim that the cultural difference ofanother age must govern the evaluation of relevant historical material, to distinguish the principles according towhich it might be possible to attempt the evaluation, and lastly, to feel the need for experience, in addition to rationalprinciples, in order to assess a culture of the past. Ibn Khaldun often criticized "idle superstition and uncriticalacceptance of historical data." As a result, he introduced a scientific method to the study of history, and he oftenreferred to it as his "new science".[24] His historical method also laid the groundwork for the observation of the roleof state, communication, propaganda and systematic bias in history,[25] and he is thus considered to be the "father ofhistoriography"[26] [27] or the "father of the philosophy of history".[28]

In the West historians developed modern methods of historiography in the 17th and 18th centuries, especially inFrance and Germany. The 19th century historian with greatest influence on methods was Leopold von Ranke inGermany.In the 20th century, academic historians focused less on epic nationalistic narratives, which often tended to glorifythe nation or individuals, to more objective and complex analyses of social and intellectual forces. A major trend ofhistorical methodology in the 20th century was a tendency to treat history more as a social science rather than as anart, which traditionally had been the case. Some of the leading advocates of history as a social science were a diversecollection of scholars which included Fernand Braudel, E. H. Carr, Fritz Fischer, Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie,Hans-Ulrich Wehler, Bruce Trigger, Marc Bloch, Karl Dietrich Bracher, Peter Gay, Robert Fogel, Lucien Febvre andLawrence Stone. Many of the advocates of history as a social science were or are noted for their multi-disciplinaryapproach. Braudel combined history with geography, Bracher history with political science, Fogel history witheconomics, Gay history with psychology, Trigger history with archeology while Wehler, Bloch, Fischer, Stone,Febvre and Le Roy Ladurie have in varying and differing ways amalgamated history with sociology, geography,anthropology, and economics. More recently, the field of digital history has begun to address ways of usingcomputer technology to pose new questions to historical data and generate digital scholarship.In opposition to the claims of history as a social science, historians such as Hugh Trevor-Roper, John Lukacs,Donald Creighton, Gertrude Himmelfarb and Gerhard Ritter argued that the key to the historians' work was thepower of the imagination, and hence contended that history should be understood as an art. French historiansassociated with the Annales School introduced quantitative history, using raw data to track the lives of typicalindividuals, and were prominent in the establishment of cultural history (cf. histoire des mentalités). Intellectualhistorians such as Herbert Butterfield, Ernst Nolte and George Mosse have argued for the significance of ideas inhistory. American historians, motivated by the civil rights era, focused on formerly overlooked ethnic, racial, andsocio-economic groups. Another genre of social history to emerge in the post-WWII era was Alltagsgeschichte(History of Everyday Life). Scholars such as Martin Broszat, Ian Kershaw and Detlev Peukert sought to examinewhat everyday life was like for ordinary people in 20th century Germany, especially in the Nazi period.Marxist historians such as Eric Hobsbawm, E. P. Thompson, Rodney Hilton, Georges Lefebvre, Eugene D.Genovese, Isaac Deutscher, C. L. R. James, Timothy Mason, Herbert Aptheker, Arno J. Mayer and Christopher Hillhave sought to validate Karl Marx's theories by analyzing history from a Marxist perspective. In response to theMarxist interpretation of history, historians such as François Furet, Richard Pipes, J. C. D. Clark, Roland Mousnier,Henry Ashby Turner and Robert Conquest have offered anti-Marxist interpretations of history. Feminist historianssuch as Joan Wallach Scott, Claudia Koonz, Natalie Zemon Davis, Sheila Rowbotham, Gisela Bock, Gerda Lerner,Elizabeth Fox-Genovese, and Lynn Hunt have argued for the importance of studying the experience of women in thepast. In recent years, postmodernists have challenged the validity and need for the study of history on the basis thatall history is based on the personal interpretation of sources. In his 1997 book In Defence of History, Richard J.Evans, a professor of modern history at Cambridge University, defended the worth of history. Another defence ofhistory from post-modernist criticism was the Australian historian Keith Windschuttle's 1994 book, The Killing ofHistory.

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Areas of studyParticular studies and fields

These are approaches to history; not listed are histories of other fields, such as history of science, history ofmathematics and history of philosophy.

• Ancient history : the study from the beginning of human history until the Early Middle Ages.• Atlantic history: the study of the history of people living on or near the Atlantic Ocean.• Art History: the study of changes in and social context of art.• Big History: study of history on a large scale across long time frames and epochs through a multi-disciplinary

approach.• Chronology: science of localizing historical events in time.• Comparative history: historical analysis of social and cultural entities not confined to national boundaries.• Contemporary history: the study of historical events that are immediately relevant to the present time.• Counterfactual history: the study of historical events as they might have happened in different causal

circumstances.• Cultural history: the study of culture in the past.• Digital History: the use of computing technologies to produce digital scholarship.• Economic History: the study of economies in the past.• Futurology: study of the future: researches the medium to long-term future of societies and of the physical world.• Intellectual history: the study of ideas in the context of the cultures that produced them and their development

over time.• Maritime history: the study of maritime transport and all the connected subjects.• Modern history : the study of the Modern Times, the era after the Middle Ages.• Military History: the study of warfare and wars in history and what is sometimes considered to be a sub-branch of

military history, Naval History.• Natural history: the study of the development of the cosmos, the Earth, biology and interactions thereof.• Paleography: study of ancient texts.• People's history: historical work from the perspective of common people.• Political history: the study of politics in the past.• Psychohistory: study of the psychological motivations of historical events.• Pseudohistory: study about the past that falls outside the domain of mainstream history (sometimes it is an

equivalent of pseudoscience).• Social History: the study of the process of social change throughout history.• Universal history: basic to the Western tradition of historiography.• Women's history: the history of female human beings. Gender history is related and covers the perspective of

gender.• World History: the study of history from a global perspective.

PeriodsHistorical study often focuses on events and developments that occur in particular blocks of time. Historians givethese periods of time names in order to allow "organising ideas and classificatory generalisations" to be used byhistorians.[29] The names given to a period can vary with geographical location, as can the dates of the start and endof a particular period. Centuries and decades are commonly used periods and the time they represent depends on thedating system used. Most periods are constructed retrospectively and so reflect value judgments made about the past.The way periods are constructed and the names given to them can affect the way they are viewed and studied.[30]

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Geographical locationsParticular geographical locations can form the basis of historical study, for example, continents, countries and cities.Understanding why historic events took place is important. To do this, historians often turn to geography. Weatherpatterns, the water supply, and the landscape of a place all affect the lives of the people who live there. For example,to explain why the ancient Egyptians developed a successful civilization, studying the geography of Egypt isessential. Egyptian civilization was built on the banks of the Nile River, which flooded each year, depositing soil onits banks. The rich soil could help farmers grow enough crops to feed the people in the cities. That meant everyonedid not have to farm, so some people could perform other jobs that helped develop the civilization.

World

World history is the study of major civilizations over the last 3000 years or so. It has led to highly controversialinterpretations by Oswald Spengler and Arnold J. Toynbee, among others. World history is especially important as ateaching field. It has increasingly entered the university curriculum in the U.S., in many cases replacing courses inWestern Civilization, that had a focus on Europe and the U.S. World history adds extensive new material on Asia,Africa and Latin America.

Regions

• History of Africa begins with the first emergence of modern human beings on the continent, continuing into itsmodern present as a patchwork of diverse and politically developing nation states.

• History of the Americas is the collective history of North and South America, including Central America and theCaribbean.• History of North America is the study of the past passed down from generation to generation on the continent

in the Earth's northern and western hemisphere.• History of Central America is the study of the past passed down from generation to generation on the continent

in the Earth's western hemisphere.• History of the Caribbean begins with the oldest evidence where 7,000-year-old remains have been found.• History of South America is the study of the past passed down from generation to generation on the continent

in the Earth's southern and western hemisphere.• History of Antarctica emerges from early Western theories of a vast continent, known as Terra Australis, believed

to exist in the far south of the globe.• History of Australia start with the documentation of the Makassar trading with Indigenous Australians on

Australia's north coast.• History of New Zealand dates back at least 700 years to when it was discovered and settled by Polynesians, who

developed a distinct Māori culture centred on kinship links and land.• History of the Pacific Islands covers the history of the islands in the Pacific Ocean.• History of Eurasia is the collective history of several distinct peripheral coastal regions: the Middle East, South

Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, and Europe, linked by the interior mass of the Eurasian steppe of Central Asiaand Eastern Europe.• History of Europe describes the passage of time from humans inhabiting the European continent to the present

day.• History of Asia can be seen as the collective history of several distinct peripheral coastal regions, East Asia,

South Asia, and the Middle East linked by the interior mass of the Eurasian steppe.• History of East Asia is the study of the past passed down from generation to generation in East Asia.• History of the Middle East begins with the earliest civilizations in the region now known as the Middle East

that were established around 3000 BC, in Mesopotamia (Iraq).

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• History of South Asia is the study of the past passed down from generation to generation in theSub-Himalayan region.

• History of Southeast Asia has been characterized as interaction between regional players and foreignpowers.

Military historyMilitary history concerns warfare, strategies, battles, weapons, and the psychology of combat. The "new militaryhistory" since the 1970s has been concerned with soldiers more than generals, with psychology more than tactics,and with the broader impact of warfare on society and culture.[31]

History of religionThe history of religion has been a main theme for both secular and religious historians for centuries, and continues tobe taught in seminaries and academe. leading journals include Church History, Catholic Historical Review, andHistory of Religions. Topics range widely from political and cultural and artistic dimensions, to theology andliturgy.[32] Every major country is covered [33] , and most smaller ones as well.

Social historySocial history, sometimes called the new social history, is the field that includes history of ordinary people and theirstrategies and institutions for coping with life.[34] In its "golden age" it was a major growth field in the 1960s and1970s among scholars, and still is well represented in history departments. In two decades from 1975 to 1995, theproportion of professors of history in American universities identifying with social history rose from 31% to 41%,while the proportion of political historians fell from 40% to 30%.[35] In the history departments of Britishuniversities in 2007, of the 5723 faculty members, 1644 (29%) identified themselves with social history whilepolitical history came next with 1425 (25%).[36] The "old" social history before the 1960s was a hodgepodge oftopics without a central theme, and it often included political movements, like Populism, that were "social" in thesense of being outside the elite system. Social history was contrasted with political history, intellectual history andthe history of great men. English historian G. M. Trevelyan saw it as the bridging point between economic andpolitical history, reflecting that, "Without social history, economic history is barren and political historyunintelligible."[37] While the field has often been viewed negatively as history with the politics left out, it has alsobeen defended as "history with the people put back in."[38]

Subfields

The chief subfields of social history include:• Demographic history• Black history• History of education• Ethnic history• Family history• Labor history• Rural history• Urban history

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Cultural historyCultural history replaced social history as the dominant form in the 1980s and 1990s. It typically combines theapproaches of anthropology and history to look at language, popular cultural traditions and cultural interpretations ofhistorical experience. It examines the records and narrative descriptions of past knowledge, customs, and arts of agroup of people. How peoples constructed their memory of the past is a major topic.

Diplomatic historyDiplomatic history, sometimes referred to as "Rankian History"[39] in honor of Leopold von Ranke, focuses onpolitics, politicians and other high rulers and views them as being the driving force of continuity and change inhistory. This type of political history is the study of the conduct of international relations between states or acrossstate boundaries over time. This is the most common form of history and is often the classical and popular belief ofwhat history should be.

Economic historyAlthough economic history has been well established since the late 19th century, in recent years academic studieshave shifted more and more toward economics departments and away from traditional history departments.[40]

Environmental historyEnvironmental history is a new field that emerged in the 1980s to look at the history of the environment, especiallyin the long run, and the impact of human activities upon it.[41]

World historyWorld history is primarily a teaching field, rather than a research field. It gained popularity in the United States[42] ,Japan[43] and other countries after the 1980s with the realization that students need a broader exposure to the worldas globalization proceeds.The World History Association publishes the Journal of World History every quarter since 1990[44] . The H-Worlddiscussion list[45] serves as a network of communication among practitioners of world history, with discussionsamong scholars, announcements, syllabi, bibliographies and book reviews.

People's historyA people's history is a type of historical work which attempts to account for historical events from the perspective ofcommon people. A people's history is the history of the world that is the story of mass movements and of theoutsiders. Individuals not included in the past in other type of writing about history are part of this theory's primaryfocus, which includes the disenfranchised, the oppressed, the poor, the nonconformists, and the otherwise forgottenpeople. This theory also usually focuses on events occurring in the fullness of time, or when an overwhelming waveof smaller events cause certain developments to occur.

Gender historyGender history is a sub-field of History and Gender studies, which looks at the past from the perspective of gender. Itis in many ways, an outgrowth of women's history. Despite its relatively short life, Gender History (and itsforerunner Women's History) has had a rather significant effect on the general study of history. Since the 1960s,when the initially small field first achieved a measure of acceptance, it has gone through a number of differentphases, each with its own challenges and outcomes. Although some of the changes to the study of history have beenquite obvious, such as increased numbers of books on famous women or simply the admission of greater numbers ofwomen into the historical profession, other influences are more subtle.

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Public historyPublic history is a term that describes the broad range of activities undertaken by people with some training in thediscipline of history who are generally working outside of specialized academic settings. Public history practice hasquite deep roots in the areas of historic preservation, archival science, oral history, museum curatorship, and otherrelated fields. The term itself began to be used in the U.S. and Canada in the late 1970s, and the field has becomeincreasingly professionalized since that time. Some of the most common settings for public history are museums,historic homes and historic sites, parks, battlefields, archives, film and television companies, and all levels ofgovernment.

PseudohistoryPseudohistory is a term applied to texts which purport to be historical in nature but which depart from standardhistoriographical conventions in a way which undermines their conclusions. Works which draw controversialconclusions from new, speculative or disputed historical evidence, particularly in the fields of national, political,military and religious affairs, are often rejected as pseudohistory.

Teaching historyFrom the origins of national school systems in the 19th century, the teaching of history to promote national sentimenthas been a high priority. In the United States after World War I, a strong movement emerged at the university levelto teach courses in Western Civilization, so as to give students a common heritage with Europe.At the university level, historians debate the question of whether history belongs more to social science or to thehumanities. Many view the field from both perspective.

Political correctnessIn many countries history textbooks have been censored to put the national story in a more favorable light. Forexample, in Japan, mention of the Nanking Massacre has been removed from textbooks and the entire World War IIis given cursory treatment. Other countries have complained.[46] It was standard policy in communist countries topresent only a rigid Marxist historiography.[47] [48]

In the United States the history of the American Civil War was airbrushed to avoid giving offense to whiteSoutherners and blacks.[49]

Academic historians have often fought against the politicization of the textbooks, sometimes with success.[50] [51]

Bibliography• Benjamin, Jules R. A Student's Guide to History (2009)• Carr, E.H. with a new introduction by Richard J. Evans; What is History?; Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan,

2001, ISBN 0333977017.• Evans, Richard J.; In Defence of History; W. W. Norton (2000), ISBN 0393319598.• Furay, Conal, and Michael J. Salevouris. The Methods and Skills of History: A Practical Guide (2010)• Kelleher, William. Writing History: A Guide for Students (2008) excerpt and text search [52]

• Presnell, Jenny L. The Information-Literate Historian: A Guide to Research for History Students (2006) excerptand text search [53]

• Tosh, John; The Pursuit of History (2006), ISBN 1405823518.• Woolf D. R. A Global Encyclopedia of Historical Writing (Garland Reference Library of the Humanities) (2 vol

1998) excerpt and text search [54]

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References[1] George Santayana, "The Life of Reason", Volume One, p. 82, BiblioLife, ISBN 978-0559478062[2] Joseph, Brian (Ed.); Janda, Richard (Ed.) (2008). The Handbook of Historical Linguistics. Blackwell Publishing (published 30 December

2004). p. 163. ISBN 978-1405127479[3] Professor Richard J. Evans (2001). "The Two Faces of E.H. Carr" (http:/ / www. history. ac. uk/ ihr/ Focus/ Whatishistory/ evans10. html).

History in Focus, Issue 2: What is History?. University of London. . Retrieved 10 November 2008.[4] Professor Alun Munslow (2001). "What History Is" (http:/ / www. history. ac. uk/ ihr/ Focus/ Whatishistory/ munslow6. html). History in

Focus, Issue 2: What is History?. University of London. . Retrieved 10 November 2008.[5] Tosh, John (2006). The Pursuit of History (4th ed.). Pearson Education Limited. ISBN 1-4058-2351-8.p 52[6] Peter N. Stearns, Peters Seixas, Sam Wineburg (eds.), ed (2000). "Introduction". Knowing Teaching and Learning History, National and

International Perspectives. New York & London: New York University Press. p. 6. ISBN 0-8147-8141-1.[7] Nash l, Gary B. (2000). "The "Convergence" Paradigm in Studying Early American History in Schools". In Peter N. Stearns, Peters Seixas,

Sam Wineburg (eds.). Knowing Teaching and Learning History, National and International Perspectives. New York & London: New YorkUniversity Press. pp. 102–115. ISBN 0-8147-8141-1.

[8] Seixas, Peter (2000). "Schweigen! die Kinder!". In Peter N. Stearns, Peters Seixas, Sam Wineburg (eds.). Knowing Teaching and LearningHistory, National and International Perspectives. New York & London: New York University Press. p. 24. ISBN 0-8147-8141-1.

[9] Lowenthal, David (2000). "Dilemmas and Delights of Learning History". In Peter N. Stearns, Peters Seixas, Sam Wineburg (eds.). KnowingTeaching and Learning History, National and International Perspectives. New York & London: New York University Press. p. 63.ISBN 0-8147-8141-1.

[10] http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 04. 0057:entry=i(stori/ a[11] http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 04. 0057:entry=i(/ stwr[12] "Online Etymology Dictionary" (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?search=history). Etymonline.com. . Retrieved 2010-05-16.[13] Ferrater-Mora, José. Diccionario de Filosofia. Barcelona: Editorial Ariel, 1994.[14] Whitney, W. D. The Century dictionary; an encyclopedic lexicon of the English language (http:/ / books. google. com/

books?id=wrACAAAAIAAJ). New York: The Century Co, 1889.[15] WordNet Search – 3.0 (http:/ / wordnet. princeton. edu/ perl/ webwn), "History".[16] Scott Gordon and James Gordon Irving, The History and Philosophy of Social Science. Routledge 1991. Page 1. ISBN 0415056829[17] Ritter, H. (1986). Dictionary of concepts in history. Reference sources for the social sciences and humanities, no. 3. Westport, Conn:

Greenwood Press. Page 416.[18] Michael C. Lemon (1995).The Discipline of History and the History of Thought. Routledge. Page 201. ISBN 0415123461[19] Graham, Gordon (1997). "Chapter 1". The Shape of the Past. Oxford University.[20] Jack Goody (2007) The Theft of History (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=jo1UVi48KywC& pg=RA2-PA1930& dq=Jack+ Goody+

2007& sig=g0N7ZF9nz_Uy8nrQTiGdsc0N3sI#PPA12,M1) (from Google Books)[21] Carr, Edward H. (1961). What is History?, p.108, ISBN 0140206523[22] Lamberg-Karlovsky, C. C. and Jeremy A. Sabloff (1979). Ancient Civilizations: The Near East and Mesoamerica. Benjamin-Cummings

Publishing. p. 5. ISBN 0881338346.[23] Lamberg-Karlovsky, C. C. and Jeremy A. Sabloff (1979). Ancient Civilizations: The Near East and Mesoamerica. Benjamin-Cummings

Publishing. p. 6. ISBN 0881338346.[24] Ibn Khaldun, Franz Rosenthal, N. J. Dawood (1967), The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History, p. x, Princeton University Press, ISBN

0691017549.[25] H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", Cooperation South Journal 1.[26] Salahuddin Ahmed (1999). A Dictionary of Muslim Names. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 1850653569.[27] Enan, Muhammed Abdullah (2007). Ibn Khaldun: His Life and Works. The Other Press. p. v. ISBN 9839541536[28] Dr. S. W. Akhtar (1997). "The Islamic Concept of Knowledge", Al-Tawhid: A Quarterly Journal of Islamic Thought & Culture 12 (3).[29] Marwick, Arthur (1970). The Nature of History. The Macmillian Press LTD. p. 169.[30] Tosh, John (2006). The Pursuit of History. Pearson Education Limited. pp. 168–169.[31] Pavkovic, Michael; Morillo, Stephen (2006). What is Military History?. Oxford: Polity Press (published 31 July 2006). pp. 3–4.

ISBN 9780745633909[32] Eric Cochrane, "What Is Catholic Historiography?" Catholic Historical Review Vol. 61, No. 2 (Apr., 1975), pp. 169-190 in JSTOR (http:/ /

www. jstor. org/ stable/ 25019673)[33] For example see Sofia Boesch Gajano and Tommaso Caliò, "Italian religious historiography in the 1990s," Journal of Modern Italian

Studies, Fall 1998, Vol. 3 Issue 3, pp 293-306[34] Peter Stearns, ed. Encyclopedia of Social History (1994)[35] Diplomatic dropped from 5% to 3%, economic history from 7% to 5%, and cultural history grew from 14% to 16%. Based on full-time

professors in U.S. history departments. Stephen H. Haber, David M. Kennedy, and Stephen D. Krasner, "Brothers under the Skin: DiplomaticHistory and International Relations," International Security, Vol. 22, No. 1 (Summer, 1997), pp. 34-43 at p. 4 2; online at JSTOR (http:/ /www. jstor. org/ stable/ 2539326)

History 13

[36] See "Teachers of History in the Universities of the UK 2007 - listed by research interest" (http:/ / www. history. ac. uk/ ihr/ Resources/Teachers/ a27. html)

[37] G. M. Trevelyan (1973). "Introduction". English Social History: A Survey of Six Centuries from Chaucer to Queen Victoria. Book ClubAssociates. p. i. ISBN 058248488X.

[38] Mary Fulbrook (2005). "Introduction: The people's paradox". The People's State: East German Society from Hitler to Honecker. London:Yale University Press. p. 17. ISBN 9780300144246.

[39] Burke, P. (1998). New perspectives on historical writing. University Park, Pa: Pennsylvania State University Press. Page 3.[40] Robert Whaples, "Is Economic History a Neglected Field of Study?," Historically Speaking (April 2010) v. 11#2 pp 17-20, with responses

pp 20-27[41] J. D. Hughes, What is Environmental History (2006) excerpt and text search (http:/ / www. amazon. com/ What-Environmental-History/ dp/

0745631886/ )[42] Ainslie T. Embree and Carol Gluck, eds., Asia in Western and World History: A Guide for Teaching (M.E. Sharpe, 1997)[43] Shigeru Akita, "World History and the Emergence of Global History in Japan,"Chinese Studies in History, Spring 2010, Vol. 43 Issue 3, pp

84-96[44] see JWH Website (http:/ / www. historycooperative. org/ jwhindex. html)[45] see H-World (http:/ / www. h-net. org/ ~world/ )[46] Claudia Schneider, "The Japanese History Textbook Controversy in East Asian Perspective," Annals of the American Academy of Political

and Social Science, May 2008, Vol. 617, pp 107-122[47] "Problems of Teaching Contemporary Russian History," Russian Studies in History, Winter 2004, Vol. 43 Issue 3, pp 61-62[48] "Blackwell-Synergy.com" (http:/ / www. blackwell-synergy. com/ doi/ pdf/ 10. 1111/ j. 1468-2346. 2008. 00708. x?cookieSet=1).

Blackwell-Synergy.com. . Retrieved 2010-05-16.[49] James W. Loewen, Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong, (1996)[50] "Teaching History in Schools: the Politics of Textbooks in India," History Workshop Journal, April 2009, Issue 67, pp 99-110[51] Tatyana Volodina, "Teaching History in Russia After the Collapse of the USSR," History Teacher, Feb 2005, Vol. 38 Issue 2, pp 179-188[52] http:/ / www. amazon. com/ dp/ 0195337557/[53] http:/ / www. amazon. com/ dp/ 0195176510/[54] http:/ / www. amazon. com/ Encyclopedia-Historical-Writing-Reference-Humanities/ dp/ 0815315147/

External linksFurther reading• Williams, H. S. (1907). The historians' history of the world (http:/ / books. google. com/

books?id=g5sFAAAAIAAJ). (ed., This is Book 1 of 25 Volumes; PDF version is available (http:/ / books. google.com/ books/ pdf/ The_Historians__History_of_the_World. pdf?id=g5sFAAAAIAAJ& output=pdf&sig=fg_jzCIwiXQiuqVE7Q_ciy4ulok))

• Tilly, Chrles; Why and How History Matters (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=jCeDng_in8gC&pg=PA417& source=gbs_toc_r& cad=0_0& sig=ACfU3U1VpmEPRGImHqDqxsV8ZsU2sVUQTw), in RobertGoodin & Charles Tilly, eds., Oxford Handbook of Contextual Political Analysis (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=jCeDng_in8gC) (2006) Oxford: Oxford University Press, online (http:/ / professor-murmann. info/ tilly/2006_History_Matters. pdf)

General Information• Best history sites .net (http:/ / www. besthistorysites. net/ )• BBC History Site (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ history)• Mapping History Project (http:/ / mappinghistory. uoregon. edu/ ) – University of Oregon• The History Channel Online (http:/ / www. history. com)• Web Portal on Historiography and Historical Culture (http:/ / www. culturahistorica. es/ Templates/ Welcome.

html)• Internet History Sourcebooks Project (http:/ / www. fordham. edu/ halsall/ ) See also Internet History

Sourcebooks Project. Collections of public domain and copy-permitted historical texts for educational use

Article Sources and Contributors 14

Article Sources and ContributorsHistory  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=416281759  Contributors: (jarbarf), *drew, -The Bold Guy-, 0x6D667061, 119, 12 Noon, 199.174.163.xxx, 1freethinker,204.91.248.xxx, 209.240.222.xxx, 2D, 2help, 4I7.4I7, 66.183.24.xxx, 6aaaaaaaaaa58467, 8horses, A Macedonian, A Softer Answer, A little insignificant, A-giau, A.S. 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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 15

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Gyzis 006 (Ηistoria).jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gyzis_006_(Ηistoria).jpeg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Badseed, Dada, Diligent, Jic, MattesFile:The Historians' History of the World - Title Page.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Historians'_History_of_the_World_-_Title_Page.jpg  License: PublicDomain  Contributors: w:Tiffany & Co.Tiffany & Co.File:History-Dielman-Highsmith.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:History-Dielman-Highsmith.jpeg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Artist is FrederickDielman (1847–1935). Photographed 2007 by Carol Highsmith (1946–), who explicitly placed the photograph in the public domain.File:ancientlibraryalex.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ancientlibraryalex.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Domitori

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