Toponyms in Strabos geographyPrologueAbout Strabos geography

Map of the world according to Strabo

[http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/C%2BB-Geography-Map1-

StrabosMap.PNG]

Strabo (64 or 63 BC- 24 AD) was born in Amasya, Pontus, in North Asia Minor (modern

Turkey).

He started writing his Geography (Geographica) about 20 BCE and went on reediting it till his

death. With the exception of a few missing parts, it has come down to us complete.

[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strabo]

[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographica]

The previous map was handed down to Strabo from previous geographers, such as Eratosthenes

or Hecataeus. We need not comment on the poor knowledge of the world at that time, except

perhaps note the characteristic peculiarity of the Taurus mountain range which is depicted on the

map stretching from Asia Minor to the extremities of the then known world in Asia. This is

interesting because it creates a very distinct line between two worlds, that of the North and that

of the South. In the North there are Parthians and Scythians, Thracians and Phrygians, and the

Celts of Europe, all the white tribes. In the South there are the Indians, the Egyptians and

Mesopotamians, the Ethiopians and the rest of the Libyans (Africans), the dark peoples. I

believe this division, although crude, is interesting because it forms an analogy with the modern

distinction between the Indo-Europeans (IEs) of the North, versus the non IEs of the South.

However Strabos approach may be found to be more clarifying with respect to the formation of

the first IE languages- if we keep on using this term, such as Greek, Latin and perhaps the so

called Luwian languages of Asia Minor (Lycian, Lydian, Carian, and so on)- because of both its

simplicity and its proximity to the spoken languages of the time.

Purpose of this surveyThe purpose of this study is to classify all toponyms (mostly those concerning Greece and the

Eastern Mediterranean) found in the Geography in order to trace back as far as possible their

origin, as well as to discover any changes that took place. The survey will be centered on the

Hellenistic world (which at Strabos time was under Roman rule). Strabos geography includes

the knowledge of many previous Greek writers, such as Eratosthenes, therefore it offers an

excellent opportunity to study through toponyms the influences of other (the so called pre-Indo-

European) languages on the Greek language (considered Indo-European). This is important not

just in the narrow context of the Greek language but also with respect to the broader field

concerning the interactions between IE and non IE languages such as Phoenician, ancient

Egyptian, Luwian (which may be considered of mixed origin), or Minoan (which remains

undeciphered.)

The scenery (The ancient East Mediterranean up to Strabos time)

Migrations in Anatolia around 1900 BCE based on outdated research. According to Drews and

Mellart, the Hittite migration displaced other peoples living in Anatolia, who in turn displaced

the Middle Helladic Greek-speaking peoples to the west. This is contradicted by newer research.

[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Bronze_Age_migrations_(Ancient_Near_East)]

One of the researches which Wikipedia refers to is that of Russell D. Gray and Quentin D.

Atkinson (2003). Analyzing linguistic data with computational methods derived from

evolutionary biology these researchers came down with an initial Indo-European divergence of

between 7,800 and 9,800 years BP (about 7000 BCE).

[https://researchspace.auckland.ac.nz/bitstream/handle/2292/10655/nature02029.pdf

%3Fsequence%3D3]

This time would coincide with the first Neolithic settlements in Greece, implying that the IE

languages came in Europe with the Neolithic Revolution. Currently it is believed that the first

Indo-Europeans arrived in Greece during or just before the appearance of the Mycenaean

civilization, in the first half of the second millennium BCE. Previously it was thought that the

first Greeks had arrived during the so called Dorian invasion at the end of the Bronze Age, about

1200 BCE. But the decipherment of the Mycenaean Linear B showed that its language was

Greek. It seems that newer researches tend to push the date for the arrival, if there was an arrival

at all, of the Greeks further back in earlier times.

As far as the Hittites are concerned their appearance is important because they are considered the

first IEs who left behind written records. Their capital was named Hatussa, in central Anatolia, a

name borrowed from the Hattians, the previous inhabitants of the area, probably of Caucasian

origin. It is known that the Hittite language was heavily influenced from the local Anatolian

languages. We might suppose that the Luwian IE branch formed during this period but it is more

likely that Luwian already existed in Anatolia before the Hittites came. For example, the name of

the first Hittite ruler, Hattusili I, has a suffix li which is common even today in Caucasian

names and which was probably common in Anatolia at that time, as it is in modern Anatolia

(Turkey) in the form ali. Another example is the name the Hittites used for Miletus (Greek

Miltos, Turkish: Milet), Millawanda. Miletus was in ancient Lycia and the name the Lycians

used for themselves (at least at the time of ancient Greece) was something like Trimili or Termili.

Therefore the words Miltos and Milawanda could be paraphrases of the name the Lycians used

for this city in the native language. So it seems that the IEs formed a super stratum on local

Luwian languages instead of composing them.

Erroneously enough the suffix anda is considered IE for the Hittites but not for the Greeks in

cases such as Corinth (Greek: Corinthos), And(r)os (a Greek island), or even Hellas or Ella(n)da.

The Greek vocabulary is full of these words (many of which are not just place names) whose

suffix is more or less of the same morphology as the Hittite anda or even the modern and

which is found in Germanic languages (the word Switzerland for example). We will talk more

about this later on.

The world of the Pelasgians

Ancient regions of Anatolia (500 BC)

[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatolia]

The term Pelasgian should be considered a generic term, although it may denote the people that

used to live in the Pelasgic Argos, modern Thessaly. As Strabo says, And that portion of

Thessaly between the outlets of the Peneius and the Thermopyl, as far as the mountains of

Pindus, is named Pelasgic Argos, the district having formerly belonged to the Pelasgi.

Strabo also says, Almost everyone is agreed that the Pelasgi were an ancient race spread

throughout the whole of Greece, but especially in the country of the Aeolians near to Thessaly.

Therefore it seems that before the Greeks there were the Pelasgi, although it seems that the

Greeks could have evolved from a specific Pelasgian branch somewhere in Thessaly. According

to the mainstream IE theory, the Greeks are supposed to have arrived in Greece from the North,

either from the Balkans or from North Asia Minor (or from both places), coming from their

ultimate homeland in the Pontic steppes (in modern day Ukraine). However the story told by the

ancient Greek writers themselves is quite different. With respect to Cadmus (the founder of

Thebes in Greece) Strabo says,

Botia was first occupied by Barbarians, Aones, and Temmices, a wandering people from

Sunium, by Leleges, and Hyantes. Then the Phnicians, who accompanied Cadmus, possessed

it. He fortified the Cadmeian land, and transmitted the government to his descendants. The

Phnicians founded Thebes, and added it to the Cadmeian territory. They preserved their

dominion, and exercised it over the greatest part of the Botians till the time of the expedition of

the Epigoni (in Mycenean times). At this period they abandoned Thebes for a short time, but

returned again. In the same manner when they were ejected by Thracians and Pelasgi, (during the

Greek Dark Ages?) they established their rule in Thessaly together with the Arni for a long

period, so that all the inhabitants obtained the name of Botians. They returned afterwards to

their own country, at the time the olian expedition was preparing at Aulis in Botia which the

descendants of Orestes were equipping for Asia.

As far as Danaus is concerned, Strabo says, Danaus is said to have built the citadel of the

Argives. He seems to have possessed so much more power than the former rulers of the country,

that, according to Euripides, he made a law that those who were formerly called Pelasgiot,

should be called Danai throughout Greece. His tomb, called Palinthus, is in the middle of the

marketplace of the Argives. I suppose that the celebrity of this city was the reason of all the

Greeks having the name of Pelasgiot, and Danai, as well as Argives.

From this narration we see how much complicated the story about the Pelasgi is. If Cadmos and

Danaus were Phoenicians, who incidentally could have been first cousins, sons of the brothers

Agenor and Belos respectively, it is obvious that we should reconsider the foundation of the

Mycenean civilization. Was it founded from IEs who came from the North or from Asia Minor or

by Semites from the Levant? It is also interesting to note that when Danaus came to Argos, the

city at the time was ruled by King Pelasgus, also called Gelanor. The Danaides asked Pelasgus

for protection when they arrived, the event portrayed in The Suppliants by Aeschylus. Protection

was granted after a vote by the Argives.

[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danaus]

Was the Mycenaean civilization founded by incoming Semites who joined with indigenous

Pelasgians? Or could the names of Agapenor and Gelanor be of IE origin, and that both Cadmos

and Danaus were IEs having conquered places in Egypt and Phoenicia, and then in Greece? We

should also note that the names of their wives seem to be of local (Pelasgian/Greek) origin,

Armonia and Pieria respectively. Do the origin of names imply the origin of power shift in this

strange brew of many different peoples? Certainly yes, but we should also take into account that

all these names survived through Greek mythology, not Egyptian or Phoenician. Therefore the

names are already Hellenized (the name Belos for example could be Baal in Phoenician, and so

on). But again the morphology of the names and their corresponding history give clues to their

origin and their whereabouts.

Pelops for example is said to have come from Phrygia, according to Strabo. He also says, It is

said that the Achan Phthiot, who, with Pelops, made an irruption into Peloponnesus, settled in

Laconia, and were so much distinguished for their valor, that Peloponnesus, which for a long

period up to this time had the name of Argos, was then called Achan Argos; and not

Peloponnesus alone had this name, but Laconia also was thus peculiarly designated. Therefore

Pelops on the contrary to Cadmus and Danaus was (or just came) from the North.

Cecrops who built the Cecropian walls in Athens could be of the same stock as Pelops.

According to Strabo, It will suffice then to add, that, according to Philochorus, when the

country was devastated on the side of the sea by the Carians, and by land by the Botians, whom

they called Aones, Cecrops first settled a large body of people in twelve cities, the names of

which were Cecropia, Tetrapolis, Epacria, Deceleia, Eleusis, Aphidn, Thoricus, Brauron,

Cytherus, Sphettus, Cephisia [Phalerus]. Again, at a subsequent period, Theseus is said to have

collected the inhabitants of the twelve cities into one, the present city.

It is interesting to add that Tantalus, the father of Cecrops is referred to as Phrygian, and

sometimes even as King of Phrygia, although his city was located in the western extremity of

Anatolia where Lydia was to emerge as a state before the beginning of the first millennium BCE,

and not in the traditional heartland of Phrygia, situated more inland. References to his son as

Pelops the Lydian led some scholars to the conclusion that there would be good grounds for

believing that he belonged to a primordial house of Lydia.

[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tantalus ]

The language testified in Linear B tablets suggests that the people who prevailed and ruled over

the Mycenaean city states were Frygians and Thracians, people belonging to the IE stock,

descendants of Pelops and Cecrops. However the great amount of non IE words in the Greek

vocabulary suggests that these newcomers absorbed and were influenced by local pre-existing

cultures at a great extent. For example most terms concerning agriculture are of pre Hellenic

origin. Therefore as I have already said, and since the Frygian or Thracian language is closely

related but not the same with the Greek language, it is better to consider the IE element that came

to Greece during the Mycenaean period as a super stratum to the Greek language instead of

replacing the local language. This is further supported by the fact that more and more linguists

consider that at least some of the Pelasgic languages belong to the IE branch (not to mention that

Phrygians and Thracians, together with Phoenicians and Carians, at this early stage were indeed

the Pelasgi).

Stabos toponyms by placeIberiaStrabo begins his Geography from the West to the East, firstly with Iberia. He uses the Pyrenees

as a dividing line between Iberia and Keltica (Gaul). He mentions the Sacred Promontory and the

Pillars of Hercules (Straits of Gibraltar) and he says that (according to Artemidorus) there is no

temple of Hercules shown there, as Ephorus falsely states, nor yet any altar [to him] nor to any

other divinity; but in many parts there are three or four stones placed together, which are turned

by all travelers who arrive there, in accordance with a certain local custom, and are changed in

position by such as turn them incorrectly.

Place names

Pyrene The Pyrenees Tagos River

Anas River (Guadiana)

Baetis River (Guadalquivir) Calpe Mountain/city (Calp) Carteia City Mellaria City (perhaps Tarifa) Belon City and river/) Gadeira/Erytheia) City (Cdiz)

Asta City Nabrissa/Nebrissa City (Lebrija)

Ebura City (vora ) Corduba City (Crdoba )

Hispalis City (Seville) Italica City Ilipa City Astygis City (cija)

Carmon City (Carmona) Obulcon City (Porcuna)

Munda City Ategua City

Urson City Tukkis City Julia City Aegua City Sisapon City Cotinae Mountain

Onoba City (Huelva) Ossonoba City (Faro)

Maenoba City/ Gymnesiae/Balearidae) Islands (Majorca and

Minorca)() (Nea) Karchedon City

Odysseia City Tartessos City (according to Strabo

identified with Carteia) Moron City

Olysipon City Dourios River

Akouteia City Castulon City (Castelln) Moundas River Mondego

Vakouas River Vouga// Lethe/Limaeas/Velion River / Baenis/Minios River Nerion Promontory

Iberas River (Ebro)

Malaca City (Mlaga) Maenaca City

Abdera City Ocella City

Sucron City/river (Jcar) Planesia Island Plumbaria Island Scombraria Island Saguntos City Cherronessus City

Oleastron City Cartalia City Dertossa City Taraccon City

Hemeroscopion City Ebusus Island (Ibiza) Emporion City Rhode City

Setabis City Egelastae City

Idubeda Mountain Orospeda Mountain

/ Caesaraugusta/Celsa City Ilerda City Osca City

Calaguris City Pompelon City Augusta Emerita City Melsus River Nouga City Pityusae Islands (Ibiza and

Fromentera) Ophiussa Island (Fromentera)

Palma City Polentia City Didyme City Cassiterides Islands (according to Strabo

other than Great Britain)

There is an apparent connection between the Iberian Peninsula and Phoenicians as shown by

place names such as Gadeira (Phoenician: Cadir), Crdoba (Carthaginian: Kartuba), Mlaga,

Onoba, etc. But there are also elements which suggest not only Phoenician, or Greek contacts,

but also contacts of a pre Phoenician and pre Greek origin; that is earlier than the supposed

voyage of Hercules to these places. An intriguing example is the city (also island) of Ebusus. It is

modern Ibiza (one of the ancient Pityusic islands). In Catalan: Eivissa, in Phoenician: Yibosim.

Strabo calls the place Ebusos. Someone could consider the name Phoenician but in fact the

Phoenicians arrived there just in 654 BC.

[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibiza]

The clue is found in the suffix issa of the word in the native Catalan language (Eivissa). It is

also attested that the islands were used by Cilician pirates as a base during the Roman times,

before the Romans drove them away.

[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pityusic_Islands]

Those suffixes are common in Greece and Asia Minor and they are related with the Luwian

language of ancient Anatolia (where Cilicia was found). Therefore neither the Greeks nor the

Phoenicians were the first who arrived as far as the straits of Gibraltar in prehistoric times. But

apparently both the Greeks and the Phoenicians, and after them the Romans and the Spanish,

borrowed the names. These names therefore have to do with the earlier sub stratum of place

names around the Mediterranean, a local isogloss which was borrowed both by Indo-Europeans

(such as the Romans and the Greeks) and by Semites (such as the Phoenicians and the Arabs).

To go a step further I would like to make an interesting connection with the Greek city of

Ephesus (modern Efes, Turkey) in Asia Minor. The Hittites, who inhabited the area during the 2nd

millennium BCE called the city Abasa, which they referred to as capital of Arzawa. The

connection between the Arzawans of the Hittites and the Argives of Homer is very tantalizing.

Were these the Argives, or Arzawans, the people who settled in Argos, Greece, with Danaus or

whoever was their leader? Whatever the answer the point is that the area surrounding Ephesus

was already inhabited during the Neolithic Age (about 6000 BC).

[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ephesus]

And this is a period much earlier than any division between Semites and Indo-Europeans,

Phoenicians and Greeks. This is why some people, like Collin Renfrew, have placed the birth

place of IE languages in Ancient Anatolia during the Neolithic, not in the Caspian steppes during

the Eneolithic or Bronze Age. Wherever the motherland of IEs, it seems that ancient Anatolia

played a pivotal role in the blending of languages and people who would later form the

civilizations of Phoenicia, Greece, and Rome. I would later expose some arguments why I

believe that ancient Anatolia was a place where IE and Semitic languages converged, but it was

not the motherland of either language groups.

Keltiberia(Above the Ebro river)

Place Names

Varia City Numantia City Segeda City Palantia City Segobriga City Bilbilis City Segesama City Intercatia City

KelticaStrabo describes Keltica as the land beyond the Alps which consisted of three nations, Aquitani,

Belge, and Kelte. Of these the Aquitani differ completely from the other nations, not only in their

language but in their figure, which resembles more that of the Iberians than the Galatae. The

others are Galatae in countenance, although they do not all speak the same language, but some

make a slight difference in their speech

Place names

Massalia City (Marseille) Cemmenon Mountain (Cvennes)

Rodanos River (Rhone) Varos River (Var)

Narbon City (Narbonne) Nemausos City (Nmes) Ugernos City

Taruscon City Antipolis City

Druentia City Caballion City

Ebrodunon City Brigantion City Scingomagos City

Ocelon City Rhoa City

Agathe City Tauroention City

Olbia City Nicaea City

Aventinon Mountain Setion Mountain Blascon Island

Arelate City Aphrodision Promontory Ruscinon River/city Ilibirris River/city (Elne) Atax River (Aude) Orbis River (Orbre) Rauraris River (Hrault)

Baetera City Tauroention City Foron Ioulion Port Stoechades Islands Planasia Island Leron Island

Oxibius Port Durance River

Isar River Sulgas River Undalon City Avenion City

Arausion City Aeria City Vienna City (Vienna)

Lugdunon City (Lyon) Arar River (Sane)

Lemenne Lake (Lake Geneva) Doubis River (Doubs)

Agyra City Toulouse City Loire River

Garrone River Burdigala City Corbilon City Mediolanion City Nemausos City Galaticos Gulf (Galatic gulf) Nemossos City Kenabon City Gergouvia City

Alesia City Renos River (Rhine)

Secoanas River (Seine) Cabyllinon City Bibracta City

Adula Mountain Aduas River

Larios Lake Comon City (Como) Pados River (Po) Iurasios Mountain (Jura) Arduenna Forest

Lucotocia City Duricortora City

Ition City Durias River

The Alps(Around the mountain range)

Place names

/ / /

Alpeis/Alpeia/Albia/Alpeina Mountain (Alps)

Sabaton Uada City Albigaunon City Ocra Mountain (part of the Alps) Albion Mountain (part of the Alps) Adulas Mountain

Comon City (Como) Poeninos Mountain (Pennine Alps) Mutina City (Modena)

Eporedia City (Ivrea) Ueron City (Verona)

Campodunum City Damasia City

Atesinos River Istros River (Danube, lower part) ercynios Forest

Tullon City Phligadia City Duras River Clanis River Metulon City

Arupinoi City Monetion City

Vendon City Segestike City Sabos River (Save)

Aquleia City Korkoras River Kolapis River Benacos Lake Migios River

Verbanos Lake Ticinos River Larios Lake

Aduas River

BritainAbout Britain there was little known at the time of Strabo. Most of the knowledge came from

legends and from the Roman expeditions. Kent is the only city that Strabo refers to, while Ierna

and Thule are referred to as mythical places.

Place names

Kantion City (Kent) Ierne Island (probably Ireland, also

attested as Hibernia) Thule Island (mythical place,

probably related to Denmark

or Scandinavia)

Italy

Concerning Italy Strabo says, At the foot of the Alps commences the region now known as

Italy. The ancients by Italy merely understood notria, which reached from the Strait of Sicily to

the Gulf of Taranto, and the region about Posidonium, but the name has extended even to the foot

of the Alps It seems probable that the first inhabitants were named Italians, and, being

successful, they communicated their name to the neighbouring tribes, and this propagation [of

name] continued until the Romans obtained dominion. Afterwards, when the Romans conferred

on the Italians the privileges of equal citizenship, and thought fit to extend the same honour to

the Cisalpine Galat and Heneti, they comprised the whole under the general denomination of

Italians and Romans.

Place names

Oenotria Ancient name of Italy Nauportos City Monoecos Port Genua City (Genoa)

Apennina Mountain (Apennines) Adriatike Sea (Adriatic)

/ Tyrrhenike/Tyrrhenia Sea (Tyrrhenian) Pola City Sicelia Island (Sicily) Ariminon City

Rauenne City (Ravenna) Agonas City (Ancona)

Pisa City Tarantinos Gulf (Taranto) Posidonia Promontory (Paestum) Leucopetra City

/ Regine/Region City (Reggio) Brescia City Mantua City Patavion City (Padua) Medoacos Harbor/river

Altinon City Butrium City Spina City Opitergion City[] Concordia City

Atria City Vicetia City

Natisonas River Noreia City Timavon Harbor/River

Argos-Ippion City Tergeste City Tiberis River (Tiber) Placentia City Cremone City Parma City Bononia City

Acara City Rhegion-Lepidon City

Macroe-Campoe City Claterna City Forum-Cornelium City Faventia City Caesena City Sapios River (Savio) Rubicon River Cottios Mountain Clastidion City Derthon City

Aquae-Statiellae City Lune City Trebias River Aesis River (Esino) Scultannas River (Panaro)

Vercelloe Village (Vercelli) Sardinia Island Sinoessa City

Ostia Port Saunitica Mountains Tarquinia City

Rome City Clusion City (Clusium)

Agylla City (afterwards Caerea,

modern Cerveteri) Volaterae City (Volterra)

Poplonion City Cossa City Selene City Macras River

Arnos River (Arno) Ausar River (Esaro)

Arretion Mountain Cyrnos Island (Corsica) Aethalia Island (Elba)

Argoiis Port Blesino City Charax City

Eniconiae City Vapanes City

Caralis City Sulchoe City Cossae City Gravisci City Pyrgoe City

Alsion City Fregena City

Regis-Villa City Perusia City

Volsinioe City Sutrion City Blera City Ferentinon City Falerion City Faliscon City Nepita City Statonia City Soracte Montain Feronia City Ciminia Lake Sabata Lake Trasumenna Lake Sarsina City Sena City Marinon City Cingulon Mountain Sentinon City Metauros River

Ocricli City Carsuloe City Mevania City Teneas River Larolonoe City, ' Narnia City Nar River (Nera)

Forum Flaminium City Nuceria City Forum Sempronium City Interamna City

Spoletion City Aesion City Camerte City

America City Tuder City Hispellon City Iguvion City

Nomentos City Amiternon City Reate City

Cotyliae Spring Interocrea Village

Foruloe Rocks Curis Village Trebula Village

Ereton Village Ardea City

Laurenton City Lavinia City

Alba City Albanos Mountain

Collatia Village Antemnae Village

Fidenae Village Labicon Village Festoe City

Apiola City Suessa City Lanuvion City

Aricia City Tellenae City

Antion City Circaeon Mount (Circeo) Storas River (Stura) / Ufis/Aufidos River (Ofanto) Brundusion City Formiae City Minturna City Leiris River (Liri, formely Clanis) Caeatas Gulf Fregella Village

Pandataria Island Pontia Island Caecubon City Fundoe City Caelion Hill (Caelian)

Aventinon Hill (Aventine) Quirinon Hill (Quirinal)

Esqulinon Hill (Esquiline) Viminalis Hill (Vinimal)

Clanis River (Chiana) Casilinon City Capya City Tusclanon Mountain Tusclon City

Algidon City Lavicane City Ferentinon City Frusinon City Cosas River (Cosa) Fabrateria City Treros River (Sacco)

Aquinon City Melpis River (Melfa) Casinon City Teanon City Calenon City (Cales) Setia City Signia City Privernon City Cora City Trapontion City

Velitrae City Aletrion City

Gabioe City Praenestos City (Palestrina) Capitulon City

Anagnia City Cereate City Sora City

Venafron City Vulturnos River

Aesernia City Alliphae City

Tiburon City Valeria City

Carseoli City Cuculon City

Anion River (Teverone) Albula Spring

Labana Spring Verestis River Algidon Mountain Artemision City Egeria Spring

Fucina Lake Amenanus River

Castron River Auxumon City Septempeda City Pneventia City Potentia City Firmon Picenon City Castellon City Tronto City/river Castrunooun City (Castrum novum) Matrinos Riverc(Piomba)

Adria City Asclon City (Ascoli Piceno)

Corfinion City (later Italica) Sulmon City Maruvion City Teatea City

Aternon City Orton City

Buca City Sagros River (Sangro) Misenon Promontory

Athenaon Promontory Liternon City Cyme City

Acherusia Lake Baeae City Locrinos Gulf

Aornos Lake (Avernus) Dicaearcheia City (later Puteoli, modern

Pozzuoli) Neapolis City (Naples) Pompeia Port Sarnos River

Vesuvion Mountain (Vesuvius) Aetna Mountain Caprea Island Seirenae Islands (Sirenusas) Prochyta Island Pithecussae Island (ancient Ischia) Liparae Islands (Lipari, formerly

Meligunis) Epomeas Mountain

Calatia City Caudion City Beneventon City Cales City Suessula City

Atella City Nola City

Acerroe City Abella City

Boianon Village Aesernia Village Panna Village Telesia Village

Venusia Village Marcina City Silaris River Picentia City Salernon City Leucosia Island

/ Hyela/Ela City (Ancient Elea, present

Velia) Palinuros Promontory Oenotrides Islands Pyxus Promontory, harbour, river Laos City/gulf/river Petilia City Crimissa Promontory Chone City

Eryx City Aegesta City Grumentos Village

Vertin Village Calasarna Village Metapontion City Hipponiates Gulf (Vibo Valentia)

Scylletikos Gulf (Squillace) Thurioe (later Copiae) Cerilloe City Temese City (Tempsa) Terina City Cosentia City Pandosia City Acheron River Medma City Scylletion City Caenys Promontory Pelorias Cape Morgantion City (Morgantina)

Epopis Hill Halex River

Mamertion City Silas Forest Caulonia Caulonia Lacinion Promontory Kroton City Neaethos River Sybaris City/river Syracussae City (Syracuse) Crathis River Lagaria Fort

Heracleia City Akiris River (Agri)

Siris River/city (Sinni) Luceria City Sicily Island (Sicily, formerly

Trinacria> Thrinacia) Pachynos Headland Lilybaeon Headland Mylae City Tyndaris City

Agathyrnon City Alaesa City

Cephaloedion City Himera City/river

Panormos City Camarina City Tauromenion City Naxos City Megara City (formerly Hybla)

Symaethos River (Giaretta) Xiphonia Promontory Charybdis Sea passage

Inessa Hill Catane City

Ortygia Island Arethusa Fountain

Centoripa City Acragas City Enna City

Gela City Callipolis City Selinus City Nebrode Mountain Matauron City Thermessa Island (afterwards Hiera) Strongyle Island Didyme Island

Ericussa Island Phoenicussa Island Euonyms Island Cossura Island Aegimurs Island

Acalandrs River Ceraunian Mountains Baris City (afterwards Veretum) Leuca City Phlegra City

Hydrus City Sason Island

Rodiae City Lupiae City

Aletia City Uria City (formerly Hyria)

Egnatia City Celia City Netion City Canusion City

Herdonia City Calatias City Barion City Silvion City Salapia Port

Argyrippa City (Arpi) Diomedeiae Islands (Diomede)

Sipus City (formerly Sepius) Drion Hill Garganon Promontory Urion City Aesis City (Fiumicino) Cannae City

A very interesting example of suffix analysis from the previous vocabulary includes the case of

the Tyrrhenians.

According to Wikipedia, the origin of the name is uncertain. It is only known to be used by

Greek authors, but apparently not of Greek origin. It has been connected to tursis, also a

Mediterranean loan into Greek, meaning tower. Direct connections with Tusci, the Latin

exonym for the Etruscans, from Tursci have also been attempted.

[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyrrhenians]

Probably the name of the Tyrrhenians was a generic term, meaning something like pirates. In

the modern Greek language there is the word tarsanas, which means ship yard. The close

relationship of this word with the word tyrsinos (Tyrrhenian) shows the connection of the

Tyrrhenians with the sea. Perhaps the name corsair which is the same as pirate comes from an

original Anatolian word, something like curswara or so. But in any case the term Tyrrhenian

most likely refers to a diverse group of peoples rather than to a specific ethnicity.

A Tyrrhenian/Etruscan/Lydian association has long been a subject of conjecture. The Greek

historian Herodotus stated that the Etruscans came from Lydia, repeated in Virgils epic poem the

Aeneid, and Etruscan-like language was found on the Lemnos stele from the Aegean Sea island

of Lemnos. However, recent decipherment of Lydian and its classification as an Anatolian

language mean that Etruscan and Lydian were not even part of the same language family.

Nevertheless, a recent genetic study of likely Etruscan descendants in Tuscany found strong

similarities with individuals in western Anatolia.

[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lydia]

This again suggests that the Etruscans/Tyrrrhenians found themselves in Lydia, Anatolia, but this

was not their original homeland. Herodotus had also placed them in Crestonia, Thrace. Similarly,

Thucydides mentions them together with the Pelasgians and associates them with Lemnian

pirates and with the pre-Greek population of Attica. Lemnos remained relatively free of Greek

influence up to Hellenistic times, and interestingly, the Lemnos stele of the 6th century BC is

inscribed with a language very similar to Etruscan. This has led to the postulation of a

Tyrrhenian language group comprising Etruscan, Lemnian and Raetic.

The Raetic language was spoken in the Alps. As far as Lydia is concerned the name Sfard or

Sard, another name closely connected to the name Tyrrhenian, was the capital city of the land of

Lydia. The name preserved by Greek and Egyptian renderings is Sard, for the Greeks call it

Sardis and the name appears in the Egyptian inscriptions as Srdn (one of the Sea Peoples).

[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sardis]

Very interestingly the Sardinians call their language lingua s(f)arda. As Strabo notes, For it is

said that Iolaus brought hither certain of the children of Hercules, and established himself

amongst the barbarian possessors of the island (Sardinia), who were Tyrrhenians. Afterwards the

Phnicians of Carthage became masters of the island, and, assisted by the inhabitants, carried on

war against the Romans; but after the subversion of the Carthaginians, the Romans became

masters of the whole.

Again however the term Sfarda is native to the Lydians not to the Etruscans whose place names

as we shall see are of a completely different morphology. Therefore the Etruscans or the

Tyrrhenians were of a different origin even if at the time when some of them passed from Lydia

to Sardinia they considered themselves more Lydian.

The toponyms to be examined are those ending in (n)na. As the previous map suggests most of

the toponyms of ancient Etruria bear such endings. Strabo refers to some of these: Ravenna,

Marcina, Mutina, Poplonium (Popluna); also Ariminum (Arimina), the Pitheci (or monkeys) are

called by the Tyrrhenians Arimi, Clusium (Clevsin/Clevsina), etc.

I have long been wondering about toponyms with the suffix na. The point is that such toponyms

are abundant not only in Italy but also in Greece, for example Mycena (Mycenae), Athina

(Athens), Rafina, and they are found not only in coastal areas but also deep in the mainland. How

are we to interpret the wide distribution of these place names? Should they be related with the

coming of IEs or with a pre-existing substratum spread all across the Mediterranean (which the

IEs adopted)?

Ive found an interesting connection between the name of the capital of Lemnos, Myrina, and a

queen of the Amazons who had the same name. According to Diodorus Siculus, she led a

military expedition in Libya and won a victory over the people known as the Atlantians,

destroying their city Cerne; but was less successful fighting the Gorgons (who are described by

Diodorus as a warlike nation residing in close proximity to the Atlantians), failing to burn down

their forests. During a later campaign, she struck a treaty of peace with Horus, ruler of Egypt,

conquered several peoples, including the Syrians, the Arabians, and the Cilicians (but granted

freedom to those of the latter who gave in to her of their own will). She also took possession of

Greater Phrygia, from the Taurus Mountains to the Caicus River, and several Aegean islands,

including Lesbos (Mytilene); she was also said to be the first to land on the previously

uninhabited island which she named Samothrace, building the temple there. The cities of Myrina

(in Lemnos), possibly another Myrina in Mysia, Mytilene, Cyme, Pitane, and Priene were

believed to have been founded by her, and named after herself, her sister Mytilene, and the

commanders in her army, Cyme, Pitane and Priene, respectively. Myrinas army was eventually

defeated by Mopsus the Thracian and Sipylus the Scythian; she, as well as many of her fellow

Amazons, fell in the final battle.

[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myrina_(mythology)]

This story suggests that such place names were native to IEs or more generally to people living

in the North, around the Black Sea, the north coast of Asia Minor and parts of the Balkans. The

Thracians and Scythians who defeated the Amazons were certainly of IE stock. If the suffix is

considered IE then the expansion of IEs may have taken place much earlier than expected. If we

accept the testimony of Thucydides that the Tyrrhenians occupied Athens before the

(Mycenaean) Greeks then linguistic elements related to the Greek language were already present,

at least since the beginning of the 2nd millennium BCE. It suffices to say that place names such as

Mycena (Mycenae) or Athina (Athens) which still survive in the modern Greek language contain

the same suffix in na. Therefore both the Mycenaeans and the Tyrrhenians must have been

separated from an earlier common language group.

Furthermore the wide distribution of place names with such a suffix both in Italy and Greece, as

well as in other places across Europe (e.g. Vienna) and North Africa (e.g. Medina), even in

Minoan Crete (e.g. Gortyna) suggests an early expansion of the corresponding languages in the

Bronze Age or even in the Neolithic. But is it better to consider a tremendous expansion of IE

languages in a shorter period of time, or to propose an isogloss which evolved across the

Mediterranean during a longer period, even since the Neolithic, and which successive waves of

newcomers, such as the IEs, adopted?

There are two main assumptions about the origin of the Tyrrhenians/Etruscans. They are

supposed to be either Anatolians/Lydians or natives to the Villanovan Culture in Italy (1100- 900

BCE), which is considered having abruptly followed the Terramare Culture (17001150 BC).

The story is parallel to that of Greece where the Mycenaean Civilization abruptly ended and was

followed by the Archaic Greek Period at about the same time. It was the decipherment of Linear

B what made clear that the Mycenaeans were Greek (on the contrary to what was previously

thought). Could the Tyrrhenians be natives to Italy and descants of the Terramare Culture, even if

their original homeland was further to the North- North East in previous times? The ancient

Greek writers say that the Tyrrhenians were in Greece (at least in some parts) even before the

Greeks. Therefore they could be related with a Pelasgian tribe living somewhere between the

Black Sea and North Italy, having their own expeditions across the Mediterranean. However the

apparent differences between their language and the Italic dialects seems to suggest that they

were not native to Italy, at least no more than the Mycenaeans were native to Greece. If the

toponyms in na are related to queen Myrina of the Amazons, then their ultimate origin could be

traced as far as the Ukrainian steppes (as Herodotus places the Amazons there). If however their

origin is related to Tyros of Phoenicia or Tarsos of Cilicia then the Tyrsenians could be seafarers

from the South, similar to the Phoenicians, raiding the coasts of the Eastern Aegean and making

their way to Italy. In the latter case the Etruscans would be an offshoot of a larger group of

peoples living in the Mediterranean since prehistoric times. I will return to this matter later on.

Rest of Europe (except Greece) Strabo says, That which remains is, on the east, all the country beyond the Rhine, as far as the

Don and the mouth of the Sea of Azof; and, on the south, that which the Danube bounds, lying

between the Adriatic and the left shores of the Euxine, as far as Greece and the Sea of Marmora,

for the Danube, which is the largest of the rivers of Europe, divides the whole territory of which

we have spoken, into two portions.

Place names

(North of the Danube)

Tanais River (Don) Maeotis Sea (of Azof) / Pontice/Pontos Sea (Euxine) Propontis Sea (of Marmara) Tyras River (Dniester) Borysthenes River (Dnieper)

Albis River (Elbe) Amasias River (Ems) Ercynios Forest

Buviaemon City Bisurgis River (Weser) Lupias River (Leppe) Salas River (Sala) Byrhanis Island (Byrchanis) Gabreta Forest Bosporos Strait (Bosporus) Caspia Sea (Caspian)

Ripaea Mountain (Riphean) Hellespontos Strait

(Hellespond/Dardanelles) Hypanios River (Bog)

Phasis River (Rioni) Thermodon River (Terme)

Halys River (Kisil-Irmak) Haemos Mountain (Haemus) Peuce Island Marisos River (Mure ) Danuvios River (Danube, upper part)

Hermonaktos City Nikonia City

Ophiussa City Leuce Island

Olbia City Tamyracos Gulf Carcinites Gulf Phanagoreia City Panticapaeon City/Hill

Sapra Lake Herronesos City Parthenion City Ktenus Port Symbolon limen Port Theodosia City Taurice Peninsula (Crimea)

Amastris City Criou-metopon Promontory Carambis Promontory Trapezus Mountain/City Tibarania City Colhis City Cimmerion Mountain Nymphaeon City Myrmecion City

Achilleion City Palakion Fortress Chabon Fortress Neapolis Fortress Eupatorion Fortress

Place names

(South of the Danube)

Rodope Mountain Parisos River Lugeon Marsh Corcoras River Drabos River Noaros River Colapis River Siskia Strong-hold Sirmion Strong-hold Scardon City/river

Apsyrtides Islands Cyrictice Island Libyrnides Islands

Issa Island Tragourion Island Pharos Island Salon City Promon City Ninias City

Sinotion City Andeterion Fortress

Delmion City Adrion Mountain

Naron River Corcyra Island

Rizonikos Gulf Rizon City

Drilon River Lissos City

Epidamnos City () Akrolissos (Dyrrachion) City Apsos River Aoos River Apollonia City

Lakmos River Inachos River

Nympaeon Hot springs Bylliace City

Orikon City Ionios Sea (Ionian)

/ Margos/Bargos River Heorta City

Capedounon City Byzantion City

Istros City Tomis City Kallatis City Bizone City Krounoe City

Odessos City Naulochos City Mesembria City (before Menebria) Tirizis Promontory Haenos City (previously Poltymbria)

Aghiale City Thynias City Phinopolis City

Andriace City Salmydessos City Kyaneae Islands Pharnakeia City Sinope City Chalcedon City Kalybe City

Candabia Mountain

(Macedonia)

Concerning the ancient Macedonia Strabo says, indeed, Macedonia is a part of Greece.

Following, however, the natural character of the country and its form, we have determined to

separate it from Greece, and to unite it with Thrace, which borders upon it.

Place names

/ Macedonia/Hemathia Territory (previously

Hemathia) Egnatia Road

/ Kypseloe/Kypsella City Ebros River (Maritsa/Evros)

Lychnidos City Pylon City Barnous City

Heracleia City Edessa City

Pella City/ Thessalonikeia/Therme City Strymon River Thermaeos Gulf Nestos River Panormos Port

Onchesmos Port Cassiope Port Dodone City Ausonion Sea Phalcron Promontory Poseidion City/Promontory Bouthroton City Pelodes Port Sybota Islands Leucimma Promontory Chimerion Promontory Glykys Port

Acheron River Acherusia Lake

Thyamis River< Cichyros< Ephyra City Phoenice City

Bouchetion City Elatria City

Pandosia City Batiae City Comaros Harbor Nicopolis Harbor

Arathos River Tymphe Mountain Paroraea City

Argos Amphilochicon City Argos Orestikon City

Damastion City Deuriopos City Tripolis Pelagonia City

Hepeiros Territory Eordoe City Elimeia City Eratyra City

Lyngon City < Acheloos River

/ Evenos/Lycormas River (previously Lycormas) / Erigon/Riginia River Axios River Azoros City

Bryanion City Alalkomenae City

Stybara City Aeginion City Europos City/river (Eurotas) Kydrae City Aethicia City Tricce City Poeon Mountain Pindos Mountain (Pindus)

Oxyneia City Ion River

/ Tomaros/Tmaros Mountain Polyanon Mountain Gortynion City Stobon City

Aliacmon River Thermaeos Gulf

Orestis Territory Oete Mountain Boeon Mountain

Bertiscos Mountain Scardos Mountain

Orbelos Mountain Rodope Mountain

Aemos Mountain Hemathia Mountain Olympos Mountain (Olympus) Olynthos City

Magnesia Territory Titarion Mountain Magnetis City Gyrton City Crannon City Pieria Gulf/Territory Pelion Mountain Dion City Pimpleia City Leibethra City/ Citron /Pydna City (previously Pydna)

Aloros City Ludias RiverT Triclaron Mountain Chalastra City

Abydon City Aea Spring

Echedoros City Garescos City Aeneia City Kissos City Bermion Mountain Canastraeon Promontory/ Pallene/Phlegra Peninsula (previously

Phlegra)/ Casandreia/Potidaea City (previously Potidaea) Beroea City

Aphytis City Mende City Skione City Sane City Mekyperna City Toronaeos Gulf Derris Promontory

Athos Promontory/Mountain Sigikos Gulf

Sigos City Acanthos City Acanthios Gulf

Kofos Port Maliakos Gulf Pagasitikon Gulf Strymonikon Gulf Sepias Promontory Nymphaeon Promontory

Acrathos Promontory Neapolis City Kleonae City Thyssos City

Olophyksis City Akrothoe City

Stageira City Capros Port/Island Phagres City Galepsos City

Apollonia City / Thrace/Threce Territory Myrkinos City

Argilos City Drabiskos City Daton City Pagaeon Mountain Uranopolis City Amphipolis City

Ennea Odoe City Agrianae City

Parorbelia City Eidomene City Kallipolis City

Orthopolis City Philippoupolis City Berge City Paeonia City Doberon City Bolbe City

Arethusa City Maedon City Sintoe City Perinthos City/ Philippoe/Crenides (before Crenides) Lemnos Island

Thasos Island Imbros Island Abdera City

Dikaea City/port Bistonis Lake Kartera City Xantheia City Maronia City

/ Ismaros/Ismara City Ismaris Lake

Thasion cefalae Rocks Sapeoi City Topeira City

Orthagoreia City Tempyra City Characoma City Parthenios> Imbrasos River Imbros Island Odrysae City

Bizye City Aenos City Melas Gulf/River Sarpedon Promontory

Abydon Strait Seston Strait Lysimaheia City Cardia City Paktye City Drabos City Limnae City

Alopeconnesos City Mazusia Promontory

Elaeus City Protesilaeion City Sigeion Promontory Troas Territory/ Kynos/Hecabes sema Promontory Madytos City Sestias Promontory Sestos City Krithote City Macron teichos Territory

Leuce acte Port Ieron oros Mountain

Selymbria City Silta City Proconnesos Island (Marmara)

Athyras River Bathynia River Byzantion City Cyaneae petrae Islands/Reefs Sigeios City Lampsacos City Kyzicos City Parios City Priapos City Sigrion Promontory Troea City

Ella Strait

Greece(Without Macedonia)

About the origin of the Greek language Strabo says,

Hecatus of Miletus says of the Peloponnesus, that, before the time of the Greeks, it was

inhabited by barbarians. Perhaps even the whole of Greece was, anciently, a settlement of

barbarians, if we judge from former accounts. For Pelops brought colonists from Phrygia into the

Peloponnesus, which took his name; Danaus brought colonists from Egypt; Dryopes, Caucones,

Pelasgi, Leleges, and other barbarous nations, partitioned among themselves the country on this

side of the isthmus. The case was the same on the other side of the isthmus; for Thracians, under

their leader Eumolpus, took possession of Attica; Tereus of Daulis in Phoca; the Phnicians,

with their leader Cadmus, occupied the Cadmeian district; Aones, and Temmices, and Hyantes,

Botia. Pindar says, 'there was a time when the Botian people were called Syes.' Some names

show their barbarous origin, as Cecrops, Codrus, clus, Cothus, Drymas, and Crinacus.

Thracians, Illyrians, and Epirot are settled even at present on the sides of Greece. Formerly the

territory they possessed was more extensive, although even now the barbarians possess a large

part of the country, which, without dispute, is Greece. Macedonia is occupied by Thracians, as

well as some parts of Thessaly; the country above Acarnania and tolia, by Thesproti, Cassopi,

Amphilochi, Molotti, and Athamanes, Epirotic tribes

Botia was first occupied by Barbarians, Aones, and Temmices, a wandering people from

Sunium, by Leleges, and Hyantes. Then the Phnicians, who accompanied Cadmus, possessed

it (The Aeolians) after having united the Orchomenian tract to Botia (for formerly they did

not form one community, nor has Homer enumerated these people with the Botians, but by

themselves, calling them Miny) with the assistance of the Orchomenians they drove out the

Pelasgi, who went to Athens, a part of which city is called from this people Pelasgic. The Pelasgi

however settled below Hymettus. The Thracians retreated to Parnassus. The Hyantes founded

Hyampolis in Phocis

Ephorus relates that the Thracians, after making treaty with the Botians, attacked them by

night, when encamped in a careless manner during a time of peace The Pelasgi and the

Botians also went during the war to consult the oracle (at Dodona). The messengers (of the

Botians) sent to consult the oracle suspecting the prophetess of favoring the Pelasgi on account

of their relationship, (for the temple had originally belonged to the Pelasgi,) seized the woman,

and threw her upon a burning pile

After this they assisted Penthilus in sending out the olian colony, and dispatched a large body

of their own people with him, so that it was called the Botian colony

The poet next mentions the Orchomenians in the Catalogue, and distinguishes them from the

Botian nation. He gives to Orchomenus the epithet Minyeian from the nation of the Miny.

They say that a colony of the Minyeians went hence to Iolcus, and from this circumstance the

Argonauts were called Miny. It appears that, anciently, it was a rich and very powerful city

Of its power there is this proof, that the Thebans always paid tribute to the Orchomenians, and to

Erginus their king, who it is said was put to death by Hercules... The spot which the present lake

Copas occupies, was formerly, it is said, dry ground, and was cultivated in various ways by the

Orchomenians, who lived near it; and this is alleged as a proof of wealth

The island (Euboea) had the name of Abantis also. The poet (Homer) in speaking of Euba

never calls the inhabitants from the name of the island, Eubans, but always Abantes. Aristotle

says that Thracians, taking their departure from Aba, the Phocian city, settled with the other

inhabitants in the island, and gave the name of Abantes to those who already occupied it; other

writers say that they had their name from a hero, as that of Euba was derived from a heroine.

But perhaps as a certain cave on the sea-coast fronting the gean Sea is called Boos-Aule, (or

the Cows Stall) where Io is said to have brought forth Epaphus, so the island may have had the

name Euba on this account

Some writers identify (Cephallenia) with Taphos, and the Cephallenians with Taphians, and

these again with Telebo. They assert that Amphitryon, with the aid of Cephalus, the son of

Deioneus, an exile from Athens, undertook an expedition against the island, and having got

possession of it, delivered it up to Cephalus But this is not in accordance with Homer, for the

Cephallenians were subject to Ulysses and Lrtes, and Taphos to Mentes. Nor does Hellanicus

follow Homer when he calls Cephallenia, Dulichium, for Dulichium, and the other Echinades,

are said to be under the command of Meges, and the inhabitants, Epeii, who came from Elis

As far as the Taphians (Leleges) of Cephalonia are concerned, according to Wikipedia they were

one of the aboriginal peoples of the Aegean littoral, distinct from the Pelasgians, the Bronze Age

Greeks, the Cretan Minoans, the Cycladic Telkhines, and the Tyrrhenians. The classical Hellenes

emerged as an amalgam of these six peoples. The distinction between the Leleges and the

Carians (a nation living in south west Anatolia) is unclear. According to Homer, the Leleges were

a distinct Anatolian tribe; However, Herodotus states that Leleges had been an early name for the

Carians. The fourth-century BCE historian Philippus of Theangela, suggested that the Leleges

maintained connections to Messenia, Laconia, Locris and other regions in mainland Greece, after

they were overcome by the Carians in Asia Minor.

[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leleges]

It is uncertain if the Leleges were the ancestors of the Carians or if they were displaced by the

later in Asia Minor in the beginning and in mainland Greece later on. Another interesting

example is the Caucones:

The Triphylii had their name from the accident of the union of three tribes; of the Epeii, the

original inhabitants; of the Miny, who afterwards settled there; and last of all of the Eleii, who

made themselves masters of the country

At present I must add some remarks concerning the Caucones in Triphylia. For some writers say,

that the whole of the present Elis, from Messenia to Dyme, was called Cauconia. Antimachus

calls them all Epeii and Caucones. But some writers say that they did not possess the whole

country, but inhabited it when they were divided into two bodies, one of which settled in

Triphylia towards Messenia, the other in the Buprasian district towards Dyme, and in the Hollow

Elis. And there, and not in any other place, Aristotle considered them to be situated. The last

opinion agrees better with the language of Homer, and the preceding question is resolved. For

Nestor is supposed to have lived at the Triphyliac Pylus, the parts of which towards the south and

the east (and these coincide towards Messenia and Laconia) was the country subject to Nestor,

but the Caucones now occupy it, so that those who are going from Pylus to Lacedmon must

necessarily take the road through the Caucones.

For the Caucones Wikipedia says they were an autochthonous tribe of Anatolia (modern-day

Turkey) whose migrations brought them to the western Greek mainland in Arkadia, Triphylian

Pylos, and north into Elis. Their etymology suggests strong affinities with the Caucasos

Mountains originally. According to Herodotus and other classical writers, they were displaced or

absorbed by the immigrant Bithynians, who were a group of clans from Thrace that spoke an

Indo-European language. Thracian Bithynians also expelled or subdued the Mysians, and some

minor tribes, the Mariandyni alone maintaining themselves in cultural independence, in the

northeast of what became Bithynia. Strabo acknowledges that in earlier times Bithynians were

called Mysians who, in turn, Herodotus says alongside Teucrians were invaders of northern

Greece (Thessaly) before the Trojan War.

[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucones]

Strabos story about the three tribes of Triphylia (= treis phyles, three tribes), the Epii, Minyans

and Eleii doesnt clarify the linguistic affinities between them. If the Epii were the original

inhabitants then probably they were Pelasgi. Minyans could be either Minoans (from Minos) or

Thracians (from Minyas). The Eleii if they were the last to arrive in Triphylia could be Greeks

but their relation to the Caucones is uncertain.

What seems to matter is that we have an amalgam of peoples, either closely or distantly related

to each other, who altogether mix to form a culture which emerged as purely Greek in later

times. The Caucones for example could be IEs but it is difficult to imagine that they were the

only responsible for the emergence of the Greek language in the Peloponnese. The Leleges or

Carians on the other hand were Pelasgians but it seems very probable that they also spoke an

early form of an IE language. Therefore both the Caucones and the Leleges/Carians together with

other tribes like Thracians and Phrygians, or even Minoans if they were Luwians and

Tyrrhenians whoever they were contributed to the emergence of a language which could be later

identified as Greek. Therefore when Herodotus or Strabo say that Greece was previously

occupied by barbarians, these barbarians could be equally the Greek newcomers, who at this

stage spoke a language as much barbarian as the language of their predecessors.

Another note by Strabo is that, It will suffice then to add, that, according to Philochorus, when

the country (of Attica) was devastated on the side of the sea by the Carians, and by land by the

Botians, whom they called Aones, Cecrops first settled a large body of people in twelve cities,

the names of which were Cecropia, Tetrapolis, Epacria, Deceleia, Eleusis, Aphidn, Thoricus,

Brauron, Cytherus, Sphettus, Cephisia, [Phalerus]. Again, at a subsequent period, Theseus is said

to have collected the inhabitants of the twelve cities into one, the present city.

The story of Crecrops and Theseus against Carians and Boeotians may suggest that it was finally

Thracians and Phrygians that prevailed over Carians and other Pelasgians already inhabiting

Greece. But again the Thracian and the Phrygian languages as attested in later times were quite

different from the Greek language. Therefore they werent the original Greek speakers, no more

than the Carians and the rest of the Pelasgians. But perhaps they were the first to write down in

the Linear B tablets the language which emerged in Mycenaean times.

Place names

Aegaeon Sea (Aegean) Sounion Promontry/Territory< Peloponnesos< Argos Territory (Peloponnese) Libycon Sea Sikelicos Gulf Corinthiacos Gulf Crisaeos Gulf Scotussa City Peneios River Tempe Territory

/ / Attice/Actice/Acte Territory< Boeotia< Ogygia Territory Megaris Territory Thermopylae City Trachinia Territory Chelonatas Promontory Isthmos Isthmus (of Corinth)

Maleoe City < < Sikyon

Pisatis Territory Triphylia Territory Kyllene City

Arcadicon Mountain/ Elison/Elisa River

Selleeis City Ephyra City (previously Cichyra)

Thesprotia Territory Lasion City/ Boenoe/Oenoe City

Orchomenos City Oechalia Territory Eurytos City

Andania City Scollion City Coryphasion City// Gerenos/Gerena/Gerenoe City/ Geron/Geranios River Bouprasion City

Erymanthos City Phrixa Territory

Epitalion Territory Macistia Territory Chalcis River Crounoe Spring Samicon Fortress Minthe Mountain Neda River

Hypana City Tympaneae City Dalion River

Annion City Cauconia Territory Lacedaemon Territory Ionaeon Grove

Eurykydeion Grove Samos City/Island

Arene City Thryon/Thryoessa> Epitalion City > (;) Aepy> Margalae(?) City

Amphigeneia City Pteleon City Aegialos City> / Dorion> Oluris/Olura Mountain/Territory > Oechalia> Andania City Cyparisseeis River

Hypsoeis City

Anchialos City Andron City

Pteleasion Village Alorion City

Pheae City Olympos Mountain

Salmone City > Pisa>Bisa City/spring Cicysion City

Enipeus River Cytherios River

Arpina City Parthenias River Dyspontion City Messenia Territory

/ Eleia/Elis Territory Messene City Messeniacos Gulf

Asine City / Asinaeos/Acritas Gulf

Hire City< Pherae< Cardamyle City

Antheia City > Aepeia> Thouria City Pedasos City / Oetylos/Boetylos City Aegaleon Mountain/ Sphagia/Sphacteria Islands Strophades Islands Thyrides Promontory Kinaethion Promontory Taenaron Promontory Charadra City Thalamae City Nedon City Poeaessa City

Echeiae City Tragion City

/ Enope/ Enispe City Thouriates Gulf

/ Erana/Arene City Stenyclaros City

Hyameitis City Acrocorinthos Acropolis

/ Limnae/Limnaeon Territory

Taygetos Mountain Amyclae City

Pharis City Phycous Promontory Pachynos Promontory Maleas Promontory

Onou gnathos Pennsula Coryx Promontory Psamathus City

Acraeoe City> Boea> Maleae City

Asopos City/ Messe/Messoa Territory / Augeiae/Aegaeae Territory Ionia City

Las City Aegys City Scyllaeon Promontory Aegina City

Epidauros limera City Minoa Fortress Temenion City Lerne River/Lake

Argos City Heraeon City

Mycenae City Nauplia Territory Caphereas Promontory Calauria Island Schoenous Port Cechreae Port Tiryns City Thasos Island Larisa Citadel

Inachos River Lyrkeion Mountain

Erasinos River Bouras Gulf

Amymone Fountain / Hionae/ Eiones City

/ Likimnion/Likymna City/Acropolis Prosymna City Spercheios River

Athenae City < Epidauros/Epitauros City

Methana Fortress/Peninsula Tenea> Tegea City

/ >

Araethyrea/ Araethyree >

Phliasia

City

Kelosse Mountain Carneates Mountain Thebae City Plataeae City Paros City Nemeas River > Aegialeia> Ionia Territory Probalinthos City Tricorynthos City Patrae City

Helice City Achaea Territory

Priene Territory / Hermion/ Hermione City

/ Megale polis/ Megalopolitis City/Territory Aegeira City Boura City

/ Olenos City Tritaeeis City/ Pellana/ Pellene City Sybaris Fountain Keryneia City

Hamarion Grove Selinus River

Aktion City Larisos River

Araxos Promontory Kyllene Mountain

Heraea City Cleitor City Pheneos City/ Stymphalos/ Stymphalioe City Stymphalis Lake Maenalos City/Mountain Methydrion City Caphyeis City Kynaetha City

/ Ripe/ Rypes City Stratie City Parthenion Mountain

Anias River Stygos hydor Spring

Elis City Peiraeus City

Oropos City Scironides Rocks Minoa Promontory/ Nisaea City/Port Pythion City

Eleusis City Thriasion Territory

Oneia Mountain Alkyonis Sea

> Salamis> Pityussa City/ Sciras/ Kychreia City> Bocaros> Bocalia River Polichne City

Aegeiroussa City/ Tripodes/ Tripodiskion City Kerata Mountain

Amphiale City Pharmacussae Islands Phoron Port Psyttaleia Island Mounichia Hill Marathon City

Ramnous City Deceleia City Phyle City Cecropia City Tetrapolis City

Epacria City / Aphidna/ Aphidnae City

Thoricos City Brauron City Cythyros City Sphettos City Cephisia City Phaleros City Zoster Promontory

Astypalaea Promontory Phabra Island

Elaeussa Island Hydrussa Island

Belbina Island Potamos City / / Prasia/ Prasiae/ Prasieis City Steiria City Myrrinous City Psaphis City Leuce acte Promontory

Hymettos Mountain Brilessos Mountain Lycabettos Mountain Parnes Mountain Corydallos Mountain Pentelicon Mountain Cephissos River Phalericon Gulf Trinemeoe Territory

Agra Territory Lykeion Territory

Eridanos Springs/ Creousa/ Creusa City Euripos Strait Aulis City Salganeas City

Anthedon City / Hyas polis/ Hyampolis City

Thespiae City Delphinion Port Delion City Bathys Port / Graea/Tanagra City Poemandris Territory Cnopia City Mycalessos City

Harma City/ Hyria/ Hysiae City / Erythrae City / / Heleon/ Helos/ Heilesion City

Larymna City Halae City

/ Aegae/ Aega City Messapion Mountain

/ Isos/ Nisa City/ Phara/ Pharae City Nysa City Copais Lake Copae City

Anchoe City/Lake Triton River Melas River/ Lilaea City Parapotamioe City Permessos River

Olmeios River Trephia Lake Cephissis Lake

Hylae City Hylice Lake Hyde City

Peteon City Schoenos City Schoenous River Scolos City

Olynthos City

/ Parasopioe/ Parasopias City> Eteonos> Scarphe City

Parasopia Territory Asopos River

Ismenos River Dirke Fountain Therapnae City Teumessos Hill

Ascre City Haliartos City Alalkomenion City Onchestos City

Phoenikion River Phoenekis City

Okalea City Eutresis City> Thisbe> Thisbae City

Acraephiae City Tilphousion City Coroneia City/Lake

Haliartis Lake Tilphossa Fountain Tilphossion Mountain Glissas City

Arne City/ /

Couarios/ Coralios/Couralios River

Eleutherae City Hypaton Mountain

Cadmeia Acropolis Aonion Territory

Potniae City Thebae City

Hypothebae City Tenericon Territory Ptoon Mountain/ Mideia/ Midea City Chaeronia City Lebadeia City / / Leuctra/ Leuctron/ Leuctroe City Mantineia City

> Aspledon> Eudeielos City> Panopeus> Phanoteus City Daphnous City

Opous City/Gulf Crisa City Cirra City

Anticyrra City Delphoe City Cirphis City Cnemis Mountain Oetaea City Oetaeon Mountain Aetolicon Mountain Cocyrion antron Cave

Elateia City Pythoe City Locroe City

Ozoloe City Lycoreia City Castalia Fountain Pleistos River Pylae City

Opisthomarathos City Pharygion Promontory

Ambrysos City Medeon City Daulis City Cyparissos City

Elarion Cave> Trachin> Heracleia City

/ Anemoreia/ Anemoleia City Katopterios Territory

Adylion Mountain Acontion Mountain

Glechon City Apollonia Territory Epidamnos City

Thermopylae City Kynos Port

Atalante City Alope City

Cnemides City Malieas Gulf Lichades Islands Thronion City/ Boagrios/ Manes River Scarpheia City Nicaea City

Calliaros Territory Bessa Territory> Tarphe> Pharygae City

Amphissa City Naupactos City Oeantheia City Eupalion City/ Pindos/ Acyphas City/River Callidromon Mountain Teichious City

Rodountia City Dyras River Phoenix River Tempe Territory Pelion Mountain

/ Ossa/ Osse Mountain< / /

Thettalia< Pyrraea/ Aemonia/

Nessonis

Territory

Paeonia City Nessonis Lake Phthiotis Territory

Hestiaeotis Territory Thettaliotis Territory Pelasgiotis Territory Pylaeicos Gulf Dolopia Territory Pharsalos City Magnesia Territory Larisa City

Alos City/ Phthia/ Phthie Territory

Hellas Territory Argos Pelasgicon Territory

Palaepharsalos City Thetideion City Messeis Spring

Hypereia Spring Melitaea City Pyrra City

Othrys Mountain Apidanos River Antron City Halos City Halious City

/ Typhrestos/ Tymphrestos Mountain Itonos City

Crocion Territory Amphrysos River

Phylace City/ Lamia City

Echinos City Narthacion City/ Thaumacia/ Thaumacoe City Proerna City Paracheloete City

Asclepiadae City Acyphas City

Tomaros Mountain Phalara City / Kremaste/ Pelasgia Larisa City/ Demetrion/ Pyrasos City Phyllos Territory

Ichnae Territory Cieros Territory

Athamania Territory Pyrra Island Deucalion Island Pherae City Pagasae City Iolcos City Aphetae City

Demetrias City Neleia City

Ormenion City Rizous City

Boebe City Boebeis Lake

Anauros River Kikynethos City/Island/ Methone City

Olizon City Meliboea City Sciathos Island Peparethos Island Icos Island Halonnesos Island

Scyros Island Tricce Island/ Ithome/ Thome City/ Acropolis

< Histiaeotis< Doris Territory Metropolis City Pelinnaeon City Gomphoe City Castnietis City

Onthyrion City Pharcadon City

Atrax City Cyphos Mountain/City Titaresios River Perraebia Territory Mopsion City Kynos kephalae Village Dotion City

/ Homolion/ Homole City Erymnae City

/ Sepias/ Sepiae City Casthanea City Ipnoe City

< / /

Euboea< Macris/ Abantis/

Ellopia

Island

/ Kenaeon/ Kynos Promontory Geraestos City Petalia City Coela Territory

/ Aba/ Abae City Oche Mountain

Telethrion Mountain Histiaea City

Kerinthos City Aedepsos City

/ Orobia/ Orobiae City Oreos City

Drymos Territory Callas River Dion City

Athenae diades City Canae City Boudoros River Carystos City Styra City

< / Eretria< Melaneis/ Arotria City Marmarion City

Halae Araphenidae City

Canethos City/ Lelanton/ Lelantion Plain/ Territory/ Macistos/ Platanistus City

Amarynthos City Kereus River Neleus River Aetolia Territory

Acarnania Territory Anactorion City

Nicopolis City Oeneiadae City Leucas City

Argos Amphilochicon City Ambracia Lake

Calydon City Pleuron City Trichonion City Corax Mountain Molycreia City Taphiassos Mountain Macynia City Courion Mountain Chalcis Mountain/ Chalcis/ Hypochalcis City> Pylene> Proschion City Leucas Island Neritos City Ithace Island

/ / Cephallenia/ Samos/ Same Island Crocyleia Island Aegilipa Island/ Doulichion/ Dolicha Island

Echinades Islands Paleis City Pronesos City Cranioe City/ Taphos/ Taphias Island

Asteria Island Zacynthos Island

< Oxeiae< Thoae Islands Oeniadae Islands Paracheloetis Territory

Ambrakicos Gulf Myrtountion Sea-lake Palaeros City

Alyzia City Heracleus limen Port

Crithote Promontory Astacos City

Nicomedeia City Astacenos Gulf

Melite Lake Kynia Lake Ouria Lake

Halicyrna City Aracynthos City

< Lysimacheia< Hydra Lake Arsinoe City

Conopa City Cyclades Islands Sporades Islands Crete Island Creticon Sea Libycon Sea Aegyption Sea Phalasarna City Criou metopon Promontory Kimaros Promontory Samonion Promontory

Amphimalla City Phoenix City Minoa City Hierapytna City

Leuca ore Mountain Cythera Island Prason City

Erineos City Boeos City Cytinion City< Cnossos< Kaeratos City Gortyna City/ Lyttos/ Lyctos City

Heracleion Port Amnisos City

Eileithyias ieron Sanctuary Leben City Matalon City Lethaeos River Dicte Mountain

Ide Mountain

Cherronesos Promontory/Port Dictynna City Cydonia City Tityros Mountain

Aptera City Kisamos Port Phaestos City

Rytion City Lissen City Miletos City Lycastos City Thera Island

Anaphe Island Therasia Island

Ios Island Sikinos Island Lagousa Island Pholegandros Island Kimolos Island Siphnos Island Melos Island Delos Island/ Kynthos Island Inopos River

Patmos Island Corassiae Islands Icaria Island

Samos Island Icarion Sea

Kos Island Carpathion Sea

Rodos Island Atabyris City Astypalaea Island

Telos Island Chalkia Island Nisyros Island/ Crapathos/ Carpathos Island Casos Island Calydnae Islands Cypros Island Samos Island Chios Island Lesbos Island Tenedos Island Calymna Island

A reconstruction of the 3rd millennium BCE Proto-Greek area, by Vladimir I. Georgiev

[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Greek_language]

Concerning the origin of the Greek language opinions vary. The previous map suggests an origin

in the North-West and the Balkans in general. But if the first people came in Greece from the

Near East or from Anatolia and the Caucasus then the Greek language may have split before it

came to Greece. Most probably variations of the language (which would later evolve to Greek)

were spoken both in Greece and Asia Minor (including varieties of Thracian/Phrygian/Carian,

etc.), before one or some of these varieties prevailed over the others.

Thessaly may be considered a good candidate for the core of a language which could have later

evolved to Greek. Firstly because it was the first place where people settled in the Neolithic

(considering this the most ancient substratum), and secondly because foundation myths place the

origin there. Strabo refers to these myths,

It is said, that Hellen was the son of Deucalion, and that he governed the country about Phthia

between the Peneius and Asopus, and transmitted to his eldest son these dominions, sending the

others out of their native country to seek a settlement each of them for himself. Dorus, one of

them, settled the Dorians about Parnassus, and when he left them, they bore his name. Xuthus,

another, married the daughter of Erechtheus, and was the founder of the Tetrapolis of Attica,

which consisted of noe, Marathon, Probalinthus, and Tricorynthus.

Achus, one of the sons of Xuthus, having committed an accidental murder, fled to Lacedmon,

and occasioned the inhabitants to take the name of Achans. Ion, the other son, having

vanquished the Thracian army with their leader Eumolpus, obtained so much renown, that the

Athenians intrusted him with the government of their state. It was he who first distributed the

mass of the people into four tribes, and these again into four classes according to their

occupations, husbandmen, artificers, priests, and the fourth, military guards; after having made

many more regulations of this kind, he left to the country his own name. It happened at that time

that the country had such an abundance of inhabitants, that the Athenians sent out a colony of

Ionians to Peloponnesus, and the tract of country which they occupied was called Ionia after their

own name, instead of gialeia, and the inhabitants Ionians instead of gialeans, who were

distributed among twelve cities.

After the return of the Heracleid, these Ionians, being expelled by the Achans, returned to

Athens, whence, in con junction with the Codrid, (descendants of Codrus,) they sent cut the

Ionian colonists to Asia. They founded twelve cities on the sea-coast of Caria and Lydia, having

distributed themselves over the country into as many parts as they occupied in Peloponnesus.

This area around Thessaly, including also other parts of Central Greece was refered to as the

Pelasgic Argos, in contrast to Argos in the Peloponnese,

Some have understood Pelasgic Argos to be a Thessalian city, formerly situated near Larisa, but

now no longer in existence. Others do not understand a city to be meant by this name, but the

Thessalian plain, and to have been so called by Abas, who established a colony there from

Argos

With respect to Phthia, some suppose it to be the same as Hellas and Achaia, and that these

countries form the southern portion in the division of Thessaly into two parts. But others

distinguish Phthia and Hellas

Some of the later writers (after Homer), who affirm that (Hellas) is a country, suppose it to have

extended from Palpharsalus to Theb Phthiotides. In this country also is Thetidium, near both

the ancient and the modern Pharsalus; and it is conjectured from Thetidium that the country, in

which it is situated, was a part of that under the command of Achilles. Others, who regard it as a

city, allege that the Pharsalii show at the distance of 60 stadia from their own city, a city in ruins,

which they believe to be Hellas, and two springs near it, Messeis and Hypereia. But the

Melitenses say, that at the distance of about 10 stadia from their city, was situated Hellas on the

other side of the Enipeus, when their own city had the name of Pyrrha, and that the Hellenes

migrated from Hellas, which was built in a low situation, to theirs. They adduce in proof of this

the tomb of Hellen, son of Deucalion and Pyrrha, which is in their marketplace

This then is the account of the several parts of Thessaly. In general we say, that it was

formerly called Pyrrha, from Pyrrha, the wife of Deucalion; Hmonia, from Hmon; and

Thettalia, from Thettalus, the son of Hmon. But some writers, after dividing it into two

portions, say, that Deucalion obtained by lot the southern part, and called it Pandora, from his

mother; that the other fell to the share of Hmon, from whom it was called Hmonia; that the

name of one part was changed to Hellas, from Hellen, the son of Deucalion, and of the other to

Thettalia, from Thettalus, the son of Hmon. But, according to some writers, it was the

descendants of Antiphus and Pheidippus, sons of Thettalus, descended from Hercules, who

invaded the country from Ephyra in Thesprotia, and called it after the name of Thettalus their

progenitor. It has been already said that once it had the name of Nessonis, as well as the lake,

from Nesson, the son of Thettalus.

What is difficult to realize from the previous narration is the time gap, for example between

Deucalion and Heamon or Hellen, since it is very probable that the lineages didnt succeed

directly one another, and it is also possible that there were more than one persons having these

names. But in any case the story is indicative of a place in Thessaly or generally in the Pelasgic

Argos whose name turned into Hellas, referring of course to the Hellenes as a dinstinct subgroup

among other groups, in some degree related to each other.

AsiaAsia is divided by the ancients into two parts, above and below the Taurus mountain range

(which, as depicted in ancient maps, is supposed to stretch all the way to the East). As Strabo

says, The Taurus, extending from west to east, embraces the middle of this continent, like a

girdle, leaving one portion to the north, another to the south. The Greeks call the former Asia

within the Taurus, the latter Asia without the Taurus. We have said this before, but it is repeated

now to assist the memory.

Place names

Taxonomy of toponymsThe main supposition of IE linguistics is that IEs invaded Europe from the Ukrainian steppes and

replaced the languages previously spoken in, what has been called, Old Europe. This view has

been based on some clues, some of which include: the introduction of tumuli and horses; the

transition from female divine figurines to male ones; the similarities between ancient Sanskrit,

ancient Persian and ancient Greek, which would point to a common origin in the East. However,

as my analysis will show, place names which are considered pre- Greek can be proved in many

cases to be proto- Greek with smooth transitions of suffixes and in comparison with common

Modern Greek words of the same form. Furthermore, the wide distribution of these place names

suggests that more probably they used to form the landmarks of a lingua franca, an isogloss,

spreading all across the Mediterranean and beyond, and which was adopted and transformed by

local populations, instead of being replaced by invading newcomers, who, supposedly, had

changed the old languages but, strangely enough, had kept most, if not all, of the old place

names.

In the following taxonomy I have included all toponyms which Strabo mentions about Greece.

Initially I thought to make the division according to the suffix but this proved pointless. Most of

place names end in s for masc. or e/a for fem. (or on for neut.). But going a step further back

more interesting patterns appear, e.g. endings in ra or na and themes like halos, hali, ins/

inth, while this process can reveal earlier, hidden, themes and suffixes, sometimes ending to

monosyllable words, e.g. La-ra-ssa-ios (Larisaeos/Larisaios), a word which may contain as much

as three successive endings (-ra/-ssa/-ios) and a prototype word-theme La/Las= stone, place,

which theme incidentally may be also found at the end of words as a suffix, e.g. Margala,

Amycla/Amyclae, Corcyla/Corcyra, etc.

Furthermore, analyzing the toponyms in order to put them in categories I realized, once again,

that the themes and endings repeat themselves and overlap with each other in such a manner that

in many cases the names can easily move from one group to another, while the suffixes

themselves can move back and forth in time, without a clear distinction which is older and which

is earlier.

As far as the ending s/os/ios, which may be considered a standard Greek suffix, is concerned,

it is probably nothing more than an initial s ending, as in the names Pelops or Tiryns, which

evolved into the standard classical Greek endings os/jos by expansion, Pelopas or Tirynos, and

so on. Incidentally in villages of modern Greece many people prefer the contracted forms rather

than the expanded ones. For example ti kans (how are you) or ti psachns (what are you looking

for) rather than the standard types ti kaneis or ti psachneis.

In many cases we see that there is an imperfect integration of the (so considered) Greek suffix

(i)os/(i)a/(i)on (and the like). In names such as Naxos, Andros, Myconos, etc., the names

should have been masculine (os is reserved mainly for masc. names in modern Greek) but they

are feminine instead, suggesting perhaps that the people who later used the names were not

familiar with the meaning of the ending; or that the people who used the ending regarded the

names as feminine to remind them of the foreign origin. Compare for example the pair of words

Calymna/Calymnos. Probably the na ending is fem., while the os ending is masc. Therefore

one may say that the Greeks (those considered have been using the os ending) changed the

name from Calymna to Calymnos but kept the fem. gender to remind them of the foreign origin

of the name. However, if we consider for the pair Calymna/Calymnos a pair of suffixes (m)na/

(m)nos then the story is different because in this case it would have been the same people who

used both forms of the name. The same could be said for place names with other suffixes, e.g.

Dilesi, Milesi (si); Lari(s)sa, Amphi(s)sa, Hymettos, Lycabettos (ssa/ttos), Aptera, Cercyra (

ra); etc. Therefore the case of a continuous transition from one form to the other (e.g. a pair na/

nos or ra/ros, etc., equivalent to the pair a/os) should also be considered.

With a few obvious exceptions the vast majority of place names are, lets say, Pelasgic, or better

Pelasgic-Greek. By obvious exceptions I mean words such as Amphigeneia (amphi=both+

genos=gender/breed), Callipolis (callos=beauty +polis=city), Demetrias (the goddess Demeter),

Amphilochia (amphi=both+ lochos=ambush/thicket), Hecatompolis (hecaton=hundred+

polis=city), Epidauros/Epitauros (epi=on+ tauros=bull), etc. But even such obviously Greek

words can be shown to be of a previous origin. For example, the word polis (city) is considered

to derive from a PIE root pele-, in which case names such as Pylos (pyle=gate), Pella, Pellana

could be considered cognates. Even the name Pelasgoi contains the theme pele-. However, these

names are considered pre- IE.

First taxonomy

-ios/-ia/-ion -eos/-ea/-eon -os/-a/-on -os/-os/-os -as/-as -is/-isAcarnania

Acontion

Acraephiae

Adylion

Aegaeae

Aegialeia

Aegion

Aegyption

Aemonia

Aepasia/

Aepasion

Aepeia

Aetolia

Aktion

Alalkomenio

n

Aleision/

Aleisios

Alesiaeon

Alorion

Achaea/

Achaeae

Acraea

Acraeoe/

Araethyrea/

Araethyree

Asea

Asinaeos

Astypalaea

Boea

Boeos/

Casthanea

Cechreae

Crisaeos

Crounoe

Cyparisseeis

Erineos

Euboea

Graea

Heraea/

Actice

Aetolicon

Ambrakicos

Arcadicon/

Arcadicos

Argolicos

Attice

Callidromon

Cleonae

Corinthiacos

Creticon

Hermionicos

Hypaton

Laconice/

Laconicos

Leuctra/

Leuctroe/

Leuctron

Libycon

Messeniacos

Acrocorinthos

Aedepsos

Aegialos

Alos

Ambrysos/

Amphrysos

Alpheios

Amarynthos

Amathos

Amnisos

Amorgos

Anauros

Anchialos

Andros

Apidanos

Aracynthos

Araxos

Argos

Asopos

Astacenos

Acritas

Acyphas

Agriades

Anias

Asclepiadae

Bouras

Callas

Caphereas

Chelonatas

Cyclades

Demetrias

Dyras

Echinades

Eiones

Eurotas

Glissas

Hellas

Las

Leucas

Lichades

Abantis

Alkyonis

Amphidolida

Atabyris

Bleminatis

Boebeis

Aulis

Castnietis

Cephissis

Chalcis

Cirphis

Cnemis/

Cnemides

Copais

Daulis

Doris

Eleusis

Elis

Eutresis

Haliartis

Alyzia

Ambracia

Amphigeneia

Amymone

Anactorion

Andania

Andania

Anemoreia/

Anemoleia

Anigros/

Minyeios

Annion

Antheia

Aonion

Apollonia

Arcadia

Argeia

Arotria

Asteria

Athamania

Augeiae/

Boagrios

Boeotia/

Bouprasion

Cadmeia

Calauria

Carpathion

Castalia

Cauconia

Cecropia

Cephallenia

Heraeon

Histiaea

Ionaeon

Karthaea

Kenaeon

Lechaeon

Lethaeos

Lilaea

Limnae/

Limnaeon

Lycaeon

Maleae/

Maleoe

Meliboea

Melitaea

Midea

Nemea

Nicaea

Nisaea

Oetaea/

Oetaeon

Okalea

Oreos

Orneae

Pelinnaeon

Pheae

Pheneos

Plataeae

Pyrraea

Renaea

Scyllaeon

Ozoloe

Pentelicon

Phalericon

Pylaeicos

Pyrgoe

Pythoe

Salaminiaco

s

Samicon

Saronicos

Sikelicos

Tenericon

Thoricos

Triphyliace

Astacos

Bocaros

Boudoros

Brilessos

Calliaros

Canethos

Carystos

Casos

Cephissos

Cherronesos

Cieros

Cnossos

Corinthos

Corydallos

Crapathos/

Carpathos

Cyparissos

Cyphos

Cypros

Cythyros

Delos

Drymos

Echinos

Elixos

Epidamnos

Epidauros/

Epitauros

Erasinos

Eridanos

Erymanthos

Eteonos

Maleas/

Malieas

Melas

Nemeas

Oeneiadae/

Oeniadae

Othryas

Parasopias

Parthenias

Salganeas

Sciras

Sepias

Sporades

Strophades

Taphias

Thyreas

Hecatompoli

s

Histiaeotis

Hyameitis

Hyampolis

Hypoch