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Philosophy

Philosophy φιλοσοφία (philosophía) – “love of wisdom” (Pythagoras)

the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, truth, beauty, justice, validity, mind, language … Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing these questions (such as mysticism or mythology) by its critical and systematic approach.

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Branches of philosophy Metaphysics - the nature of being and reality (ontology, cosmology,

but also mysticism, theology …). Epistemology - nature and scope of knowledge and believe (truth,

justification ..., methodology) Ethics, or 'moral philosophy', concerned with questions of how

persons ought to act (morality, virtue) Political philosophy - study of government and the relationship of

individuals and communities to the society and state (justice, the good, law, property, rights obligations of the citizen).

Aesthetic deals with beauty (art, enjoyment, sensory-emotional values).

Logic deals with patterns of thinking that lead from true premises to true conclusions.

Philosophy of mind deals with the nature of the mind and its relationship to the body (dualism x monism, cognitive science)

Philosophy of language - inquiry into the nature, origins, and usage of language.

Etc.

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Western philosophy – historical division

Ancient philosophy (Greece 6th ct BC – 6th AC) Medieval philosophy (6th AC - 14th AC), Muslim,

Jewish, Christian … Renaissance (14th AC – 17th)

Early modern phil. (17th – 19th)

Nineteenth cent. phil. Contemporary philosophy

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Eastern philosophy

Belongs Eastern thinking to philosophy?No – Hegel, “Philosophy” – label only for western thinking?Europocentrism? Different nature of Eastern ph. (interconnection with mythology,

religious nature) – but not of whole. Not one philosophy, but various philosophies

Persian philosophy (e.g. Zoroastrianism)Indian philosophy (Buddhism, Hindu …)Chinese philosophy (Taoism, Konfucionalism …)Korean, Japanese, … African ….

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Ancient western philosophy – temporal division

Pre-Socratic period Classical periods (Socrates, Plato, Aristotle)

Hellenistic (post-Aristotelian) period Christian (and Neo-Platonist) philosophy

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Mythological background of philosophy

Myth – philosophy – science (August Comte) + applied science - technology

All ethnics have their own myths.• Traditional myths, artificial (modern) myths

(fakes?) Myths and fairytales.

• Passed by word of mouth (life of myths)

• Written form (eposes) – fixation, petrification

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Mythological background of philosophyRole of myths

• Entertainment – dramatic stories

• Formation and encourage group self consciousness, formation of tribe, ethnics, nation (justification why our tribe is super ordinate)

• Formation and consolidation of moral and social system

(model phenomena - archetypes: gods, heroes, solutions of situations) (C. G. Jung)

• Base of religion

• From epistemological view:

There is a (non visible, metaphysical) world that controls our visible (physical) world.

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Mythological background of philosophy

Myths in ancient Greece • Homer`epics (9th century BC) and

Homeric mythology (no moral order, gods capriciously play with human fates)

• Hesiod (8th century BC): concept of moral order that is given by chief god Zeus to humans

• Other systems: Orphism, Pythagoras sect, Empedocles …

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Mythological background of philosophy Truth of myth – implicit

expressions, metaphors, model situations• Judgement of Paris - bone of

contention – in Czech “apple of contention”

• Mythological truth and literal truth (art, literature, theatre, film, photography…)

Truth of religion ? Truth of science Truth in philosophy

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Conditions for formation of philosophy

SCHOLE (free time, leisure)

• Developed language (abstract concepts)

• Naivety of Homeric mythology – religion (anthropomorphism)

• Exchange of ideas and cultural influences (connection with other civilisations…)

• -----------------------

• Material conditions (but cynics, Eastern sages…)

• Fine climate

• Freedom (but among philosophers there were also slaves…)

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Presocratic philosophyMilesians (Milesian school)

Thales of Miletus (about 625 - 545 BC)

„first philosopher“ politics, astronomy, geometry…(Thales theorem, Thales circle, rangefinder, division of celestial sphere …)

Flat Earth floating on ocean Solar eclipse 28. May 585 BC Search for ARCHE (PRINCIPIUM) Water (HYDOR) – why just water?(Magnet – soul (PSYCHE) as another principle of

motion and gods)

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Presocratic philosophyMilesian School

Anaximander of Miletus (about 610 – 546 BC) Quadrant, GNOMON (sundial), celestial globe, map

of the worldARCHE – APEIRON (indefinite boundless, infinity…)Things arise by process of separation„evolutionary theory“: IN THE BEGINNING MEN WERE BORN

FROM CREATURES OF A DIFFERENT SORT, BECAUSE THE OTHER ANIMALS QUICKLY MANAGE TO FEED THEMSELVES, BUT MAN ALONE REQUIRES A LONG PERIOD OF NURSING; HENCE HAD HE BEEN LIKE THAT IN THE BEGINNING TOO, HE WOULD NEVER HAVE SURVIVED

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Presocratic philosophyMilesian School

... THE EATRH IS IN MID-AIR , OVERPOWERED BY NOTHING, AND STAYING WHERE IT IS ON ACOUNT OF ITS SIMILAR DISTANCE FROM EVERYTHING

Existence of antipodes

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Presocratic philosophyMilesian School

Anaximenes (about 585 – 528 BC) ARCHE – AER APEIROS AER (air, gas) – PNEUMA (SPIRIT) Everything is breathing (later accepted by

Stoics) Things arise by changes of concentration of

AER. (MANOSIS and PYKNOSIS) The change of quantity into quality Flat Earth floating in air (also Moon)

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Heritage of Milesians

Reductionism – complex can be reduced to simple, many to few or even one

Monism – everything comes from one principle – but inconsistent

All rational approach and all science is based on reduction (inner and outer reductionism)

Basic difference to Eastern thinking – HOLISM Problems of HOLISM, intuition. Meditation. Capra, Bohr and Eastern philosophy. HYLOZOISM (paradox of hylozoism, modern

science – „hylonekrism“)

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The end of Milesians

547 BC - Miletus fell under Persia – the end of Milesian philosophy

479 BC - Miletus rebuilt 334 BC - captured by Alexander the Great 133 - part of Roman empire, Byzantine

empire 1328 AD till now - under Turkish rule

(Balat)

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Presocratic philosophyPythagoras and Pythagoreans

Pythagoras of Samos (about 572 - 494 BC)

Disciple of Anaximander ?

visited Egypt (perhaps he knew read hieroglyphs),

India (not probable)

Rule of tyrant Polycrates,

migration to southern Italy, Croton

Pythagorean School

philosopher and thaumaturgist

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Pythagoras of Samos

School of Pythagoras -

Number or limit is the basic principle

→ mathematics and numerologyTHEORIA (theory) – originally (watching) religious

festival, narrating about r.f. → looking by inner sight

MATHEMATICA (mathematics), MATHEMA – theorem, doctrine teaching: esoteric and exoteric

COSMOS (order, jewel) → HARMONY → UNIVERSE

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HARMONIA (harmony) – joint, fastening → principle of unification

MUSICA (music), laws of acoustic, (P. tuning) monochorde – sound of string, musical intervals, music of spheres (we are accustomed with it), MUSIC THERAPY

ARITHMOS and LOGOS (ratio)

Pythagoras´ theorem and crisis of mathematics

Irrational numbers

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Pythagoras

PSYCHE (soul) – principle of personal identity

METEMPSYCHOSIS and problems of personal identity Other problems of REINKARNATION (deja vu, belief in

fairness, vegetarianism, original sin, psychotherapy) ONCE THEY SAY THAT PYTHAGORAS WAS

PASSING BY WHEN A DOG WAS BEING BEATEN AND SPOKE THIS WORD: "STOP! DON'T BEAT IT! FOR IT IS THE SOUL OF A FRIEND OF MINE – I RECOGNIZED HIM BY HIS VOICE."

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Pythagoras

Medicine – the most honourable art (TECHNE), principle of HARMONY at work

Body as a musical instrument

Health – harmony

Metrology – unifying measures, units of length and weight

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Same of later Pythagoreans

Alcmaeon from Croton (5 cent. BC)Astronomer, physician, concept of divine or animated planets

(Giordano Bruno +1600)Closed time – Great year, Calpa and the age of EarthModern concepts of closed time Autopsy (nerves, brain)

Philolaos of Croton (end of 5th cent. BC)The first non-geocentric system (10 planets, Anti-earth), central

fire of Cosmos (nucleus of our Galaxy?)

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Same of later Pythagoreans

Archytas from Tarentum (cca 400 – 365 BC)

Ruler of Tarentum (Tarano, Italy) friend of PlatoStudy of mathematics, acoustics (sound of moving bodies, pipes)Mechanical doveFinite universe:IF I AM AT THE EXTREMITY OF THE HEAVEN OF THE FIXED

STARS, CAN I STRETCH OUTWARD MY HAND OR STAFF? IT IS ABSURD TO SUPPOSE THAT I COULD NOT. IF I CAN, WHAT IS OUTSIDE MUST BE EITHER BODY OR SPACE. WE MAY THEN IN THE SAME WAY GET TO THE OUTSIDE OF THAT AGAIN, AND SO ON. IF THERE IS ALWAYS A NEW PLACE TO WHICH THE STAFF MAY BE HELD OUT, THIS CLEARLY INVOLVES EXTENSION WITHOUT LIMIT.

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Numerology

Kepler – Cosmographic mysteryPhysics and numerological from 1-

st century BC to 5-th AC) – new ideas packed in the form of old time-honoured teaching

Heritage of Pythagoreism:Mathematics – ARITHMOLOGY

speculative approaches

Neopythagoreism

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Heraclitus of Ephesus

Heraclitus of Ephesus (about 535 - 475 BC)

noble from the Androclus family (founder of Ephesus)

Contempt for the mass of mankind, loner, against democracy (DEMOS =people) advocated ARISTOCRACY (ARISTOS = the best)

Treatise deposited in the temple of Artemis

SKOTEINOS - dark

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Dynamical approachYOU CANNOT STEP TWICE INTO THE

SAME RIVER. The learning of many things teaches

not understanding.IF YOU DO NOT EXPECT THE

UNEXPECTED, YOU WILL NOT FIND IT…

NATURE LOVES TO HIDE.THE EYES ARE MORE EXACT WITNESSES

THAN THE EARS.

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TO GOD ALL THINGS ARE FAIR AND GOOD AND RIGHT, BUT PEOPLE HOLD SOME THINGS WRONG AND SOME RIGHT.

IT IS NOT GOOD FOR PEOPLE TO GET ALL THEY WISH TO GET.

IT IS SICKNESS THAT MAKES HEALTH PLEASANT; EVIL, GOOD; HUNGER, PLENTY; WEARINESS, REST.

A PERSON'S CHARACTER IS HIS FATE.

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THIS WORLD, WHICH IS THE SAME FOR ALL, NO ONE OF THE GODS OR HUMANS HAS MADE; BUT IT WAS EVER, IS NOW, AND EVER WILL BE AN EVER-LIVING FIRE, WITH MEASURES OF IT KINDLING, AND MEASURES GOING OUT.

EPYROSIS ? Conflagration

THE WAKING HAVE ONE COMMON WORLD, BUT THE SLEEPING TURN ASIDE EACH INTO A WORLD OF HIS OWN.

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Some later reflection and similarities of Heraclitus

Cratylus:

YOU CANNOT STEP EVEN ONCE INTO THE SAME RIVER.

Heraclitus and Taoism• Laoze (Lao Tzu)

• Dynamic approach

Stoic philosophy EKPYROSIS, LOGOS, PANTA REI, “Everything

flows”Hegel, Marx, Nietzsche, Heidegger …

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The Eleatic schoolXenophanes of Colophone (570 - 475 BC)

HOMER AND HESIOD HAVE ASCRIBED TO THE GODS ALL THINGS THAT ARE A SHAME AND A DISGRACE AMONG MORTALS, STEALING AND ADULTERIES AND DECEIVING OF ANOTHER

One god (atheism, monotheism, metaphysical theology?)

MEN MAKE GODS IN THEIR OWN IMAGE. THOSE OF THE ETHIOPIANS ARE BLACK AND SNUB-NOSED, GODS OF THE THRACIANS HAVE BLUE EYES AND RED HAIR. IF HORSES OR OXEN OR LIONS HAD HANDS AND COULD PRODUCE WORKS OF ART, THEY TOO WOULD REPRESENT THE GODS AFTER THEIR OWN FASHION.

The One. If there had ever been a time when nothing existed, nothing could ever have existed.

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The Eleatic school

Parmenides (circa 540 - after 470 BC)

„PERI FYSEOS“COME NOW, I WILL TELL YOU AND DO YOU LISTEN TO MY

SAYING AND CARRY IT AWAY, THE ONLY TWO WAYS OF SEARCH THAT CAN BE THOUGHT OF.

THE FIRST, NAMELY, THAT IT IS, AND THAT IT IS IMPOSSIBLE FOR IT NOT TO BE, IS THE WAY OF BELIEF, FOR TRUTH IS ITS COMPANION.

THE OTHER, NAMELY, THAT IT IS NOT, AND THAT IT MUST NEEDS NOT BE, THAT, I TELL YOU, IS A PATH THAT NONE CAN LEARN OF AT ALL.

FOR YOU CANNOT KNOW WHAT IS NOT THAT IS IMPOSSIBLE NOR UTTER IT; FOR IT IS THE SAME THING THAT CAN BE THOUGHT (CONCEIVED) AND THAT CAN BE.

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The Eleatic school

Melissus of Samos (5th century BC)

NOR IS ANYTHING EMPTY; FOR WHAT IS EMPTY IS NOTHING; SO NOTHING WILL NOT BE BEING OF NOTHING IS NOT BEING.

Horror vacui, paradox of vacuum and it`s solution Descartes, Thomas Hobes and Boyles works on gas dynamics

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The Eleatic school

Epistemology: Paradox of negative concepts (myth about giant Polyphemos)

Paradoxes of infinity

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The Eleatic school

Zeno of Elea (about 489 BC)

Proof by contradiction Zeno arguments against multiplicity, and against

motion. APORIA • Bisection of line

• The flying arrow

• Achilles and the tortoise

• 1 + ½ + ¼ + … + 1/2n = 2

Concept of infinity. Continuum. Classical (Cantor) set theory and Alternative set theory (AST, Vopěnka)

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The way to materialism

Empedocles (circa 490 - 430 BC)

Religion of Orphic type, underworld. Poem “On Nature” (PERI PHYSEOS), and “Purifications” (KATHARMOI). Death in vulcano Etna.

Love (PHILIA) – attraction Strife (NEIKOS) – separationNOW BY LOVE ALL COMING TOGETHER INTO ONE, NOW

AGAIN EACH CARRIED APART BY THE ENMITY OF STRIFE roots (RIZOMATA) -- fire, air, earth, and water(THERE IS) ONLY A MINGLING AND INTERCHANGE OF WHAT HAS

BEEN MINGLED. SUBSTANCE (PHYSIS) IS BUT A NAME GIVEN TO THESE THINGS BY MEN.

KLEPSHYDRA – existence of air (experimental proof!)Questions

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The way to materialism

Anaxagoras of Clazomenae (about 500 - 428 BC)

brought philosophy to AthensSun – great stone bigger than PeloponesSeeds – SPERMATANOUS – reason IN EVERYTHING THERE IS PRESENT A PORTION

OF EVERYTHING EXCEPT MIND (NOUS); AND IN SOME THINGS MIND TOO IS PRESENT.

(ANAXAGORAS) WAS THE FIRST TO ADD MIND (NOUS) TO MATTER, BEGINNING HIS BOOK, WHICH IS PLEASANTLY AND GRANDLY RITTEN, THUS: “ALL THINGS WERE TOGETHER; THEN MIND CAME AND ARRANGED THEM“

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The way to materialism

Anaxagoras – criticism:

Plato in his dialogue “Phaedo“: PROCEEDING AND READING ON, I SEE THE MAN MAKING NO USE OF MIND (NOUS), NOR INDICATING ANY EXPLANATIONS FOR THE ORDERING OF THINGS, BUT MAKING EXPLANATIONS OF AIRS AND ETHERS AND WATERS AND MANY OTHER SUCH ABSURDITIES

Aristotle in his book of “Metaphysics” : ANAXAGORAS USES MIND (NOUS) AS A THEATRICAL DEVICE (MECHANE) FOR HIS COSMOLOGY; AND WHENEVER HE IS PUZZLED OVER THE EXPLANATION OF WHY SOMETHING IS FROM NECESSITY, HE WHEELS IT IN; BUT IN THE CASE OF OTHER HAPPENINGS HE MAKES ANYTHING THE EXPLANATION RATHER THAN MIND.

ANAXAGORAS ADVOCATED THE METHOD PROPER TO NATURAL SCIENCE

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The way to materialism – atomism

Leucippus (about 500 - 440 BC)

Postulated existence of free space (voids, vacuum)

NO THING COMES ABOUT IN VAIN, BUT EVERYTHING FOR A REASON (LOGOS) AND BY NECESSITY (ANANKE).

Principle of causality (?).

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The way to materialism – atomism

Democritus (460-370 BC) MACROCOSMOS and MICROCOSMOS Ethical teaching of Democritus INSTEAD OF ENJOYING LIFE FOR WHAT

IT IS, THEY HATE IT FOR WHAT IT IS NOT ... THEY WANT TO PROLONG THE LIFE THEY HATE, IN ORDER TO POSTPONE DEATH. IT WOULD BE HARD TO FIND A BETTER EXAMPLE OF MAN BEING HIS OWN WORST ENEMY THROUGH STUPID DISREGARD OF THE LIMIT.

theory of knowledge – moving images (EIDOLA)

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Presocratic philosophy Atomism

Free space Atoms

• Differences between ancient and modern atoms

• Crisis of atomism Order of necessity ANANKE

(The atomists say that the universe is) NEITHER ANIMATE NOR GOVERNED BY PURPOSE, BUT BY A SORT OF IRRATIONAL NATURE (PHYSIS ALOGOS).

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Presocratic philosophy Atomism

ANANKE Inferences of ANANKE

• No chance

• No freedom („free will“)• No responsibility

• Fatalism

EVERYTHING HAPPENS BY FATE, IN THE SENSE THAT FATE APPLIES THE FORCE OF NECESSITY

(Democritus said that) HE WOULD RATHER FIND A SINGLE CAUSAL EXPLANATION (AITIOLOGIA) THAN GAIN THE KINGDOM OF PERSIA.

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Presocratic philosophy Atomism

(Absolute) determinism (Stoics, P. S. Laplace)

AN INTELLECT WHICH AT A GIVEN INSTANT KNEW ALL THE FORCES ACTING IN NATURE, AND THE POSITION OF ALL THINGS OF WHICH THE WORLD CONSISTS - SUPPOSING THE SAID INTELLECT WERE VAST ENOUGH TO SUBJECT THESE DATA TO ANALYSIS - WOULD EMBRACE IN THE SAME FORMULA THE MOTIONS OF THE GREATEST BODIES IN THE UNIVERSE AND THOSE OF THE SLIGHTEST ATOMS; NOTHING WOULD BE UNCERTAIN FOR IT, AND THE FUTURE, LIKE THE PAST, WOULD BE PRESENT TO ITS EYES.

Laplace demon

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Presocratic philosophy Atomism

Further history of the paradox Two meanings of „determination“ (passive and active mode)

• Epicurus – introduction of PARENCLISIS• Stoics – no freedom but spontaneity (voluntarity), one LOGOS

(also Boethius – there is no contradiction between foreknowledge and freedom)

Modern history – quantum mechanics (Copenhagen interpretation) and TYCHISM

„Free will“ antinomy (Plotinos …) IF I WISH, I COULD GIVE AWAY MY PROPERTY TO

THE POOR, BUT I CANNOT WISH TO WISH. A. Schopenhauer

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Presocratic philosophy The Sophists

5th cent. BC, democracy - growing demand for education. Sophists - teachers of wisdom(?) or spurious learning, ancient enlightment. Rhetorics, politics, grammar, history, physics, mathematics .

Sophistry – the use of fallacious argument knowing them to be such

Negative approaches (relativism, agnosticism, subjectivism, deconstruction od ethics)

Gorgias (483 - 378 BC)„On Nature, or the Non-existent“: NOTHING EXISTS; IF ANYTHING

EXISTED, IT COULD NOT BE KNOWN; IF ANYTHING DID EXIST, AND COULD BE KNOWN, IT COULD NOT BE COMMUNICATED.

Agnosticism or parody on eleatism?Rhetoric – art of persuasion

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Presocratic philosophy The Sophists

Protagoras (480 - 411 BC) of Abdera, Pericles debated with him

“On the Gods” (PERI THEON)

RESPECTING THE GODS, I AM UNABLE TO KNOW WHETHER THEY EXIST OR DO NOT EXIST.

“ On Truth” (ALETHEIA)MAN IS THE MEASURE OF ALL THINGS; OF

WHAT ARE THAT (how?) THEY ARE; OF WHAT ARE NOT THAT (how?) THEY ARE NOT.

• Plato: why men and not horse or pig? (Theaithetos)

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Presocratic philosophy The Sophists

Thrasymachus (4 th century BC)injustice is preferred to a life of justice,

unjust person superior i character and intelligence.

Justice is pursued by simpletons and leads to weakness.

Reduction of morality to power (nihilism towards thruth and ethics)

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Presocratic philosophy The Sophists

Sophists and atheismRise of W. philosophy connected with overcoming mythology and

(naive, anthropomorfic) religion. Diagoras - his opponent violated an oath and remain unpunished –

non-existence of godsCritias – religion – device of rulers, instrument against breaking rules

when nobody observes.

Sophists and post-modern philosophyModern science disappointed many people, the fail of communism –

rejection of old values, old science, old aims, evolution, progress. The rise of negative approaches (irrationality, immorality, subjectivism)

Negative stage – positive value – clear space from obsolete conceptual schemes. Must be followed by positive stage. In ancient Greece Socrates directed thinking in a positive way. Unraveled logical inconsistencies of Sophists,

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Classical PeriodSocrates and Socratic schools

Socrates (469 - 399 BC)Directed sophistic thinking in a positive way

Golden age of AthensAischylus, Euripides, Sophocles, Pericles, builded parthenon on

Acropolis. Persia defeated, Athens was naval powerFather sculptor (stonemason), mother midwife Socrates practised craft of sculptor, married Xanthyppe (famous for

quarrelsomeness)Admolished by „divine call“ gave up occupation and devote himself

to moral and intelectual reform of society Socrates` trial Athens under Pericles, Socrates could pursue his calling as a

gadfly. War with Sparta, betrayal of Alcibiades, accusations of impiety, of corrupting the young, Socrates sentenced to death

Self-knowledge is the starting point, he realised how little we know about anything

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Socrates and Socratic schools

Socratic method – dialectic method, based on dialoguesSelf-knowledge – the starting point Socrates did not write (Plato, Aristophanes, Xenophon) Negative stage (assumed ignorance, Socratic irony) Positive stage (“intellectual midwifery”), series of

questions - the opponent acknowledges his ignorance knowledge through conceptsWHATEVER EXISTS FOR A USEFUL PURPOSE MUST BE THE WORK OF SOME INTELLIGENCE (GOD?).

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Socrates and Socratic schools

Socratic moral paradoxKnowledge – virtueIgnorance – evilSin – the lack of knowledgeIf anybody does evil, he should not be punished, but

instructed what not to do.Ethics – epistemologyNO ONE FREELY GOES FOR BAD THING OR THING HE

BELIEVES TO BE BAD…Aristotle ACRASIA – weakness of will, passions and instinct

prevail. Humans are not rational creatures.

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Socratic schools - Megarian school

Euclid (circa 430 - 360 BC)Student of SocratesHighest goodness – highest realityConcepts - bodiless forms (step to Plato teaching) Reductio ad absurdum: attacks not the premises but the conclusion

of the argument, showing the absurd consequences.

Paradox of the liar (Epimenides):„All Cretans are liars.“self-referential semantic paradoxes

“Homological” terms, are such which can be defined as those, which express a quality that they have (for example the word “short”, “English”). And further “heterological” words are those that do not express such a quality that they have. The problem is whether the term “heterological” is itself heterological or homological. If it is heterological it does express the quality of being heterological, so it must be homological, but if it is homological, it must be, on the contrary, heterological.

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Socrates and Socratic schoolsCynic school

Athens about 400 BC to about 200 BC. Coarse and vulgar depreciation of Socrates ethics ?

Antisthenes (about 450 BC - 360 BC) advocated all natural including manual

work, despised culture and all „artificial comfort“

no universal objects of knowledge:I SEE A HORSE BUT NOT ‘HORSENESS’

Diogenes of Sinope (about 403 - 323 BC), lived in large barrel NOT TO HAVE ANY NEEDS IS GODLIKE

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Plato and Platonism

Plato (428/7 - 347 BC)Great poetic writer (unlike Socrates)Cratylus (descendant of Heraclitus), Socrates,

Megara, three times in Sicily, AcademyA. N. Whitehead: (overdone?)The safest general characterization of the European

philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato.

Democracy:AS IN THE CASE OF A SHIP, WHERE THE PILOT’S

AUTHORITY RESTS UPON KNOWLEDGE OF NAVIGATION, SO ALSO THE SHIP OF STATE SHOULD BE PILOTED NOT BY ALL CITIZENS, LIKE IN DEMOCRACY, BUT BY ONLY ONE WHO HAS ADEQUATE KNOWLEDGE.

Kings were philosophers and philosophers were kings.

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Plato and Platonism

Travels in Egypt, Sicily (intended to influence Dionysios of his ideal system of government), cast into prison, sold as a slave, ransomed by friends

Academy (387 BC - 529 AD)

“LET NO ONE IGNORANT OF MATHEMATICS ENTER

HERE.”

Scientific orientation attracted the ablest thinkers

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Plato

Plato’s works

Not written teaching?

Series of 36 dialogues, Letters

Socratic method of question and answer

Plato own philosophical myths - Atlantis

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Plato

Plato own myths - Atlantis

200-year-old annals of Solon, who heard it from an Egyptian priests. Island located in the Ocean. Great and wonderful empire. The inhabitants possessed great wealth thanks to the natural resources, centre for trade and commerce. The island provided all kinds of herbs, fruits, and nuts. An abundance of animals, including elephants, roamed the island.

Generations the Atlanteans lived simple, virtuous lives. But slowly they began to change. Greed and power began to corrupt them. When the chief god Zeus saw the immorality of the Atlanteans he gathered the other gods to determine a suitable punishment. Soon, in one violent tsunami surge, Atlantis was gone.

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Plato and Platonism

The allegory of the cave Philosophical fictionprisoners living in a large cave chained by their necks in a fixed

position, so that they can look only at the wall in front of them

Behind them a fire, farther back the entrance to the cave.

Path, where there are persons carrying various figures

The prisoners can observe shadows on the wall, they are not aware that the shadows are only shadows.

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Plato and Platonism

One prisoner released from his chains, One prisoner released from his chains, forced to stand up, turn around, and forced to stand up, turn around, and walk towards the light of the fire. He walk towards the light of the fire. He would not be able to recognise actual would not be able to recognise actual objects and his eyes would ache. objects and his eyes would ache.

““If they could lay hands on the man who was trying If they could lay hands on the man who was trying to set them free and lead them up, they would kill to set them free and lead them up, they would kill him”. The prisoners are like us, Socrates concluded. him”. The prisoners are like us, Socrates concluded.

PPrisoners who have been liberated from the risoners who have been liberated from the cave must not be allowed to remain in the cave must not be allowed to remain in the higher world of contemplation, but must be higher world of contemplation, but must be made to come back down into the cave and made to come back down into the cave and take part in the life and labours of the take part in the life and labours of the prisoners.prisoners.

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Plato and Platonism

System of philosophyForms – Ideasvarious degrees of reality

Plato’s physicsTimaeus – view on Cosmos – teleologyPlatonic bodiesFive “regular” solids, Platonic bodies have all their

sides the same and all their vertexes are equivalent: tetrahedron cube, octahedron, dodecahedron, icosahedron. Five basic elements: fire, ground, water, air, and ether.

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Plato and Platonism

precession of the Earth’s axis

Platonic year

30 000 years.

Concepts of

closed or cyclic time

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Plato and Platonism

Plato's ideal state UNLESS PHILOSOPHERS BECOME RULERS OR RULERS

BECOME TRUE AND THOROUGH STUDENTS OF PHILOSOPHY, THERE SHALL BE NO END TO THE TROUBLES OF STATES AND OF HUMANITY.

rulers (corresponding to the reasonable soul), producers (corresponding to desire), and finally warriors (corresponding to courage). State absolutism – totalitarianismNo private property, family. Children belong to the state.Platonism and mathematics

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Aristotle and AristotelismAristotle (384-322 BC)Stagira, Academy, Assos, PellaAlexander:THANKS TO MY FATHER I AM LIVING,

THANKS TO ARISTOTLE I KNOW HOW TO LIVE.

Athens, Lykeion (PERIPATETIC school)Death of AlexanderTHE ATHENIANS MIGHT NOT HAVE

ANOTHER OPPORTUNITY OF SINNING AGAINST PHILOSOPHY AS THEY HAD ALREADY DONE IN THE PERSON OF SOCRATES.

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Aristotle and Aristotelism

General characterisation of Aristotle’s philosophy

Logic Theoretical philosophy, including Metaphysics, Physics,

Mathematics Practical philosophy Philosophy of art

Logic (analytics)Founder of logic, reduction of logic to an exact

scienceSYLLOGISMs - schemes of logical judgments

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Aristotle and Aristotelism

Metaphysics „first philosophy“, ontologyTheory of causes:1. Material Cause 2. Formal Cause3. Efficient Cause 4. Final Cause Potentiality and Actuality (DYNAMIS, ENTELECHEIA)Matter and Form

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Aristotle and Aristotelism

PhysicsFour elements, ether, natural motions (up – down, circular)Elements, natural motions, prime matterFirst Mover, concept of infinite, mechanicsAristotle concept of GodIt has seemed to me unfortunate that the word “God” (which

is, after all, a religious word) should have been retained by philosophers as the name for a factor in their system that no one could possibly regard as an object of worship, far less of love. (Cornford)

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Aristotle and Aristotelism

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Aristotle and Aristotelism

PoliticsZOON POLITIKON - social animalThe best form of government is that, which

best suits the character of the people. IT IS CLEAR THAT SOME MEN ARE BY

NATURE FREE, AND OTHERS SLAVES, AND THAT FOR THESE SLAVERY IS BOTH EXPEDIENT AND RIGHT.

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Aristotle and AristotelismAristotelean school and Aristotelism Andronicus of Rhodes - edited Aristotle's worksAlexander from Aphrodisias (2nd century AD)John Philoponus (6th century)Avicenna and Averroes (“Commentator”) St. Thomas Aquinas (1225 - 1274 AD) – Christian adaptation of

Aristotle`s philosophyAristotle’s philosophy, and especially his logic, has been

considered as a basis for modern science.In the middle ages, Aristotle philosophy gradually degenerated.

Also Aristotle’s logic was subjected to some contempt. It was satirised by Francis Bacon (1561 - 1626), who argued that in other civilisations, namely in China, the development of science had been quite possible without Aristotle.

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Philosophy of the Hellenistic period Epicureanism

Epicurus (342 - 270 BC)

Samos, Garden of Epicurus Physics – atomism (PARENCLISIS -

CLINAMEN) Ethics and psychology - theory of human life,

personal happinessHABITUATE YOURSELF TO THINK THAT DEATH IS

NOTHING TO US: FOR ALL GOOD AND EVIL IS IN FEELING: NOW DEATH IS THE PRIVATION OF FEELING. … WHERE WE ARE, DEATH IS NOT; AND WHERE DEATH IS, WE ARE NOT.

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Philosophy of the Hellenistic period Epicureanism

BETTER WERE IT TO ACCEPT ALL THE LEGENDS OF THE GODS THAN TO MAKE OURSELVES SLAVES TO THE FATE OF THE NATURAL PHILOSOPHERS.

Theology

GODS IN METACOSMIA

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Philosophy of the Hellenistic period Later Epicureanism

Titus Lucretius Carus (about 91 – 51 BC)DE RERUM NATURAThe universe of matter and space, no centre, space is

without limit, matter is composed of atoms mind and soul of a material nature, of the finest and

roundest atoms sense-perception: from the surface of objects thin films of

matter are continually flying offorigin of life by spontaneous generation, preservation of

animal life in accordance with the law of the survival of the fittest

description of free fall (friction, resistance of enviroment)

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Philosophy of the Hellenistic periodStoicism

STOA (colonnade or porch), STOA POIKILE (Painted Colonnade)

Zeno of Citium (circa 336 – 264 BC)300 BC Stoic school

Chrysippus (280 – 205 BC) Logic (propositional calculus) AII knowledge enters the mind through the

senses. Criterion of truth lie in sensation itself. Intense feeling of reality (KATALEPSIS)

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Philosophy of the Hellenistic periodStoicism

Stoic ethics ascetic system, perfect indifference to everything

external, APATHEA passions as essentially irrational

LIVE ACCORDING TO NATURE.Morality is simply rational action. From the root-

virtue, wisdom, spring: insight, bravery, self-control, and justice.

Suicide

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Philosophy of the Hellenistic periodStoicism

Stoic physics NOTHING INCORPOREAL EXISTS.

Existence – subsistence (time, logical rules, space …)world issue from one principle – LOGOS – (monism). The

corporeal cannot act on the incorporeal, nor the incorporeal on the corporeal. There is no point of contact. Hence all must be equally corporeal.

All things are composed of fire (= God). (Heraclitus).

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Philosophy of the Hellenistic periodStoicism

God - LOGOS is absolute reason.

purpose in the world (order, harmony, beauty and design).

no freedom of the will but voluntarity

world-process is circular (circular, closed time) - EKPYROSIS

rational soul (divine fire) from God

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Philosophy of the Hellenistic periodStoicism

Seneca (about 3 BC – 65 AD)Roman politician, orator and the most famous

Roman Stoic. YOUR HAPPINESS LIES IN NO ASPIRATION FOR

HAPPINESS.The main sources of evil are human passions.

Epictetus (50 – 130 AD)God had arranged all for the happiness of man, so

evil is no more than an illusion.

Marcus Aurelius Antonius (121 - 180 AD)seeker after righteousness, Meditations

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Scepticism

SKEPTIKOI - seekers or inquirers, basic mood is of doubt We only know how things appear to us, but the same thing

appears differently to different people …Complete suspense of judgement (EPOCHE) all systems of

philosophy are equally false

Pyrrho of Elis (about 360 - 270 BC) Pyrrhonism

Timon of Athens - Academic scepticism Arcesilaus (ca. 315 - 241 BC) – paradox of scepticism

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Science in Alexandria and the Museum

Alexandria (323 BC), Ptolemy 308 BC – founder of Ptolemy dynasty (commander of Alexander army)

Demetris Phaleron – urged for Museum (after 285 BC) - temple of the Muses, scientific institution

Library with 700 000 booksSeptuaginta

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Science in Alexandria and the Museum

Euclid (ca. 330 - ca. 275 BC)

Elements – STOCHEIA

definitions, 5 axioms and 5 postulates, theorems (with proofs)

The fifth postulate (the parallel postulate)

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Science in Alexandria and the Museum

ArchimArchimedesedes (287 (287 -- 212 212 BCBC))Hydrostatic lawHydrostatic law

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Science in Alexandria and the Museum

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Science in Alexandria and the Museum

Archimedes

Counting sand

1051 – 1063 grains of sand in the Universe

To the sphere with diameter of Pluto orbit aprox. 1051 grains of sand

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Hipparchos from Nicae (2-nd cent. BC) geocentrism, catalogue of 850 stars Epicyclic theory

Science in Alexandria and the Museum

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Science in Alexandria and the Museum

Eratosthenes of Cyrene (about 275 - 195 BC)

System of meridians and parallels star map containing 675 stars A new calendar system, accepted

later in Rome by Caesar (Julian calendar in 46 BC,)

one year 9 minutes longer1582 Gregorian calendar 1752 England, rebelions (?)In orthodox countries till the

begining of 20-th century.

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Science in Alexandria and the Museum

Eratosthenes sieve (identifying the prime numbers)

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Alexandria and the Museum

Aristarchos of Samos (3rd century BC)

HELIOCENTRIC SYSTEM

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Science in Alexandria and the Museum

Claudius Ptolemy (about 85 – 165 AD) ALMAGEST Earth-centred system Epicycles and deferents

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Science in Alexandria and the Museum

Hypatia (355-370 - 415 AD) – lectured on Plato, Aristotle, wroute on mathematics and astronomy, commentaries to work of Ptolemy

Astrolabe, distilation of alcohol

Tortured to death, patriarch Cyrilos

643 library destroyed by Arabs

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Philosophy of the Patristics100 – 800 ADEarly Christian writers – Church Fathers (Greek, Latin writeings)Theology and philosophy

Tertullianus (Carthage cca 160 – 230)Roman theologian, advocateChristian, Montanist, his own sectAggressive sarcastic style

De Performances – should Christians attent games? – noChristians heve pleasures many – reconciliation with God and pardon of

many sins. Tertullian closes his eyes to the spectacles of the world and appears before him spectacle of the Lord (angels, saints rising from the dead, kingdom of the just, New Jerusalem…)

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TertullianusPersecution of the Christians was ever present

danger and Chtistians were perplexed by it.

Was it persecution by Devil? No even such persecution comes from God: It never happens without God willing it and it is fitting for Him to do so, to the approval or condemnation of his servants.

What has Athens to do with Jerusalem, what has the Academy to do with the Church?

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TertullianusChristian truth is in opposition to secular

wisdom and to education as a whole. Here lies its power and victory.

I believe it because it is impossible.

Naïve materialism: all existing thing (incl. God and soul) of material nature.

The term “trinity”

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Augustin of Hippo (Tageste 354 – 430 AD)

If you want to understand the catholic church, you have to understand Augustine

H. Kung

Monica (saint Monica), study in Carthage, hedonistic sinful life (commited thefts for fun)

Catholic → Manichaean sect Teacher of rhetoric in Carthage, Rome, MilanSummer 386 personal crisis (mystical experience

conversion to Christianity, baptized, back to AfricaPriest in Hippo 350 sermons, bishopDied 75 during the siege of Hippo by the Vandals

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Works of Augustine

More than hundred titles

Confessions - 13 autobiographical books

Deep psychological insight into previous life

There is no salvation outside the Church.

11th book about time:

What, then, is time? If no one asks me, I know what it is. If I wish to explain it, I do not know.

God created time within the word.

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The City of God (De civita dei)

Human history as a conflict between “City of God” and City of Man (New Jerusalem and Babylon)

People of “City of God” forgo earthly pleasures and dedicate themselves to Christian values, but inhabitants of City of Man strayed from the City of God

In 410 Roman empire sacked by Visigots

Conflict with PelagiusCeltic monk, from Britain to Rome, recognized grandeaur of

Church and moral laxity.One could achieve grace through his own free will, criticisled

Augustine doctrine of salvation depended only on God (and Church). Basis: the nature of Original Sin (St. Paul)

Heresy – Ephesus 431 (rejected especially by Calvin)

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Boethius (cca 480 – 525)

Intermediary between ancient philosophy and Latin Middle Ages.

“Last Romans and the first scholastic philosopher.”

395 Roman empire divided (E and W part)476 Western part conquered by

Ostrogoths (Germans). Capital Ravena, ruler Theodoric the Great

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Boethius - works

Service of emperor Theodoric, many high posts

523 arrested (charged of treason – plot with Byzantine Emperor) prison in Pavia, executed in 524

Intended to translate into Latin works of Aristotle and Plato, Euclid, Ptolemy

On Music - Musica mundana, humana, instrumentalis (incl. voice)

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Boethius Consolidation of Philosophy

Written in prison waiting for execution

Prose and verse - dialogue between Author and Lady Philosophy

Discussion of many old philosophical questions

Translated to practically to all languages

Pope Leo XIII: Boethius – st. Severinus