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Page 1: PLANT MICRO- · PDF fileI am impressed by the combination of meticulous science and pragmatic ... Legal Framework for Plant Micro-Reserves 107 16. PMR Site Selection and Boundaries
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PLANT MICRO-RESERVES:FROM THEORY TO PRACTICEExperiences gained from EU LIFE and other related projects

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Costas Kadis, Costas A. Thanos & Emilio Laguna Lumbreras(eds)

PLANT MICRO-RESERVES:FROM THEORY TO PRACTICEExperiences gained from EU LIFE and other related projects

This book has been published within the framework of the project LIFE08 NAT/Y/000453, which was

co-funded by the European Commission under the LIFE+ programme.

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PLANT MICRO-RESERVES:FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifi cally the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfi lm or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the Greek Copyright Law, 2121/1993, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Utopia. Violations are liable to prosecution under the Greek Copyright Law.

The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publica-tion does not imply, even in the absence of a specifi c statement, that such names are ex-empt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.

Utopia Εκδόσεις ΕΠΕ42 Argolidos Str , 115 23 AthensTηλ.: ++30 210 6997706e-mail: [email protected]

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ISBN: 978-618-80647-2-0

Experiences gained from EU LIFE and other related projects

© Utopia Publishing, Athens 2013

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ISBN 978-618-80647-2-0

Cover and Text Designer: Ioanna Dimopoulou

Project Editor: Athe na Parnassas

Production Coordinator: Haris Kiriakopoulos

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The Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Environment of Cyprus wel-comes the publication of this book, which presents the experiences and knowledge accumulated through a number of LIFE /LIFE + projects focusing on the conserva-tion of important elements of the European � ora, through the Plant Micro-Reserves approach.

LIFE / LIFE+ is the � nancial instrument for the environment, launched by the European Commission, and has been a cornerstone of nature conservation e� orts, especially within the boundaries of the Natura 2000 network. A considerable num-ber of EU habitat types and species have been directly targeted in several projects, which received EU co-funding under the LIFE-Nature component of the LIFE / LIFE+ programme.

One of the best examples that shows the linkage of LIFE / LIFE+ and the conser-vation of nature, is the promotion of the concept of Plant Micro-Reserves (PMRs), which was initially developed in the Spanish region of Valencia and then success-fully implemented in other EU countries within the LIFE / LIFE+ framework.

This book presents the rationale of the PMR approach and its implementation across Europe. PMRs provide a platform for promoting active co-operation among scientists, national competent authorities, NGOs and local people for the conserva-tion of Europe’s biodiversity and the restoration of threatened habitats and natu-ral ecosystems. Through this book, the importance of the conservation of nature through cumulative e� ort is highlighted.

The PMR approach and the knowledge accumulated in this book can be a tool for future e� orts for the conservation of biodiversity and natural habitats.

I would like to congratulate the coordinators of all the projects that are present-ed in the book for their e� ort towards nature conservation as well as everyone who contributed to the writing of this book. Special congratulations go to the bene� -ciaries of the LIFE+ project titled “Establishment of a Plant Micro-Reserve Network in Cyprus for the Conservation of Priority Species and Habitats” [PLANT-NET CY] for the excellent completion of the project and the promotion of networking among similar European projects.

Nicos KouyialisMinister of Agriculture, Natural Resources

and Environment

Foreword

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Biodiversity provides us with wealth today and possibilities for the future. It safe-guards our water resources and our food supply, protects us from natural hazards such as � ooding and reduces the risks from diseases, while providing us with beauty and spiritual value, and the very home we live in. Plants in particular are vital to almost every aspect of our daily lives, giving us food, � bres, medicine, fuel, shelter, clothing and the air we breathe. Many animal species are also directly dependent on plants for their survival. Plants are the central elements of the Earth’s life support system.

The Mediterranean region is especially rich in plant biodiversity, holding more than 24,000 vascular plant species including some 10% of all known plant species. More than half the plant species in the Mediterranean are endemic and 80% of all European plant endemics are found in the Mediterranean. Yet, this plant biodiver-sity is threatened by rapid urbanisation, increasing con� icts over use of land such as for agriculture or tourism, water extraction, a growing risk of deserti� cation, and forest � res. Furthermore, climate change is already a� ecting the region’s � ora, in particular the endemic Mediterranean mountain � ora.

The EU’s Biodiversity Strategy sets out to halt this loss of biodiversity and the degradation of ecosystem services in the EU by 2020, and restore them insofar as feasible. A key component of the EU Biodiversity Strategy is the full implementation of the EU legislation for the protection of natural habitats and species of wild fauna and � ora of Community interest, known as the Habitats Directive.

LIFE, the EU’s � nancial instrument for the environment, has been at the heart of Europe’s conservation e� orts. LIFE aims to support the long-term survival of the EU’s most valuable and threatened species and habitats, especially within Natura 2000 sites, through targeted investments. The programme also aims at developing and disseminating new measures and practices for implementing the EU’s broader Biodiversity Strategy.

Since 1994, LIFE has been contributing to the development of a network of plant micro-reserves. A plant micro-reserve (PMR) is a small plot of land (up to 20 ha – there is no minimum size) that is of peak value in terms of plant richness, en-demism or rarity. A PMR is a permanent, statutory reserve given over to long-term monitoring of endangered wild plant species and vegetation types. As well as pro-viding strong protection to plants and substrate, traditional activities compatible with plant conservation are allowed within the micro-reserve. This approach is now

Preface

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FOREWORD vii

widely accepted as one of the most e� ective practices towards the conservation of plant diversity.

Starting from a LIFE-funded project implemented by the Regional Wildlife Ser-vice of the Generalitat Valenciana, the concept of PMRs spread outwards from Spain, � rst to Slovenia where (from 2002 to 2005) the LIFE-Nature project “Conservation of endangered species/habitats in the future Karst Park” set up a network of 30 plant micro-reserves, mainly focused on small ponds, calcareous screes, rocky slopes and grassland habitats. LIFE has subsequently supported further PMR projects in sev-eral other Mediterranean and Black Sea countries, including the “Establishment of a Plant Micro-Reserve Network in Cyprus for the Conservation of Priority Species and Habitat Types” which has aimed at improving the conservation status of four prior-ity plant species and two priority habitat types found in Cypriot Natura 2000 sites.

Given the large volume of experience generated through these LIFE projects, it is timely to bring together their knowledge and make it available to a broader audience. I am impressed by the combination of meticulous science and pragmatic species conservation work covered in this book. As such I am convinced that it will make an important contribution towards preserving endangered plant species and enabling a better implementation of the EU’s policy on nature and biodiversity. It is an inspiration to others who want to successfully preserve the diversity of Europe’s natural heritage through the creation of plant micro reserves.

Anne BurrillDeputy Head of Unit “LIFE-Nature”

European Commission

PREFACE

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Foreword Nicos Kouyialis v

Preface Anne Burrill vi

Part 1. From Theory to Practice: Development of PMR Networks 1

1. Plant Micro–Reserves (PMRs): Origin and Technical Concept 3

2. A pioneer project: The Valencian PMR network 13

Part 2. Small networks for scienti� c intensive management 25

3. PMRs in Western Crete 27

4. Establishment of a Plant Micro-Reserve Network in Cyprus for the Conservation of Priority Species and Habitats 37

Part 3. Large networks 51

5. A Pilot Network of Small Protected Sites for Plant Species in Bulgaria Using the Plant Micro-Reserve Model 53

6. Micro-Reserves in Latvia 65

Part 4. Other projects 73

7. The Micro-Reserve Project in the Regional Park of the Slovenian Karst 75

8. Micro-Reserves: A Useful Tool for the Conservation Strategy of the Natural Environment in Castilla – La Mancha (Spain) 79

9. Proposals of Plant Micro-Reserves in Sicily (Italy) 83

10. Micro-Reserves Network for Medicinal Plants in Saint Katherine Protectorate (Sinai Peninsula, Egypt) 87

11. Implementation of a PMR Network on Funchal (Madeira, Portugal): Inventory and Cartography of Natural and Semi-natural Vegetation Areas of Special Interest 91

Contents

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12. Plant Micro-Reserves as Tool for the Protection of Endangered Flora: the Bizkaia Case (Basque Country, Spain) 95

13. Plant Micro-Reserves in Castilla y Leon (Spain) 97

14. Plant Micro-Reserves in the Murcia Region (South-Eastern Spain) 101

Part 5. PMRs in Practice 105

15. Legal Framework for Plant Micro-Reserves 107

16. PMR Site Selection and Boundaries Procedures 117

17. Relevant Plant Recovery Programmes. Conservation Management of Plant Micro-Reserves and Ecological Restoration 127

18. PMRs as Field Laboratories for Scienti� c Research 141

19. Public Use of Plant Micro-Reserves: Public Awareness, Social Involvement and Environmental Education 155

20. Landowner’s Engagement Agreements and Stewardship for Micro-Reserves Conservation 165

Part 6. Conclusions 177

21. The Future of PMRs: Towards a European PMR Network 179

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Juniperus macrocarpa

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Introduction. The concept of Plant Micro-Reserves

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1Emilio LAGUNA1,2, Gabriel BALLESTER1 & Vicente DELTORO1

1 Generalitat Valenciana, Servicio de Vida Silvestre, c/Francesc Cubells, 11. E-46011 Valencia2 Generalitat Valenciana, CIEF, Avda. Comarques País Valencià 114, E-46930 Quart de Poblet, Valencia

I. Introduction

The term ‘micro-reserve’ intuitively de� nes a natural reserve of small dimension. Although there are most likely previous examples in the use of this term, its � rst formulation as a legally protected site was established in the Valencia re-gion (Spain) back in 1990 (Laguna, 1991) with a focus on the conservation of wild � ora, under the name of Plant Micro Reserve (PMR). This proposal was put forward by the Wildlife Service of the Generalitat Valenciana, the autonomous government of the Valencia region with competence over environmental issues within its territory. In its formulation (Laguna, 1991) it was explicitly stated that the proposed PMR could be adapted to the conservation of other biological groups in the future – particularly sessile or low mobility organisms such as in-vertebrates – through the protection of their habitats.

PMRs can be considered a mere spatial reduction of the concept of nature reserve, where the legal restrictions and management philosophy that char-acterise each territory are applied. However, the formerly mentioned proposal (Laguna, 1991) was further developed and di� erentiated, so that in fact PMRs can be separated from classical models of nature reserves, as will be explained in this chapter. These principles have been summarised in later works such as those of Akeroyd (1998), Laguna (1999, 2001) and Laguna et al. (2001).

The idea of creating small protected areas for singular plant species is based on a recurrent trend seen in most biomes of the world, that of unique species (rare, threatened, endemic) forming plant communities of small size restricted to microhabitats that o� er equally unique natural conditions. Zonal ecosystems, modulated mainly by prevailing climatic parameters and widespread geo-eda-phologic materials, are usually punctuated by small scattered areas, the so-called intrazonal and azonal habitats; within them, the physicochemical char-acteristics of the soil (salinity, unusual types of rocks, water, etc.) or other factors that hinder the growth of zonal vegetation (e.g. mobility of substrate, verticality,

Plant Micro-Reserves (PMRs): Origin and Technical Concept

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PART 1 INTRODUCTION. THE CONCEPT OF PLANT MICRO-RESERVES4

constant exposure to wind, etc.), have acted as evolutionary � lters, generating genuine small-scale biogeographic islands, where a substantial share of plant diversity can be found.

An analysis of the correspondence between Spanish endemic plants and their habitats (Laguna, 1994) in the Valencia region revealed that only 3.04% of these species live exclusively in zonal vegetation such as dominant wood-lands or shrub lands. On the other hand, extreme environments for most vascu-lar plants sheltered outstanding percentages of these species, such as cli� s and scree (35.09% of the endemic plants), the grasslands and low-sized permanent shrub lands on skeletal soils (23.04%) or saline soils (8.26%).

It should be noted that the conservation of a good number of endangered species may seem contradictory to the traditional concept of Protected Natural Areas (National Parks, Nature Reserves, etc.), where for the greater part of last century, management focused on preserving various forms of pristine vegeta-tion or their succession stages towards climax communities. This management is often made at the expense of most of the endemic species mentioned above, in many cases heliophilous plant species that quickly disappear with the devel-opment of vegetation in size and density. This is also the case if plant succession takes place at a large scale, as in large areas of the northern shore of the Medi-terranean, as a result of the progressive abandonment of marginal agriculture and extensive grazing, leaving these very same species to grow restricted to small sized sites of poorly developed soil. However, if disturbance generated by traditional extractive activities of plant biomass (grazing, � rewood extrac-tion, etc.) is maintained, they can temporarily occupy larger areas, increasing their genetic diversity and thus their ability to survive in the long term, or to respond to large negative stochastic events. This means that the management of wild endangered � ora should include, where possible, the maintenance of traditional activities in the natural and semi-natural sites or be replaced by spe-ci� c conservation practices.

In addition, there is a growing interest in protecting the natural remaining areas resulting from the high fragmentation and destruction of the natural en-vironment in intensive anthropogenic habitats, which in the case of wild � ora necessarily led to � nding new ways of protecting small areas (Vellak et al., 2009).

II. Origins of the Concept ‘Micro-Reserve’

The correspondence between microhabitats and unique � ora had already been observed by other experts in the � eld of Mediterranean plants like Gomez-Campo (1981), who proposed the creation of a unique ‘mini-reserve’ for small sites rich in outstanding � ora. The prototype of those mini-reserves would be a site known as La Encantada, in the Castilla-La Mancha region as explained in Gómez-Campo & Herranz (1993). In fact, this and other specialists on Mediterra-

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CHAPTER 1 Plant Micro-Reserves (PMRs): Origin and Technical Concept 5

nean � ora (e.g. Cowling & McDonald, 1998), emphasized the need to pay special attention to the in situ conservation of endemic species, particularly abundant in these environments, and often not taken into account by conservation regu-lation, more focused on the preservation of populations of endangered species, not necessarily endemic.

The scienti� c idea of protecting small areas for gregarious, sessile or small-sized organisms is not new and, in fact, it had already been put in place in coun-tries with well-developed networks of protected natural areas some decades ago, especially in Central and Eastern Europe (Laguna, 2001). Indeed, some countries such as the Czech and Slovak Republics, have inherited the protec-tion system of the former Czechoslovakia and thus have a wide network of mi-cro-protected areas, particularly in the categories of Nature Reserve, National Nature Reserve, Natural Monument and National Natural Monument, most of which barely exceed 100 ha in size, and which were declared from the 1950s to the present to ensure speci� c protection of certain species of wild fauna and � ora (Laguna, 2001). However, in this case, as in others developed in di� erent countries, protection is often thought as of a passive and/or for educational use, and not accompanied by a conservation-oriented planning for speci� c species of wild plants.

III. Concept of the Plant Micro-Reserve (PMR)

Although generally speaking a parallel can be established between PMR and any protected area of small dimensions, the ideas put forward in the previous paragraphs led to the proposal in the early 90’s (Laguna, 1991) of a speci� c form of habitat protection at a small scale focused on wild � ora in a broad sense. The foundations or basic conditions of PMR, outlined in several preliminary works (Laguna, 1994, 1995), were summarized verbally by Dr. Adrian Darby at the meeting of experts on plant conservation in Planta Europa that was held in Krivoklat (Republic Czech) in June 1996: the PMRs are small-sized sites that are protected by law to: 1) preserve unique or threatened � ora, 2) manage the habitat, according to the conservation needs of these species, and 3) develop conservation experiences guided by technical and scienti� c research.

An essential condition of the network of micro-reserves, as already indicated in previous sections, is the need to maintain the traditional activities that have often led to the presence and/or maintenance of particularly unique species of conservation interest. This condition implies that some con� icting activities in other areas (e.g. sport hunting or � shing) may be permitted in the PMR if they do not interfere with the conservation of the protected plant species.

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PART 1 INTRODUCTION. THE CONCEPT OF PLANT MICRO-RESERVES6

IV. Micro-Reserves sensu lato and Plant Micro-Reserves

The micro-reserve (MR) concept should not be restricted to the conservation of wild � ora, but can be globally applied to microhabitats (Laguna et al., 2004) thus allowing the protection of other organisms. Although MR were intuitively designed for vascular plants, proposals of networks have been developed for non-vascular plants such as bryophytes (Gimeno et al., 2001; Vellak et al., 2010), or fungi as is the case with lichens (Atienza et al., 2001). In the case of inverte-brates, proposed networks have been designed to include even sessile marine organisms (Garcia-Gomez et al., 2010). To some extent the suitability of MRs is inversely proportional to the size of the organisms, so that Wilson (2002) has even suggested the creation of tiny MRs for microorganisms.

As for genuine PMRs, networks have been designed to include di� erent types of vegetation, although sites for taxa living in microhabitats have been given priority (Fig. 1.1), as is the case with plants of arid or desert environments (Peñas et al., 2011; Hernandez & Gomez-Hinestrosa, 2011), rock-dwelling species (e.g. Segarra-Moragues & Catalan, 2010) and generally speaking relict plants or sites that can be considered as refuges of primitive types of vegetation (Fenu et al., 2010). Usually PMR networks for vascular plants are being put forward in regional territories –equivalent to one or more NUTs when it comes to the Eu-ropean Union– as it is indicated in the examples included in this book and pro-posals such as those of Jiménez-Martinez et al. (2009) and Mendoza-Fernandez et al. (2009) in the south of Spain, or that of Turuta et al. (2003) in the Prebaikal area (Russia). Less often, PMRs are proposed as a national strategy in medium or large sized countries, usually as complementary to large protected area net-works (e.g. Blasi et al., 2011). When the territorial range is increased, PMRs can be aptly considered as an expression of the Important Plant Areas (IPAs), following the criteria of Plantlife (2002) and Plantlife International (2004).

Figure 1.1 Census of rare plants in the PMR ‘Penyal d’Ifac Nord’ (Calp, Valen-cian Community, Spain) (photo: E. Laguna).

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CHAPTER 1 Plant Micro-Reserves (PMRs): Origin and Technical Concept 7

V. The Scale of Application: the Surface Size of a Micro-Reserve

There is no � xed limit concerning the surface of PMRs. Laguna (2001) suggested as a guide that small protected areas would be those in the 0 to 100 ha range, medium those with surfaces comprised between 101 and 1000 ha and large those exceeding 1000 ha. The PMR would be included in the � rst group. How-ever, minimum surface required to ensure the survival of multilayered tree for-mations can be much larger than the suggested limit of 100 ha. The scale of PMR can also be dependent on administrative boundaries or the size of a given territory, so that in small countries with fragmented vegetation the PMR con-cept can intuitively be put aside for sites with surfaces well below the above mentioned threshold of 100 ha.

The development of the PMR philosophy has led to the establishment of dif-ferent conceptual scales of application, which are in part discussed in this book. At one end there would be PMRs conceptualized as individual entities unrelated to other managed areas and not regarded as units within a network; at the op-posite end PMR can be considered as a large protected space fragmented in dozens, hundreds or thousands of small MRs in accordance to the regulatory framework of a given territory and its management capacity. In the case of net-works, there are also extremes ranging from few protected areas subject to in-tensive scienti� c monitoring and management actions for the conservation of threatened species (Thanos et al., 2006, 2007) – such as the outstand-ing examples of Cyprus and Crete (Fig. 1.2) dealt with in this book– to those with a large number of plots, either speci� cally oriented to the management of endangered spe-cies or complementing other net-works of protected areas –such as the Bulgarian example– or even those with a twofold objective of representativeness of � oristic di-versity and long-term monitoring of populations of singular species, as corresponds to the Latvian (Bara, 2003; Ek et al., 2002; LSFS, 2005), Valencian (Laguna, 2007; Perez-Rovira, 2011; Serra et al., 2004) or Menorcan (Fraga, 2005) examples.

At an even more conceptual level, it is important to note that

Figure 1.2 Androcymbium rechingeri Greuter listed at the Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive, living in the PMR set up at Elafonisi Island (Crete, Greece) (photo: E. Laguna).

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PART 1 INTRODUCTION. THE CONCEPT OF PLANT MICRO-RESERVES8

given the fact that PMRs require the management of speci� c vegetation units or ecosystems of small size, they can neither escape an ecosystemic approach (Hamilton & Hamilton, 2006; Motiekaitytè, 2006) nor an integrated conception of multilayered networks of protected areas (Laguna, 2001; Laguna et al., 2004; Heywood & Dulloo, 2005).

VI. The Importance of the European Commission’s ‘LIFE’ Programme

As exempli� ed in this book, the creation of networks of PMRs was � rst imple-mented systematically and globally in Europe, starting with the proposal de-veloped in the 1990s in Valencia and followed by examples at national and re-gional levels in di� erent areas. It is worth mentioning that this initiative would not have come into fruition or would have developed much more slowly, if it had not been supported by the LIFE programme of the European Union. LIFE is a community initiative designed to reward environmental improvement proj-ects, which dedicates a share of its funds to co-� nancing projects aimed at im-proving the status of species or ecosystems included in the Annexes to Direc-tive 92/43/EEC (Habitats’ Directive) (European Council, 1992). The key moment in promoting the initiative to design and create PMR networks was de� nitely the aid granted by this program to the Valencian region to implement the ideas explained above for the � rst time. In addition to the Valencia PMR initiative, the EC has also � nanced other projects dealing with PMRs or that have resulted in the implementation of fully developed PMR networks:

• LIFE93 NAT/E/000766 ‘Creación de la red de microrreservas de � ora y adquis-ición de terrenos de interés botánico prioritario en la Comunidad Valenciana’ (1994-1998), complementado con -LIFE99 NAT/E/006417 ‘Conservación de hábitats prioritarios en la Comunidad Valenciana’, entre (1999-2003)

• LIFE99 NAT/IT/006217 ‘EOLIFE99 –Conservation of priority plant species in Aeolian Islands’ (1999-2004)

• LIFE00 NAT/E/007355 ‘Conservación de áreas con especies de � ora amen-azada en Menorca’ 01/01/2001 a 31/12/2004 (2001-2004)

• LIFE02 NAT/SLO/008587 ‘Conservation of endangered species/habitats in the future Karst Park (Slovenia)’ (2002-2005)

• LIFE04 NAT/GR/000104 ‘A pilot network of plant micro-reserves in Western Crete (Greece)’ (2004-2008)

• LIFE08 NAT/CY/000453 ‘Establishment of a plant micro-reserve network in Cyprus for the conservation of plant species and habitats’, (2010-2013)

• LIFE08 NAT/BG/000279 ‘A pilot network of small protected sites for plant spe-cies in in Bulgaria using the plant micro-reserve model’ (2010-2013)

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CHAPTER 1 Plant Micro-Reserves (PMRs): Origin and Technical Concept 9

The European Commission’s role in supporting this initiative has been high-lighted in several articles such as the synthesis made by Akeroyd (1998) or Raey-maekers (2000), and especially in the compendium of best practice LIFE pro-grammes published by Silva et al. (2008, 2009), where even a common logo for the projects relating to this initiative was adopted (Fig. 1.3).

Figure 1.3. The logo which was developed by the Euro-pean Commission for the LIFE projects that adopted the PMR approach.

VII. References

Akeroyd, J.,1998. Micro-reserves ‘capture’ Valencia’s rare plants. Plant Talk 14: 20-23, 33.

Bara, J., 2003. Forest Biodiversity Protection. First Phase Report. National Programme of Latvian Forestry and Related Sectors. Latvia: Riga.

Blasi, C., Marignani, M., Copiz, R., Fipaldini, M., Bonacquisti, S., Del Vico, E., Rosatti, E. & Zavaltero, L., 2011. Important Plant Areas in Italy: From data to mapping. Biological Conservation 144 : 220-226.

Atienza, V., Segarra, J.G. & Laguna, E., 2001. Propuesta de microrreservas vegetales. Una alterna-tiva para la conservación de líquenes en la Comunidad Valenciana. Botanica Complutensis 25: 115-128.

Cowling, R. M. & McDonald, D. J., 1998. Local endemism and plant conservation in the Cape Floris-tic Region. In Rundel, P. W., Montenegro, G. & Jaksic, F. M. (eds.), 1998. Landscape disturbance and biodiversity in Mediterranean –type ecosystems, pp. 171 – 188. Ecological Studies no 136. Springer, Germany: Berlin – Heidelberg.

Ek, T., Susko, U. & Auzins, R., 2002. Inventory of Woodland Key Habitats. Methodology. Latvian State Forest Service & Regional Forestry Board of Östra Götaland-Sweden. Latvia: Riga.

European Council, 1992. Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the Conservation of Nat-ural Habitats and on Wild Fauna and Flora. O� cial Journal of the European Union L206: 7-50.

Fenu, G., Mattana, E., Congiu, A. & Bacchetta, G., 2010. The endemic vascular � ora of Supramontes (Sardinia), a priority plant conservation area. Candollea 65: 347-358.

Fraga, P. (coord.), 2005. Proposta de microreserves de � ora. Consell Insular de Menorca. Maó/Mahón, Minorca. Available at: http://www.cime.es/life� ora/descargas/microreservas.pdf.

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Gimeno, C., Puche, F., Segarra, J.G. & Laguna, E., 2001. Modelo de conservación de la � ora briológi-ca en la Comunidad Valenciana: microrreservas de � ora criptogámica. Botanica Complutensis 25: 221-231.

García-Gómez, J.C., López, C.M., Espinosa, F., Guerra, J.M. & Rivera, G.A., 2010. Marine arti� cial micro-reserves: a possibility for the conservation of endangered species living on arti� cial substrata. Marine Ecology 32: 6-14.

Gómez-Campo, C., 1981. Conservación de recursos genéticos. In Ramos, J.L. (ed.), Tratado del Medio Natural, vol. II: 97-124. Universidad Politécnica de Madrid. Spain: Madrid.

Gómez-Campo, C. & Herranz, J.M., 1993. Conservation of Iberian endemic plants: the botanical reserve of La Encantada (Villarobledo, Albacete, Spain). Biological Conservation 64: 155-160.

Hamilton, A. & Hamilton, P., 2006. Plant Conservation: An ecosystem approach. Earthscan. UK: London.

Hernández, H.M. & Gómez-Hinestrosa, C., 2011. Areas of endemism of Cactaceae and the e� ec-tiveness of the protected area network in the Chihuahuan Desert. Oryx 45: 191-200.

Heywood, V.H. & Dulloo, M.E., 2005. In situ conservation of wild plant species. A critical global review of good practices. IPGRI Technical Bulletin nº 11. International Plant Genetic Resources Insti-tute. Italy: Rome.

Jiménez-Martínez, J.F., Sánchez-Gómez, P., Mota, J.F. & Pérez-García, F.J., 2009. Areas of � oristic relevance for the conservation of the biodiversity in the ecotone of the NE end of the Betic ranges and neighbouring areas (South Spain). Acta Botanica Gallica 156: 649-662.

Laguna, E., 1991. Los recursos de � ora y fauna silvestres. In Honrubia, J. (coord. gral.): Proyecto 93: La Comunidad Valenciana en la Europa Unida. Vol. I: Nivel de vida, Medio Ambiente y Ordenación del Territorio: 237-248 Direcció General de Plani� cació i Estadística. Presidència. Generalitat Valenciana. Spain: Valencia.

Laguna, E. (ed.)., 1994. Libro de la � ora vascular rara, endémica o amenazada de la Comunidad Valenciana. 274 pp. Consellería de Medio Ambiente. Generalitat Valenciana. Spain: Valencia.

Laguna, E., 1995. Microrreservas de � ora: un nuevo modelo de conservación en la Comunidad Valenciana. Quercus 118: 22-26.

Laguna, E., 1999. The plant micro-reserves programme in the region of Valencia, Spain. In Synge, H. & Akeroyd, J. (eds.), 1998. Proceedings Planta Europa 1998, Second European Conference on the Conservation of Wild Plants: 181-185. The Swedish Threatened Species Unit and Plantlife. Sweden and UK: Uppsala and London.

Laguna, E., 2001.The micro-reserves as a tool for conservation of threatened plants in Europe. Nature & Environment series nº 121. Council of Europe. France: Strasbourg.

Laguna, E., 2007. The network of plant micro-reserves, consolidated experience from the Valen-cian Community (Spain). Ensconews 2: 12-13. Kew Gardens & Universitat de València. Spain: Valencia.

Laguna, E., Ballester, G., Fabregat, C., Olivares, A., Serra, L., Deltoro, V., Pérez-Botella, J., Pérez-Rovira, P. & Ranz, J., 2001. Plant micro-reserves: a new model of micro protected areas, Spain. Re-Introduction News 20: 19-21.

Laguna, E., Ballester, G., Ranz, J., Fabregat, C., Olivares, A., Serra, L., Pérez-Botella, J., Deltoro, V.I. & Pérez-Rovira, P., 2004. Valencian Micro-Reserve experience. A practical approach managing small protected, natural areas. PDF � le in Laguna, E. (ed.): Microhabitats Forum 2002-2003. CD-ROM. Generalitat Valenciana, Conselleria de Territori i Habitatge. Spain: Valencia.

LFSF, 2005. Management of Woodland Key Habitats in Latvia. Latvian State Forest Service (LFSF). Latvia, Riga.

Mendoza-Fernández, A., Martínez-Hernández, F., Garrido-Becerra, J.A., Pérez-García, F.J., Medina-Cazorla, J.M., Peñas de Giles, J. & Mota, J.F., 2009. Is the endangered � ora of Iberian southeast adequately protected? Gaps in the network of Protected Natural Areas of Andalusia (RENPA): The case of the province of Almeria. Acta Botanica Gallica 156: 637-648.

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Motiekaitytè, V., 2006. Conservation diversity of vascular plants and their communities in situ, ap-plying the concept of ecosystem pool. Ekologija 2: 1-7.

Peñas, J., Benito, B., Lorite, J., Ballesteros, M., Cañadas, E.M. & M;artínez-Ortega, M., 2011. Habitat fragmentation in arid zones: A case study of Linaria nigricans under land use changes (SE Spain). Environmental Management 48: 168-176.

Pérez-Rovira, P., 2011. Conservation of endangered plants and habitats: The experience of the Valencian Community. Naturalista Sicil. ser. 4, 25: 87-90.

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Plantlife International, 2004. Identifying and protecting the World’s most important plant areas. Plantlife International. UK: Salisbury.

Raeymaekers, G., 2000. Plant conservation. In the beginning of a new era?. Natura 2000, 12: 8-10.

Serra, L., Pérez-Rovira, P., Deltoro, V.I., Fabregat, C., Laguna, E. & Pérez-Botella, J., 2004. Distribution, status and conservation of rare relict plant species in the Valencian Community. Bocconea 16: 857-863.

Silva, J., Toland, J., Jones, W., Elridge, J., Thorpe, E., Campbell, M. & O’Hara, E., 2008. LIFE and endan-gered plants. Conserving Europe’s threatened � ora. European Commission. Belgium: Brussels.

Silva, J., Toland, J., Jones, W., Elridge, J., Hudson, T., Thorpe, E. & O’Hara, E., 2009. Protecting Europe’s Nature: Earning from LIFE Nature conservation best practices. European Commission. Belgium: Brussels.

Thanos, C.A., Fournaraki, Ch. & Gotsiou, P., 2006. Plant micro-reserves. Knowledge, protection, preser-vation. Endangered, rare and endemic plants in Crete. NKUA, MAICh and the Forest Directorate of Chania. Crete: Chania .

Thanos C.A, Fournaraki, Ch., Georghiou, K., Dimopoulos, P. & Bergmeier, E., 2007. The Establish-ment, Monitoring and Management of a Pilot Network of Micro-Reserves in Western Crete for the Conservation of European Threatened Plants (CRETAPLANT Project, EU-LIFE). In Rockich, D., G. Moss, C. Yates, K. Dixon & J. Stevens (eds.): Proceedings, MEDECOS XI Conference, Perth, Australia: 249-250. Botanic Gardens & Parks Authority, Kings Park and Botanic Garden. Austra-lia: Perth.

Turuta, O., Ryabtsev, V., Novitskaya, N. & Vakarenko, L., 2003. Protected microhabitats as a part of the Baikal Regional Ecological Network. PDF � le in Laguna, E. (ed.): Microhabitats Forum 2002-2003: Electronic Conference on Conservation of Microhabitats and their Biodiversity. CD-ROM. Conselleria de Territorio y Vivienda, Generalitat Valenciana. Spain: Valencia.

Vellak, K., Ingerpuu, N., Vellak, A. & Pärtel, M., 2010. Vascular plant species and bryophytes species representation in the protected areas network on the national scale. Biodiversity and Conser-vation 19: 1353-1364.

Segarra-Moragues, J.G. & Catalán, P., 2010. The fewer and the better: Prioritization of populations for conservation under limited resources, a genetic study with Borderea pyrenaica (Diosco-reaceae) in the Pyrenaean National Park. Genetica 183: 363-376.

Vellak, A., Tuvi, E.L., Reier, U., Kalamees, R., Roosaluste, E., Zobel, M. & Pärtel, M., 2009. Past and present of protected areas for conservation of naturally and anthropogenically rare plant spe-cies. Conservation Biology 23: 750-757.

Wilson, E.O., 2002. The future of Life. Alfred A. Knopf Publishers. USA: New York.

Image on next page: Silene hifacensis

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2Emilio LAGUNA1,2, Gabriel BALLESTER1, Vicente DELTORO1, Simon FOS1, Roger CARCHANO1, Josep E. OLTRA1, Joan PÉREZ-BOTELLA1 & Patricia PÉREZ-ROVIRA1

1 Generalitat Valenciana, Servicio de Vida Silvestre, c/Francesc Cubells, 11. E-46011 Valencia2 Generalitat Valenciana, CIEF, Avda. Comarques País Valencià 114, E-46930 Quart de Poblet, Valencia

I. Introduction

The concept of conservation of wild � ora by means of PMRs and their practical implementation, were pioneered in Valencia (Spain), and can be considered as a hands-on application, in network (Fig. 2.1), of the idea of ‘mini-reserves’ as put forward by Gomez -Campo (1981). The proposal for their creation was made between the end of 1989 and the beginning of 1990 by the Wildlife Service of this region, and was developed in several works that were published the year af-ter (Laguna, 1991). These works summarised the � ndings of preliminary studies on the native � ora of this territory and on its conservation problems. Through such work, later reviewed by Laguna (1994, 1998), it became evident that the vast majority of singular species of vascu-lar � ora that required protection measures, tended to follow a pattern of aggregation in microhabitats whose protection could not be easily addressed by using traditional nature reserves (= natural protected areas). This pattern was also evident in non-vascu-lar plants and lichens (Atienza et al., 2001; Gimeno et al., 2001).

Valencia is a relatively small region (23,260 km2), but it is home to a rich variety of habitats and a high plant diversity (La-guna, 1999). Its territory covers a latitudi-nal strip that goes from 37° 51’ to 40° 47’ N, which means that an assortment of climates, from the hot parts of the SE Iberian sub-des-ert territories to the high northern inland mountains with heights up to 1839 m, where Figure 2.1 The Valencian PMR

network.

A Pioneer Project:The Valencian PMR Network

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14 PART 1 INTRODUCTION. THE CONCEPT OF PLANT MICRO-RESERVES

some localised territories with sub-Mediterranean climate can be found. It has 430 km of coastline, including several small island archipelagos –Columbretes and Tabarca–, and a high soil and geological diversity on the mainland, which is dominated by basic geologic materials –limestone and dolomite, marl, gyp-sum– and by sandstones to a lesser extent. Although the region’s population comprises 5 million inhabitants it is concentrated towards the coastline, where environmental impacts and land fragmentation have signi� cantly reduced nat-ural habitats, particularly rich in endemic � ora. The Valencia region is the place where two major Spanish mountain systems meet: the Iberian and Baetic Cordil-leras. Consequently it shares many of their characteristic plants with them, since both ranges are considered two of the main hotspots for plant diversity as iden-ti� ed by Davis et al. (1994). Additional geographic and detailed bio geographic data can be found and are available in previous works by some of us (Laguna, 1999; Laguna et al., 2004a, 2005).

Although the total number of vascular plant species present in the region is under constant revisions, it can be said, somewhat con� dently, that the Valen-cian region is home to some 3.150 species, of which about 366 would be Spanish endemics of Iberian or Iberian-Balearic distribution (Laguna, 1998, 2008; Laguna et al., 2010). In turn, at least 59 of these endemics would be considered strictly Valencian, with most of them growing along the coastline or in coastal moun-tain ranges, precisely the territories that have been most a� ected by human activity. Certain habitats, such as rocky cli� s or scree, are often dominated by endemic plants (Laguna, 1998, 1999) and accumulate around 1/3 of all species with this bio geographic pattern; another 1/3 is concentrated in grasslands and open low scrub (Laguna, 2005), while the remaining 1/3 is distributed among the other habitat types (saline soils, wetlands, etc.).

II. Planning

Between 1991 and 1992 a proposal was made for the establishment of a net-work consisting of a variable number of sites –ranging from 150 to 350– de-pending on the prospects of � nancial availability (Laguna, 1991, 1995). The aim was to encompass (through a selection of small areas) the maximum possible number of endemic species –threatened or not– of the Valencia region (Laguna, 2001a), as well as a signi� cantly enough sample of relict vegetation types, both of postglacial vegetation and remnants of Mediterranean subtropical vegeta-tion. These vegetation types have been shown to shelter a high concentration of rare and threatened non-endemic plant species (Serra et al., 2004). The initial choice of areas was conducted by three teams of experts from the Department of Botany at the University of Valencia and the Polytechnic University of Valen-cia, and the proposal submitted to the � rst call for LIFE-Nature projects of the EC in 1992. A 75% � nancial support in two phases (1993-1995 and 1996-1998) was granted by the EU.

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The boundaries of the selected areas were preventively delimited in the � eld, in order to avoid any signi� cant environmental impact before their legal protection, for which an ad hoc legal entity was created –see references in the chapter on legal issues– and approved by the Valencian Government in 1994 (Anonymous, 1994). Since ownership of the natural Valencian environment is excessively fragmented and most sites whose protection was suggested by the consulted experts were very small (usually 1-2 ha), 20 ha was taken as the top limit for PMRs surface. Traditional activities of primary sectors considered to be bene� cial for the conservation of plant species could be carried on (Laguna, 2001b).

The network was designed to include two subnets, subject to di� erent man-agement regimes:

• Public PMR, directly managed by the regional government or Generalitat Va-lenciana.

• Private-PMR –see chapter on private PMR in this book– managed by their owners – individual persons or town halls in the case of public land not of public domain– under the aegis of the regional government, or alternatively by the government itself, through management agreements if necessary.

Valencian PMRs cannot be established on private areas against their owners’ will but only at their request. Nevertheless, owners must accept strict condi-tions when they give over their land for conservation purposes, in a completely altruistic way or in exchange of a one-o� indemnity, as regulated by the grant-aid scheme of the network (Laguna, 2001b). Unlike the rest of the Spanish pro-tected natural areas, the management plan is approved for particular PMRs to-gether with its declaration, without the need for a lengthy procedure. In fact, the plan is a rather simple document with guidelines, often not exceeding one or two pages.

III. Starting up the Network

Preliminary work started after the approval of the LIFE project, between 1992 and 1997. In the � rst phase 150 areas were selected. Additionally, a standard for signs to be used in their delimitation was passed (Anonymous, 1996) and an aid scheme to encourage selective private participation was developed. The rationale was rather to prioritize support to conservation actions than pay for the loss of rights over the property –see chapter on private PMR–. The � rst call for aid was in 1997 whilst the � rst PMRs were declared in late 1998, and had a speci� c signage with explicit reference to the � nancial support from the EU LIFE program. From the start, the network was planned to meet di� erent objectives (Laguna, 2001b) among which fostering active conservation and research was the major one, followed by environmental education, including the promotion of landowner’s initiatives in this � eld.

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IV. Evolution and Current Status

New PMR declarations are made collectively by means of an Order of the Valen-cian Government, published in the regional o� cial gazette. Since 1998, 19 of such Orders have been passed and 291 PMRs (Fig. 2.2) have been declared on 139 municipalities. Of these areas, 227 are public and thus managed directly by the Government, two are managed jointly by the Government and the town halls –since they include demanial land of public domain of the Generalitat Va-lenciana, and public land owned by town halls–, and 62 are private PMRs. Of these, 32 are managed by town halls as they are established on land of public ownership but not of public domain and the rest are strictly private. The total area of the network is 2,512 ha. Most PMRs are very small in size (Fig. 2.3): 156 PMRs (53%) have a surface of 5 ha or less, whilst 99 PMRs –just over 1/3 of the total number– have a surface of 2 ha or less. The smallest PMR are those estab-lished on cli� s, whose projected surface onto the horizontal plane is very small. The smallest PMR covers only 0.061 ha. Small PMRs also include habitats such as water sources, coastal islets and coastal cli� s.

The PMR network contains populations of at least 1,625 species of vascular plants –51.4% of the regional total. This � gure rises to 62.3% when native spe-cies only are considered–. The Order by which PMRs are declared contains a list of priority species for each PMR that must be subject to census or monitoring, as well as those whose germplasm –seeds, spores, propágulos– must be collected and incorporated into speci� c banks of plant reproduction material (Laguna, 2007). The last comprehensive review of PMR network data, done in 2008 (La-guna et al., 2010), showed that management plans prioritize 1,288 populations corresponding to 527 plant species, of which 227 are endemics. In addition to the quantitative degree of representation of regional plant diversity, their quali-tative aspect should be stressed, since the network has ‘captured’ a high num-

Figure 2.2 The proliferation of declared PMRs in the Valencian Region (1998 - 2012).

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ber of the best populations of wild Valencian � ora of conservation interest at regional, national, European or world level. For instance, the network includes the only world population of Limonium perplexum as well as all native Iberian populations of Medicago citrina and Silene hifacensis (Fig. 2.4). These species are included in the Spanish Catalogue of Threatened Species –the national list of species with the maximum protection level–. In other instances, the network comprises the entire or almost the entire regional population of certain spe-cies such as Marsilea strigosa (Fig. 2.5), Asplenium celtibericum etc., as well as strict Valencian endemics or nearly exclusive endemics for which the network confers protection to a high percentage of their known population or at least the best viable populations accessible at world level –i.e. Limonium dufourii, L. rigualii (Fig. 2.6), Silene diclinis etc.–. Regarding habitats, the PMR network con-tains a representation, of varying quality, of all major habitat types included in Directive 92/43/EEC present in the Valencia region (up to 69 di� erent types). Of these, 53 (76.8% of total) are prioritized for conservation action by management plans of PMRs.

Figure 2.3 Distribution of the number of PMRs (no. and %) by size.

Figure 2.4 Census of the endangered endemic Silene hifacensis Rouy (An-nexes II and IV, Directive of Habitats) in the PMR ‘Cap d’ Or’ (Teulada, province of Alicante) (photo: E. Laguna).

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V. Activities within the PMR Network

A signi� cant share of in situ plant conservation activities with threatened � ora is carried out in PMRs (Perez-Rovira, 2011; Laguna, 2007) since within its bound-aries many populations of protected species with a high risk of extinction at regional, national or global level can be found. The most important plant con-servation projects such as the reintroduction of Silene hifacensis (Annex II and IV of the Habitats Directive) or Medicago citrina (under the EAEC) have been carried out completely within the PMR network (Laguna, 2011; Laguna et al., 2011). In fact, PMRs are considered as priority areas for developing solid conservation ac-tivities (Laguna et al., 2001). The type of activities being carried out within PMRs are extremely varied –censuses, reintroductions and reinforcements of threat-ened � ora, control of invasive or highly competitive species, etc.– and have been explained in detail elsewhere (Laguna, 2004, 2005; Laguna et al., 2004b). With few exceptions, associated to the development of pilot projects (e.g. herbi-vore exclusion plots), PRMs are not fenced. In fact, visitor access is in most cases allowed although it can be regulated or limited physically, according to speci� c guidelines that are included in the management plans. Answers on frequently asked questions about PMR functioning have been summarized by Deltoro et al. (2006).

Often, in PMRs that are likely to be massively visited by the general public, in addition to the standard signs, a number of encouraging elements are also used. These elements ease or redirect visitor access –for instance low poles linked by ropes that delimit pre-established trails. In sites subject to high visitor pressure, explanatory boards are set up with information on the main species that can be found and their conservation interest. In fact, the array of support infrastruc-

Figure 2.6 The PMR ‘Cap de Cullera’ (0.2 ha) holds the unique known population of the Valencian endemic Limonium dufourii (Girard) Kuntze growing on coastal cli� s (photo: E. Laguna).

Figure 2.5 The unique Valencian popu-lations of the aquatic pteridophyte Marsilea strigosa Willd, a species of the Habitats Directive Annexes II and IV, occur in two PMRs in Sinarcas (province of Valencia) (photo: E. Laguna).

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CHAPTER 2 A Pioneer Project: The Valencian PMR Network 19

tures –i.e. devices to deter car parking– can vary according to likely impacts. In some instances management of PMRs has required regular contact with spe-ci� c groups and the search for alternatives for activities previously carried out in the same place –i.e. modi� cations to existing climbing routes. Although all management activities and maintenance of physical conservation structures is done mostly by the Wildlife Service, in some PMRs successful initiatives involv-ing voluntary organizations and conservation NGOs in their management have been developed –i.e. additional monitoring of PMR during summer in sites with high in� ux of tourists, visitors’ information, etc. Last but not least, the multifunc-tional vocation PMR network should also be highlighted, especially with regard to educational uses and the possibility of including these areas in territorial net-works for responsible ecotourism (Laguna, 2001b).

VI. External Analysis and Review of the Activities - Effectiveness of the Network

The Valencian PMR network has been considered as one of the leading plant conservation initiatives in Spain (Domínguez & Sainz, 2000; Estrelles et al., 2004; Moreno et al., 2003), and regarded as an international example of relevance for plant conservation (Akeroyd, 1998; Dulloo et al., 2008; Hamilton & Hamilton, 2006; Heywood & Dulloo, 2005; Heywood, 2004; Raeymaekers, 2000), particu-larly in the European Union (Silva et al., 2008, 2009). PMRs act as complement to the Valencian network of large protected natural areas, and have become an alternative for the protection of unique species linked to microhabitats, and an option for the development of representative networks of plant diversity –both endangered species as well as endemic, relict, etc.– as highlighted in works of geographical analysis (Padilla, 2006; Padilla & Ramon, 1997). Finally, PMRs have also been recommended in large global conservation strategies as the one put forward by Planta Europa and the Council of Europe (Smart et al., 2002).

Although all these publications consider the Valencian PMR network as a model example, it should be noted that a detailed analysis of its e� ectiveness using optimal indicators is not yet available. The Wildlife Service of the Generali-tat Valenciana will carry out this analysis in the period 2013-2014. The e� ective-ness of the network to capture populations of singular and endangered plant species as well as the outcome of conservation works carried out in situ will be reviewed. It should be noted here that, despite the fact that Valencian PMRs have spared from destruction many microhabitats rich in endangered species and assured the preservation of a good number of species in extreme situations, the model is unable to prevent the destruction of habitats due to large-scale natural phenomena, whose devastating e� ects are often enhanced by man-made infrastructures. A good example of the latter is the progressive destruc-tion, by marine erosion, of some PMRs located in sand beaches and rock out-

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crops along the coast, due to the construction of breakwaters. This can be seen in Les Rotes-A PMR –Denia, Alicante–, where ongoing erosion has decimated one of the best world populations of the Valencian endemic Limonium rigualii. At another site, Platja de Moncofa PMR –Moncofa, Castellón– coastal erosion has eaten away over 30% of the surface of the loose pebble beach, pushing back the dune front and consequently burying the population of the annual Valencian-Balearic endemic Silene cambessedesii. Was it not for the recent reintroductions, S. cambessedesii would have been completely wiped out from the area. These two examples clearly show that the presence of man-made structures that al-ter sea currents can result in coastal habitat destruction. However, the regional administration responsible for the PMR network has no competence to remove or modify these structures, which are managed by the national administration.

VII. New Challenges

Since the adoption of the new regulation on conservation of wild � ora in the Valencian region –Decree 79/2009 of the Valencian Government (Anonymous, 2009)– the main goal of Valencian PMR has been modi� ed and restricted on the protection and conservation of endangered species, whether endemic or not (Laguna et al., 2010), as compared to the original objective of creating a repre-sentative network of plant diversity with priority given to incorporating popula-tions of regional endemic plant species (Laguna, 2001a). In fact, the latter target had almost been achieved: by 2008 the PMR network had already incorporated 74% of the 366 endemics known to exist in our region (Laguna, 2008; Laguna et al., 2010). If this objective was narrowed to exclusive or nearly exclusive endem-ics (which amount to 133 taxa) their percentage within the network reached a � gure above 86%. However, with regard to the new targets, out of a total of 398 species protected by the Decree 70/2009, of which 386 were eligible for protec-tion –the remaining 12 correspond to extinct or marine species– the current PMR network contains populations of only 210 taxa (54%), which implies that there is still some way to go in the coming years. Decree 70/2009 also opens a new horizon by extending the possibility of creating new PMRs, so far restricted to the mainland, to coastal marine areas adjacent to the coastline (Anonymous, 2009). Along with these new objectives, and other pending and barely started, such as the application of the PMR model to endangered species of non-vascu-lar plants, fungi, lichens and algae (Laguna, 2008), novel ones arise, such as the need to encourage participation by conservation NGOs, scienti� c societies and other stakeholders in the management and making in value of PMR network.

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VIII. References

Akeroyd, J., 1998. Micro-reserves ‘capture’ Valencia’s rare plants. Plant Talk 14: 20-23, 33.

Anonymous, 1994. Decreto 218/1994, de 17 de octubre, del Gobierno Valenciano, por el que se crea y regula la � gura de protección denominada Microrreserva Vegetal. Diari O� cial de la Generalitat Valenciana, núm. 2.378.

Anonymous, 1996. Orden de 5 de diciembre de 1995, por la que se regula la señalización de las microrrservas vegetales. Diari O� cial de la Generalitat Valenciana, núm. 2.658.

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Dulloo, M.E., Labokas, J., Iriondo, J.M., Maxted, N., Lane, A., Laguna, E., Jarvis, A. & Kell, S.P., 2008. Genetic Reserve location and design. In Iriondo, J.M, N. Maxted & M.E. Dulloo (eds.): Conserv-ing Plant Genetic Diversity in Protected Areas. Population management of Crop Wild Relatives: 23-64. CAB International. UK: Wallingford.

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Gimeno, C., Puche, F., Segarra, J.G. & Laguna, E., 2001. Modelo de conservación de la � ora briológi-ca en la Comunidad Valenciana: microrreservas de � ora criptogámica. Botanica Complutensis 25: 221-231.

Gómez-Campo, C., 1981. Conservación de recursos genéticos. In Ramos, J.L. (ed.), Tratado del Medio Natural, vol. II: 97-124. Universidad Politécnica de Madrid. Spain: Madrid.

Hamilton, A. & Hamilton, P., 2006. Plant Conservation: An ecosystem approach. Earthscan. UK: London.

Heywood, V.H., 2004. Critical global review of existing guidelines and methodologies and other rel-evant literature on in situ conservation of target plant species and of current activities in this area being undertaken by national and international agencies. Final draft consultation. FAO. Italy: Rome.

Heywood, V.H. & Dulloo, M.E., 2005. In situ conservation of wild plant species. A critical global review of good practices. IPGRI Technical Bulletin nº 11. International Plant Genetic Resources Insti-tute. Italy: Rome.

Laguna, E., 1991. Los recursos de � ora y fauna silvestres. In HONRUBIA, J. (coord. gral.): Proyecto 93: La Comunidad Valenciana en la Europa Unida. Vol. I: Nivel de vida, Medio Ambiente y Ordenación del Territorio: 237-248 Direcció General de Plani� cació i Estadística. Presidència. Generalitat Valenciana. Spain: Valencia.

Laguna, E. (ed.), 1994. Libro de la � ora vascular rara, endémica o amenazada de la Comunidad Valen-ciana. 274 pp. Consellería de Medio Ambiente. Generalitat Valenciana. Spain: Valencia.

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22 PART 1 INTRODUCTION. THE CONCEPT OF PLANT MICRO-RESERVES

Laguna, E., 1995. Microrreservas de � ora: un nuevo modelo de conservación en la Comunidad Valenciana. Quercus 118: 22-26.

Laguna, E. (ed.), 1998. Flora endémica, rara o amenazada de la Comunidad Valenciana. Conselleria de Medi Ambient, Generalitat Valenciana. Spain: Valencia.

Laguna, E., 1999. The plant micro-reserves programme in the region of Valencia, Spain.In Synge, H. & Akeroyd, J. (eds.): Proceedings Planta Europa 1998,. Second European Conference on the Conservation of Wild Plants: 181-185. The Swedish Threatened Species Unit and Plantlife. Sweden and UK: Uppsala and London.

Laguna, E., 2001a.The micro-reserves as a tool for conservation of threatened plants in Europe. Nature & Environment series nº 121. Council of Europe. France: Strasbourg.

Laguna, E., 2001b. The network of plant micro-reserves, a multifunctional instrument for aware-ness raising, involving landowners and scienti� c research. In ‘Proceedings of the 2nd Internation-al Symposium of the Pan-Ecological Network: The partnership of local and regional authorities in the conservation of biological and landscape diversity (Rochefort, Belgium, 18-19 Sept 2000’: 99-103. Council of Europe. France: Strasbourg.

Laguna, E., 2004. The plant micro-reserve initiative in the Valencian Community (Spain) and its use to conserve populations of crop wild relatives. Crop Wild Relative 2: 10-13.

Laguna, E., 2005. Micro-reserves as a tool for grassland conservation and restoration in the Valen-cian Community (Spain). In Struchov, A. & J. Kuleshova (eds.): Facets of Grassland Restoration: 105-120. The Open Country Series. Biodiversity Conservation Centre. Russia: Moscow.

Laguna, E., 2007. The network of plant micro-reserves, consolidated experience from the Valen-cian Community (Spain). Ensconews 2: 12-13. Kew Gardens & Universitat de València. Spain: Valencia.

Laguna, E., 2008. La conservación de la Biodiversidad aplicada a pequeña escala: La red valen-ciana de microrreservas de � ora. In Grisolía, S. (coord.): Biodiversidad: 249-263. Presidencia de la Generalitat Valenciana – Fundación Premios Jaime I. Spain: Valencia.

Laguna, E., 2011. Re-introduction of Spanish moon trefoil in Illa Grossa, Columbretes Islands, Spain. In Soorae, P.S. (ed.): Global Re-Introduction Perspectives: 2011. More case studies around the globe: 239-243. IUCN Re-Introduction Specialist Group. Switzerland and Unit Arab Emir-ates: Gland and Abu-Dhabi.

Laguna, E., Ballester, G., Fabregat, C., Olivares, A., Serra, L., Deltoro, V., Pérez-Botella, J., Pérez-Rovira, P. & Ranz, J., 2001. Plant micro-reserves: a new model of micro protected areas, Spain. Re-Introduction News 20: 19-21.

Laguna, E., Deltoro, V., Pérez-Botella, J., Pérez-Rovira, P., Serra, Ll., Olivares, A. & Fabregat, C., 2004a. The role of small reserves in plant conservation in a region of high diversity in Eastern Spain. Biological Conservation 119: 421-426.

Laguna, E., Ballester, G., Ranz, J., Fabregat, C., Olivares, A., Serra, L., Pérez-Botella, J., Deltoro, V.I. & Pérez-Rovira, P., 2004b. Valencian Micro-Reserve experience. A practical approach managing small protected, natural areas. PDF � le in Laguna, E. (ed.): Microhabitats Forum 2002-2003. CD-ROM. Generalitat Valenciana, Conselleria de Territori i Habitatge. Spain: Valencia.

Laguna, E., Deltoro, V., Lipej, B., Kaligarič, M. & Sovinc, A. (eds.), 2005. Diversity and conservation of karst landscapes: Valencian and Slovenian examples. Conselleria de Territori i Habitatge, Gener-alitat Valenciana. Spain: Valencia.

Laguna, E., Ballester, G., Deltoro, V.I., Fabregat, C., Fos, S., Olivares, A., Oltra, J.E., Pérez-Botella, J., Pérez-Rovira, P. & Serra, L., 2010. La red valenciana de microrreservas de � ora: Síntesis de 20 años de experiencia. In Giménez, P., J.A. Marco, E. Matarredona, A. Padilla & A. Sánchez (eds.): Biogeografía. Una ciencia para la conservación del medio: 265-272. Universidad de Alicante. Spain: Alicante.

Laguna, E., Ballester, G., Ferrer, P., Pereira, M., Vicioso, L., Albert, F.J., Escribá, M.C., Ferrando, I., Navarro, A. & Pérez-Botella, J., 2011. First phase of the re-introduction of Silene hifacensis (Caryophyllaceae) in Cap de Sant Antoni, Valencian Community, Spain. In Soorae, P.S. (ed.):

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Global Re-Introduction Perspectives: 2011. More case studies around the globe: 244-248. IUCN Re-Introduction Specialist Group. Switzerland and Unit Arab Emirates: Gland and Abu-Dabi.

Moreno, J.C., Domínguez, F. & Sainz, H., 2003. Recent progress in conservation of threatened Spanish vascular � ora: a critical review. Biological Conservation 113: 419-431.

Padilla, A., 2006. Las microrreservas vegetales, una � gura para la protección de la � ora rara, endémica o amenazada en la Comunidad valenciana. In Giménez, P., J.A. Marco, E. Matarre-dona, A. Padilla & A. Sánchez (eds.): Biogeografía. Una ciencia para la conservación del medio: 141-156. Universidad de Alicante. Spain: Alicante.

Padilla, A. & Ramón, A., 1997. Planeamiento ambiental a escala de detalle: Microrreservas de � ora en la Comunidad Valenciana. Investigaciones Geográ� cas 17: 117-128.

Pérez-Rovira, P., 2011. Conservation of endangered plants and habitats: The experience of the Valencian Community. Naturalista Sicil. ser. 4, 25: 87-90.

Raeymaekers, G., 2000. Plant conservation. In the beginning of a new era?. Natura 2000, 12: 8-10.

Serra, L., Pérez-Rovira, P., Deltoro, V.I., Fabregat, C., Laguna, E. & Pérez-Botella, J., 2004. Distribution, status and conservation of rare relict plant species in the Valencian Community. Bocconea 16: 857-863.

Silva, J., Toland, J., Jones, W., Elridge, J., Thorpe, E., Campbell, M. & O’Hara, E., 2008, LIFE and endan-gered plants. Conserving Europe’s threatened � ora. European Commission. Belgium: Brussels.

Silva, J., Toland, J., Jones, W., Elridge, J., Hudson, T., Thorpe, E. & O’Hara, E., 2009. Protecting Europe’s Nature: Earning from LIFE Nature conservation best practices. European Commission. Belgium: Brussels.

Smart, J., Imboden, Ch., Harper, M. & Radford, E. (eds.), 2002. Saving the Plants of Europe. European Plant Conservation Strategy). Planta Europa, Council of Europe and Plantlife International. UK: London.

Image on next page: Anthemis glaberrima

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Small networks for scientific intensive management

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3Costas A. THANOS1, Christini FOURNARAKI2, Kyriacos GEORGHIOU1 & Panayotis DIMOPOULOS3

1 Department of Botany, Faculty of Biology, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Panepistimiop-olis, Athens 15784, Greece2 Mediterranean Plant Conservation Unit, Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Chania (MAICh), 73100 Chania, Crete, Greece3 Department of Environmental and Natural Resources Management, University of Ioannina, 2 Seferi str., 30100 Agrinio, Greece

I. Introduction

The objective of the Project CRETAPLANT (LIFE04NAT_GR_000104, Fig. 3.1) has been the creation of a pilot Plant Micro-Reserves Network in Western Crete (Chania Prefecture), on the trail of the pioneering experience of the Valencia Re-gion (Spain). The network is comprised by 7 reserves of an area less than 20 hectares each (Fig. 3.2, Table 3.1). Each reserve has been established on pub-lic land, within 4 NATURA 2000 sites and includes a signi� cant part of (if not all) the population of the following targeted species of European Community priority: *Androcymbium rechingeri, *Anthemis glaberrima, *Bupleurum kakiskalae, *Cephalan-thera cucullata, *Hypericum aciferum, *Nepeta sphaciotica and the priority habitat 9370, *Palm groves of Phoenix.

The Habitat and Species Directive 92/43/EEC includes 28 plant species of Community priority for Greece: 8 of them grow in Crete, 6 in the Chania Prefecture (of which 5 ONLY in Cha-nia and nowhere else on the planet). Addition-ally, 4 habitat types of Community priority are found in Chania as well as 13 (out of a total of 239 for Greece) designated SITES OF COMMUNITY IM-PORTANCE (SCI) within the framework of the Euro-pean Network NATURA 2000 (with a total area corresponding to around 40% of the total land surface of the Chania Prefecture). It is therefore

PMRs in Western Crete

Figure 3.1 The CRETAPLANT logo: detail of a golden jewel from the Early Minoan era (3rd millennium BC), resembling the � ower of Anthemis glaberrima, one of the project plants.

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PART 2 SMALL NETWORKS FOR SCIENTIFIC INTENSIVE MANAGEMENT28

obvious that Chania is privileged to host a signi� cant biodiversity treasure of the Greek and European nature. The project was implemented in the period of 1.9.2004 - 31.12.2007 by the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens

Figure 3.2 The PMR network in Western Crete.

Table 3.1 The network of Plant Micro-Reserves in Western Crete. (SF: surface, AL: altitude, NI: number of individuals of the plant-target, FL: number of plant taxa within the PMR, EN: number of endemic taxa in the PMR, HAB: number of habitat types, CS: Conservation Status of PMR, FV: Favourable, U2: Unfavourable - bad).

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(Bene� ciary), the Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Chania (MAICh), the Forest Directorate of Chania and the Regional Development Fund of Crete. The following short overview of the CRETAPLANT Project is mainly based on several previous publications and reports (Kargiolaki et al., 2007; Thanos et al., 2007; Di-mopoulos et al., 2008; Thanos, 2008).

II. Preparatory Actions

In the framework of the preparatory actions: (1) a detailed inventorying of the localities (more than 20) for the target species/habitats has taken place, the size of the population, the threats and the general ecotypic characteristics were es-timated and identi� ed and the precise sites of the Plant Micro-Reserves have been proposed and subsequently adopted by the Scienti� c Committee (e.g. Figs 3.3 & 3.4), (2) afterwards the detailed maps of the PMRs were drawn in a GIS digital system (e.g. Fig. 3.5), (3) in parallel, the monitoring plans were elabo-rated and included baseline reference data for every PMR as well as the fore-seen monitoring actions concerning the population size and its variation, the monitoring programmes and the speci� c localities for the permanent monitor-ing plots, the ecotypic and meteorological conditions and the evaluation of the conservation status of the species, (4) � nally, the management plans for every PMR were scrutinised and � nalised, comprising the management measures and timing, for each case. In addition, two additional issues were pursued: (5) a mo-lecular, laboratory study for the determination of the genetic variability and the population structure of the target plants (which o� ered original but preliminary data and points towards the necessity for a more detailed investigation) and (6) a study about the legal tools for the conservation and protection of nature in

Figure 3.3 A general, outlined view of the Hypericum aciferum PMR, at the Fournoti beach, Libyan Sea.

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Figure 3.4 A partial view of the Phoenix theophrasti PMR, at the locality Aspri Limni, near Chryssoskalitissa Monastery.

Figure 3.5 Map of the Nepeta sphaciotica PMR; contour is shown in red and population density values in a gradient of green shades.

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CHAPTER 3 PMRs in Western Crete 31

Greece, which resulted in the proposal of utilising the legal entity of the Wildlife Refuges.

In the framework of the non-recurring management actions: (1) a prompt purchase of basic monitoring equipment took place – 4-wheel drive vehicle, 53 dataloggers of various meteorological parameters, 9 micro-stations of record-ing digital data, digital video camera and additional � eld micro-equipment, (2) the permanent monitoring plots and meteorological micro-stations were estab-lished according to the Monitoring Plan, adapted in each case to the particu-larities of each PMR, (3) at the same time the establishment of the Plant Micro-Reserves took place in the � eld, by placing borderline signs, fencing (only in the PMRs of Cephalanthera and Bupleurum, Fig. 3.6) and establishment of direction boards and information panels.

Figure 3.6 A caged Cephalanthera cucullata individual in � ower.

Figure 3.7 The meteorological microsta-tion located in the open, scree part of the Cephalanthera cucullata PMR.

III. Monitoring and Management

In the framework of the recurring management actions: (1) monitoring activi-ties and mild management actions - micro-station maintenance and down-loading-elaboration of meteorological data (Fig. 3.7), population and habitat measurements in the permanent monitoring plots (Fig. 3.8), phytosociological and � oristic recordings, small-scale activities such as individual fencing, arti� cial pollination and outplanting of new plants) were implemented for the period 2006-7, (2) seeds from all plant-targets have been collected and consequently stored at the Seed Bank of MAICh (ex situ conservation) while protocols for seed germination and seedling cultivation were produced, (3) wardening of Plant Mi-cro-Reserves was implemented for the period 2006-7, by hiring and educating wardens from nearby villages.

Table 3.1 shows important data for each PMR as well as the evaluation of their Conservation Status. CS for 6 of the plant species is favourable despite the

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threats faced. The only exception is the PMR Phoenix theophrasti; the popula-tion of this latter species is particularly small and excessively stressed as well; moreover, no production of fertile fruits and seeds has been observed so far and neither has any sign of natural regeneration. Population size for each of the 7 PMR plants clearly falls into two groups: (Α) Androcymbium rechingeri, An-themis glaberrima and Nepeta sphaciotica with considerably high numbers (and densities) of individuals and (Β) Bupleurum kakiskalae, Cephalanthera cucullata, Hypericum aciferum και Phoenix theophrasti with quite low numbers. Concern-ing the latter group, the extinction danger for these species is immediate while the high-numbered plants do face di� culties, as well: Anthemis glaberrima, be-ing an annual, is expected (and found indeed) to exhibit large � uctuations of its yearly seed production; Nepeta sphaciotica grows in adverse climatic conditions and, even worse, confronts a strong grazing pressure.

Threats faced by the target plants and their PMRs are compiled and evaluat-ed in Table 3.2: grazing (or not unusually overgrazing), tourist development and the accompanying land use change (and loss of habitats), other human activities (trampling, plant over collection, vandalism etc), wild� res and climatic change. These threats and pressures are considerably enhanced when combined either with the small size of certain populations, that may potentially lead to genetic erosion and species extinction (e.g. the cases of Bupleurum kakiskalae, Cepha-lanthera cucullata and Phoenix theophrasti) or with the biological characteristics of the target plants. As far as the latter issue is concerned, the annual Anthemis glaberrima has an expected (and recorded as well) inter-annual � uctuation of population size; the monocarpic perennial Bupleurum kakiskalae � owers and sets seeds only once during its lifetime (and then dies), thus a certain degree of natural regeneration (production of new seedlings) is of paramount importance

Figure 3.8 Partial view of the Bupleurum kakiskalae PMR; the numbered yellow rectan-gles represent permanent, monitoring plots.

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for the survival of the species; the orchid Cephalanthera cucullata � owers only erratically (i.e. not yearly) and its regeneration is similarly problematical; � nally, Phoenix theophrasti, at the Chrysoskalitissa area, has not been observed to pro-duce sound seeds or seedlings.

The most serious threat of all is grazing and it a� ects almost all target plants. Unfortunately, in the case of Nepeta sphaciotica it cannot be eliminated due to the exceptionally di� cult access to the PMR area and both the adverse climatic conditions (snow cover, strong winds) and soil morphology that do not permit any long-lasting fencing construction works. On the other hand, however, in the cases of Bupleurum kakiskalae and Cephalanthera cucullata, fencing yielded spectacular results. In the former species, 83 young plants were recorded within a fenced enclosure, after only 2 years, which corresponds to almost doubling of its population. In the latter species, the vegetation recovery was impressive (even only 1 year after the fencing, left photograph below) while a dramatic in-crease (almost triple) of the � owering (and fruiting) orchids was recorded. Thus, fencing stabilises the actual population and ensures a mid- and long-term en-hancement of natural regeneration.

IV. Dissemination and Environmental Awareness

In the framework of the Project actions for public awareness and dissemina-tion of results: (1) an information campaign in 8 schools (in the vicinity of PMRs)

TABLE 3.2 Threats faced by the PMRs of Western Crete.

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was deployed and 2 Student Weeks were organised at MAICh (May 2006 and 2007, with a participation of over 1300 students, in total), 7000 popularised 20-page booklets (in Greek and English) and 500 large posters were distributed to students, schools and visitors of the Information Center similarly to the 4000 T-shirts produced, decorated with original coloured drawings of the 7 plant-targets of the Project (Fig. 3.9). Furthermore, 3 dissemination events for local authorities, 2 seminars for environmental education tutors and 1 seminar for ecotourism operators were organized; an Experts Workshop took place in Cha-nia on November 24-25, 2005, with the signi� cant participation of 20 experts on nature conservation and management from Greece and 6 European countries and, � nally, a video (DVD, 19 min, in Greek with English subtitles) was produced for the general public, illustrating nature conservation and Plant Micro-Re-serves; it is being displayed at the Visitors Centre and copies have been o� ered to schools and institutions, (2) a bilingual (Greek and English) Project website, has been launched, already since 2005 (http://cretaplant.biol.uoa.gr), hosting all CRETAPLANT activities and additional relevant information, 9 papers with Proj-ect related activities were presented in international scienti� c conferences and 14 4-page, coloured lea� ets (with technical/scienti� c and layman’s information) have been edited for each of the 7 Plant Micro-Reserves (separately in Greek and English) for future reproduction and distribution, (3) a Visitors Center was con-structed (at the premises of MAICh) hosting the permanent Project Exhibition, (4) two Alpine Botanical Gardens were established by the Forestry Directorate of Chania at Omalos and Poria (Lefka Ori) where 75 Bupleurum kakiskalae plants and 36 Nepeta sphaciotica saplings have been transplanted from the nursery of MAICh.

In the framework of the overall Project operation and monitoring: (1) 2 of-� ces (Project headquarters) were opened and operated in Athens (NKUA) and Chania (MAICh) and apart from the administrative and � nancial management of the Project, emphasis was placed to ample publicity coverage by local press and television in Crete and Chania Prefecture, in particular, (2) the 7-membered Scienti� c Committee (consisted of experts on nature conservation and manage-

Figure 3.9 Sowing the seeds of environ-

mental awareness; little pupils of a local elementary school,

with Project t-shirts and pamphlets.

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CHAPTER 3 PMRs in Western Crete 35

ment) convened 5 times, in total, in Chania and was responsible for all the im-portant scienti� c decisions and documents, (3) the 9-membered Advisory Board (constituted of the Project partners’ leaders, the 4 Mayors of Sfakia, Inahorion, Kissamos and An. Selino, at the territories of which the 7 PMRs were established, as well as representatives of the Ministries of Agriculture and the Environment) convened 4 times in total in Chania and acted as liaison between the Project and the Local and Central Authorities.

List of key deliverables and outputs:

• Seven (7) Plant Micro-Reserves (1 - 7.2 ha) with proper signs and information boards

• Nine (9) meteorological micro-stations, service and functional protocols, me-teo data

• Inventorying Report with details for the 7 target plants/habitat

• Detailed digital maps and Management Plans

• Monitoring Plan and Monitoring Reports with reference (baseline) data

• Report on genetic diversity for the target plants

• Report and suggested actions in regard to the legal status of the PMRs

• Ex situ conservation of genetic material and protocols for seed storage, ger-mination, seedling cultivation and outplanting

• Visitors Centre with a permanent Project Exhibition, 2 Alpine Botanical Gar-dens

• Project website, scienti� c and general-public–oriented pamphlets, posters, t-shirts, a Project video (on DVD), scienti� c/technical publications, press pub-licity

V. After LIFE

In regard to the PMR legal status (and despite the protection o� ered by their inclusion in a SCI) and the proposal of utilizing the legal entity of the Wildlife Ref-uge, a proclamation procedure of the PMRs as Wildlife Refuges (by the Region of Crete) was pursued even after the completion of the Project. Eventually, early in 2010, all PMRs were o� cially proclaimed as Wildlife Refuges by the Region of Crete (with speci� c decrees signed and published in the Government Gazette).

The partners who participated in the implementation of the CRETAPLANT Project still continue playing key roles in the management of the PMRs in the ‘after LIFE’ period by undertaking several actions, e.g. (a) monitoring the popu-lation dynamics for each of the 7 plant species in the corresponding PMRs, (b) collecting and elaborating the meteorological data from the meteorological micro-stations located in each PMR, (c) disseminating and promoting the scien-ti� c experience gained during the CRETAPLANT Project, (d) keeping up with ex

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situ conservation (seed storage, performance of seed germination tests, mainte-nance of the Botanical Garden in MAICh facilities) and so on.

The Project was awarded (2010) an Award of Best LIFE-NATURE Projects, among those � nished in 2009. Additional information can be found in the proj-ect website http://cretaplant.biol.uoa.gr, as well as in the web pages of the Ex-cellence initiative (Greek Ministry of Education, http://excellence.minedu.gov.gr/listing/127-cretaplant), which also hosts a short video presentation of the Project.

VI. References

Kargiolaki, H., Thanos, C.A., Fournaraki, C., Maria, E.A. & Karpathaki, H., 2007. Plant Micro-Reserves (A Pilot Project Implemented In Western Crete) & Samaria Biosphere Reserve. In: ‘Priorities for Conservation of Biodiversity in Biosphere Reserves in Changing Conditions’: 17-23. Proceedings from the International Conference, MAB UNESCO, 2-6 June 2007, Stará Lesná, Slovakia. Insti-tute of Landscape Ecology, Slovak National Committee for UNESCO MAB Programme, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia.

Thanos, C.A., Fournaraki, Ch., Georghiou, K., Dimopoulos, P. & Bergmeier, E., 2007. The Establish-ment, Monitoring and Management of a Pilot Network of Micro-Reserves in Western Crete for the Conservation of European Threatened Plants (CRETAPLANT Project, EU-LIFE). In Rockich, D., G. Moss, C. Yates, K. Dixon & Stevens, J. (eds.), 2007. Proceedings, MEDECOS XI Conference, Perth, Australia: 249-250. Botanic Gardens & Parks Authority, Kings Park and Botanic Garden. Australia: Perth.

Dimopoulos, P., Bergmeier, E., Georghiou, K. & Thanos, C.A., 2008. Final Report on Monitoring of Priority Plant Species and Habitat in the PMRs of Western Crete (in Greek). Project CRETAPLANT, LIFE04NAT_GR_000104, National & Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens.

Thanos, C.A., 2008. A Pilot Network of Plant Micro-Reserves in Western Crete. Layman’s Report. Project CRETAPLANT, LIFE04NAT_GR_000104, National & Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens.

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4Costas KADIS, Marios ANDREOU, Iro KOUZALI, Costas KOUNNAMAS, Constantinos CONSTANTINOU & Nicolas-George ELIADES

Frederick University, 7, Y. Frederickou str., Pallouriotissa, 1036 Nicosia, Cyprus

I. Introduction

Cyprus is the third largest island of the Mediterranean, following Sicily and Sar-dinia, covering an area of 9.251 km2. It is situated at the north-eastern edge of the Mediterranean basin and has northern latitude of 34° 33’ to 35° 41’ and east-ern longitude of 32° 17’ to 34° 35’. Its greater length (from west to south) is 226 km and its greater width (from north to south) is 97 km. Two mountain ranges cross the island running from west to east; these are the Pentadactylos (north-ern) and Troodos (central) mountain ranges, which are separated by the Mesao-ria plain. Despite its small size, the island is characterized by a rich biodiversity, which is expressed in both the habitats and species levels (Kadis et al., 2012). The varied geology and geomorphology of the island and the intense � uctuations of temperature and rainfall in small-scale areas (Geological Survey Department, 2002; Cyprus Forestry Department, 2005) have resulted in the creation of many di� erent habitat types over a relatively small area. All these factors, along with the geographic position of the island at the crossroads of three continents and its long history, resulted in the composition of a rich and unique biodiversity, which is comparable, in biodiversity terms, to the richest areas of Europe (Cy-prus Forestry Department, 2005).

More speci� cally, 52 natural habitat types listed in Annex I of the Habitats’ Directive (92/43/EEC) (European Council, 1992) have been recorded in Cyprus. Out of these, 15 are classi� ed as priority, meaning that they are habitats for which the European Union has to take immediate management measures for their conservation (European Council, 1992). It is important to note that � ve of these habitat types are exclusively found in Cyprus. The large variation of habi-tat types meets the speci� c needs of a signi� cant number of plant taxa. Around 2.000 plant taxa (species, subspecies, varieties) occur in Cyprus, out of which 144 are endemic to the island (Kadis et al., 2012). It is notable that 18 taxa of the Cyprus � ora, (16 endemics), are included in the Annex II of the Habitats’ Direc-tive (92/43/EEC) (European Council, 1992) and 8 of them are characterized as

Establishment of a Plant Micro-Reserve Network in Cyprus for the Conservation of Priority Species and Habitats

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‘priority species’. Moreover, 27 plant taxa of Cyprus are included in the Appendix I of the ‘Convention on the Conservation of European wildlife and natural habi-tats’ (Bern Convention) (European Council, 1979).

II. The ‘PLANT-NET CY’ Project

The project entitled ‘Establishment of a Plant Micro-Reserve Network in Cyprus for the Conservation of Priority Species and Habitats’ (PLANT-NET CY; LIFE08 NAT/CY/000453) was implemented in Cyprus, within the framework of the Euro-pean Commission’s (EC) LIFE+ Programme.

The PMR approach is widely accepted and recognized by national and in-ternational resolutions and strategies (Smart et al., 2002). It has been success-fully adopted in several European countries (Spain, Slovenia, Greece) since its initial implementation in 1994 in Spain (Laguna, 2004; Laguna et al., 2004). The PLANT-NET CY project adopted the model of Intensively Monitored Plant Mi-cro-Reserves (IMPMRs), which focuses on a smaller number of Micro-Reserves, where intensive monitoring and targeted conservation measures take place (La-guna et al., 2011).

The project started in January 2010 and had a duration of 42 months. It was carried out by a consortium of � ve partners. The coordinating bene� ciary was the Department of Environment (Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Environment - MANRE), which is the competent authority for the manage-ment of the Natura 2000 network in Cyprus. The associated bene� ciaries were: (1) Frederick University - Nature Conservation Unit, (2) National and Kapodis-trian University of Athens – Department of Biology, 3) Department of Forests (MANRE), (4) Federation of Environmental Organizations of Cyprus and (5) United Nations Development Programme – Action for Cooperation and Trust (UNDP-ACT). The total budget of the project was 1.550.297€ and the EC contri-bution was € 1.070.265 (69,17%).

The main objective of the project was to improve the conservation status of four priority plant species and two priority habitat types according to the Habi-tats’ Directive (92/43/EEC - Annex I and Annex II, respectively). Both the targeted species and habitat types are endemic to Cyprus. The project focused on the detailed monitoring and e� ective conservation of a signi� cant part of the popu-lation of the targeted species and habitat types, found in NATURA 2000 sites. In order to carry out the project’s objective a network of � ve Plant Micro-Reserves (PMRs) was established.

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CHAPTER 4 Establishment of a Plant Micro-Reserve Network in Cyprus for the Conservation of Priority Species and Habitats

Figure 4.1 A map showing the Natura 2000 sites within which the PMRs have been established, as well as the targeted species and habitat types (photo: PLANT-NET CY).

III. The Network of Five PMRs in Cyprus

The PMRs network in Cyprus was established within four NATURA 2000 sites and consisted of � ve PMRs, one for each target species and/or habitat (Fig. 4.1).

PMR 1: The priority species *Ophrys kotschyi H. Fleischm. & Soό.

The *Ophrys kotschyi PMR was established within the NATURA 2000 site ‘Periochi Mitserou’ (SCI – CY2000003). The PMR is 2.8 ha at an altitude ranging from 348 to 375 m. It hosts three habitat types, one of which is of priority (habitat type 6220* Pseudo-steppe with grasses and annuals of the Thero-Brachypodietea) (Constantinou et al., 2010). Within the PMR a total of 110 plant taxa were record-ed, out of which 13 are endemic to Cyprus. The targeted species in this PMR is *Ophrys kotschyi, a bulbous terrestrial plant of the orchid family (Orchidaceae) with a relatively wide distribution in Cyprus (Constantinou et al., 2010). The spe-cies is known to occur in more than 30 locations on the island, in a variety of habitats and due to its sporadic distribution the estimation of its population size is not easy. The species was classi� ed as ‘Vulnerable’ according to the IUCN regional Red List guidelines and was included in the Red Data Book of the Flora of Cyprus (RDB) (Tsintides et al., 2007). It is threatened by recreational activities, urbanization and disturbance of natural habitats, genetic erosion (due to low ability for sexual reproduction), wild � res resulting from the burning of straw remnants in the � elds every autumn, unsustainable agriculture (expansion of cultivated areas, extensive use of pesticides that a� ects the species’ pollinator) (Kadis, 1995) and plant over-collection.

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PMR 2: The priority habitat type 9390 *Scrub and low forest vegetation of Quercus alnifolia

The PMR of habitat type 9390* was established within the NATURA 2000 sites ‘Koilada Kedron-Kambos’ (SCI – CY2000008) and ‘Dasos Pafou’ (SPA – CY2000006), which are partly overlapped. The PMR extends in an area of 22.9 ha, at an altitude ranging from 1135 m to 1325 m. Within this PMR, six di� erent habitat types were identi� ed (out of which two are priority ones, namely 9390* Scrub and low forest vegetation with Quercus alnifolia and 9590* Cedrus brevifolia forests (Cedrosetum brevifoliae)) (Eliades et al., 2010). Besides, within this PMR, 47 plant taxa were re-corded, nine of which are endemic to Cyprus (Eliades et al., 2010).

The priority habitat type 9390* is an endemic habitat of Cyprus with wide distribution. The dominant tree of this habitat type is the endemic ‘golden’ oak Quercus alnifolia, which is also the National tree of Cyprus (Department of For-ests, n. d.). The habitat is well-known even from references by ancient authors and together with pines, cedars, planes, alders and other species of oak formed the very dense forests, with which Cyprus was covered 10.000 years ago (De-partment of Forests, n. d.). The habitat is found from altitudes of 450 m up to the highest peak of Troodos range, on mountain sides with igneous formation. It occurs in the forests of Paphos, Troodos, Adelphi, Machairas and Limassol. It is found mainly in the understory of the pine forest (Pinus brutia), together with the maple (Acer obtusifolium), strawberry tree (Arbutus adrachne), terebinth (Pistacia terebinthus), hawthorn (Crataegus azarolus), hermes oak (Quercus coccifera). In the Cedar valley it is observed in the understory of cedar forests. Remarkably, in speci� c areas, such as the area around Kykkos Monastery, Madari and Kionia, it occurs in pure stands (Department of Forests, n. d.).

The ecological importance of the habitat 9390* is manifest since it occurs on steep, loose, scree slopes, as dense coppice thickets, and is important for stabi-lization and erosion prevention (Department of Forests, n.d.). It is not destroyed after a � re since it re-sprouts very quickly. It is a very important habitat type for wildlife since it o� ers food and shelter to a great number of birds. Nowadays, the habitat 9390* is under the pressure of threats, such as road construction and widening as well as recreational activities and disturbance. This PMR hosts a representative stand of the habitat type 9390*.

PMR 3: The priority species *Arabis kennedyae and the priority habitat type 9590 *Cedrus brevifolia forests (Cedrosetum brevifoliae)

The third PMR was established within the NATURA 2000 sites ‘Koilada Kedron-Kambos’ (SCI – CY2000008) and ‘Dasos Pafou’ (SPA – CY2000006). The PMR ex-tends in an area of 15.8 ha, at an altitude ranging from 1280 to 1405 m. Four habitat types were identi� ed within the PMR (two of which are priority ones, namely 9590* and 9390*) (Andreou et al., 2010). Within this PMR, 31 plant taxa were identi� ed, 10 of which are endemic to Cyprus (Andreou et al., 2010).

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CHAPTER 4 Establishment of a Plant Micro-Reserve Network in Cyprus for the Conservation of Priority Species and Habitats

The targeted species *Arabis kennedyae is an erect annual or biennial herb of the mustard family (Brassicaceae). The species occurs in only three locations on the island (Kryos Potamos, Chionistra and Cedar Valley). It was classi� ed as ‘Endangered’ in ‘The Red Data Book of the Flora of Cyprus’ (RDB) (Tsintides et al., 2007; Andreou et al., 2011). However, following the European Red List of Vascu-lar Plants (ERLVP), the species is now characterized as ‘Critically Endangered’ (Bilz et al., 2011). The species is threatened by the development of recreational sites and activities, especially at locations which are close to nature trails and pic-nic sites (Kryos Potamos and Chionistra), road construction and widening (road widening has apparently resulted in the extinction of one subpopulation) and human-induced � res at all locations, due to the proximity of the in� ammable pine forest and the high frequency of visitors (Andreou et al., 2011).

In addition, the target habitat type *9590 has narrow distribution within the boundaries of the Natura 2000 sites ‘Koilada Kedron – Kampos’ (SCI – CY2000008) and ‘Dasos Pafou’ (SPA – CY2000006), where this PMR has been es-tablished. Nowadays the habitat is threatened by climate change, wild� re and limited public awareness. An important negative impact for this habitat type in some stands is also the low trees viability due to the impact of lichens and insects.

PMR 4: The species *Centaurea akamantis T. Georgiadis & Hadjik.

The PMR for the targeted species *Centaurea akamantis was established in the Natura 2000 site ‘Chersonisos Akama’ (SCI – CY4000010) and ‘Zoni Eidikis Prostasias Chersonisos Akama’ (SPA – CY4000023), which are partly overlapped. The PMR has a size of 17.3 ha and it is found at an altitude ranging from 70 m to 230 m (Eliades et al., 2010). Ten habitat types (one priority type - 6220* Pseudo-steppe with grasses and annuals of the Thero-Brachypodietea) and 125 plant taxa, (13 endemic to Cyprus) were observed within the PMR (Eliades et al., 2010).

The targeted species is a sub shrub with characteristic drooping shoots, a member of the daisy family (Asteraceae). The species occurs in only 2 locations (Avakas Gorge and Koufon Creek), at Akamas peninsula and was classi� ed as ‘Endangered’ in the RDB (Tsintides et al., 2007). Nowadays the conservation sta-tus of the species has changed to ‘Critically Endangered’ (Bilz et al., 2011). Its population is under pressure due to recreational activities and disturbance of its natural habitat (plant collection), grazing, as well as genetic erosion.

PMR 5: The priority species *Astragalus macrocarpus DC. subsp. lefkarensis Kirchoff & Meikle

The PMR which focuses on the conservation of *Astragalus macrocarpus subsp. lefkarensis has been established in the Natura 2000 site ‘Periochi Asga-tas’ (SCI – CY5000007), where its largest and most important subpopulation is found. The PMR has a size of 2.66 ha and altitudinal range from 210 to 295 m. In

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this PMR three di� erent habitat types have been observed (Constantinou et al., 2010). The PMR hosts 51 plant taxa (Constantinou et al., 2010), out of which nine are endemic to Cyprus. The targeted species in this PMR is *Astragalus macro-carpus subsp. lefkarensis, an erect perennial herb of the legume family (Faba-ceae). The subspecies occurs in six locations (Pano Lefkara, Asgata, Kelokedara, Alaminos, Ineia and Kormakitis) on the island. It was classi� ed as ‘Vulnerable’ in the RDB (Tsintides et al., 2007) but its conservation status has changed to ‘Criti-cally Endangered’ according to the ERLVP (Bilz et al., 2011). The taxon is threat-ened by reduction of genetic variability and genetic erosion due to its very low ability for sexual reproduction (Kadis, 1995) and seed / fruit predators (Paraske-va-Hadjichambi, 2010). Moreover, lack of public awareness is also considered as a threat for the taxon (Tsintides et al., 2007).

IV. Methodology – Actions Involved

The project has adopted the approach of the Intensively Monitored Plant Micro-Reserves (IMPMRs). Hence, the collection of detailed data that are substantial for the development of sound conservation practices took place in each PMR. The actions of the project were classi� ed into three main categories:

Preparatory Actions

These actions were important for the accumulation of the required knowledge towards establishing the PMR network in Cyprus and secured the proper imple-mentation of the project. The preparatory actions included:

• The inventory of the localities of the targeted species/habitats, the deter-mination of the boundaries of the PMRs and the detailed mapping of the PMRs. The inventory focused on collecting historical information about the target species and habitat types, locating all known populations of the tar-geted species, searching for new locations within the respective sites and assessing the population size and density of all sites. The inventory provided valuable scienti� c information, which was utilized for the design and imple-mentation of e� ective conservation measures.

• The preparation of monitoring plans for each PMR, which focused on the sound monitoring of the PMRs and the species / habitats found within their boundaries. Moreover, the monitoring plans provided speci� c monitoring parameters that were used for evaluating the e� ectiveness of the manage-ment measures.

• The preparation of management plans for each PMR, which included tar-geted in situ and ex situ conservation measures for both species and habitat types.

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CHAPTER 4 Establishment of a Plant Micro-Reserve Network in Cyprus for the Conservation of Priority Species and Habitats

Figure 4.2 Snapshot from the visit of scien-tists who participated in the ‘Expert’s Work-shop’ to the *Ophrys kotschyi PMR (photo: M. Andreou)

• The assessment of the genetic diversity of the targeted species and Cedrus brevifolia, which provided the required knowledge regarding the necessity and feasibility of reinforcing existing populations of the targeted species.

• Networking with other EU countries that adopted the PMR approach. The project brought together experts that were involved in the implementation of similar projects in other European countries and served as a platform for exchanging knowledge and experiences relevant to several aspects of the PMR approach. One of the most important initiatives of the project towards this direction was the organization of a two-day workshop, which brought together experts on plant conservation in PMRs (Fig. 4.2a & b). At the same time the workshop served as a networking platform for exchanging scientif-ic information and best practices among all previous LIFE projects that dealt with establishing PMRs in Europe.

Conservation Actions

The conservation actions were based on the information that was accumulated during the preparatory actions and achieved to improve the conservation sta-tus of the targeted species and habitats. In brief these actions were:

• The establishment of the PMRs in the � eld and the installation of perma-nent monitoring plots in each PMR. The installation of a fully deployed net-work of such plots facilitated the implementation of the project’s monitoring and conservation activities and is in line with the PMR approach, which inte-grates the long-term monitoring of protected sites with active conservation and management measures.

• Monitoring and on-site management of the target species / habitats. This was one of the core actions of the project. Important environmental param-eters a� ecting the survival of most species (e.g. soil and air temperature and humidity, light quality and intensity), as well as biotic factors (e.g. preda-tors, competitors) were monitored through speci� c monitoring techniques.

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Figure 4.3 The establishment of a 400 m- long-by-2 m-high fence in Avakas gorge in order to prevent grazing of *Centaurea akamantis (photo: PLANT-NET CY).

Figure 4.4 Hand pollination of *Ophrys kotschyi (photo: M. Andreou).

Moreover, concrete measures for the conservation of the targeted species / habitats were developed and applied within the framework of this action. These measures ensure that the external factors adversely a� ecting the tar-geted species / habitats are monitored and controlled. Some indicative ex-amples of these measures are presented below:

a. Selective fencing of adult individuals was applied mainly for the PMR of *Centaurea akamantis where overgrazing is the main threat for the tar-geted species. The establishment of a 400 m- long-by-2 m-high fence was enough to e� ectively address this threat (Fig. 4.3). Plant or fruit con-sumption by animals (e.g. hare) was another threat that was dealt with by fencing. That was the case in the PMR of *Astragalus macrocarpus sub-sp. lefkarensis, where fencing was not extensive and only covered the plants that are a� ected by the threat.

b. Hand pollination of *Ophrys kotschyi, to achieve fruit setting and promote sexual reproduction (Fig. 4.4). This activity was carried out during the � owering season, for four successive years (a total of 301 plants were ar-ti� cially pollinated). The outcome of this activity was the production of 837 capsules (out of the 1110 pollinated � owers) within the PMR; hence approximately 10 million seeds were produced during the project pe-riod thus enhancing the sexual reproduction of this species.

c. Removal of dried, � ammable biomass in the PMR of *Ophrys kotschyi to reduce the risk of wild� res. The activity took place at the end of spring for three successive years.

d. Creation and/or course modi� cation of human pathways within each PMR. This activity aimed to minimize the stepping on the targeted species by

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CHAPTER 4 Establishment of a Plant Micro-Reserve Network in Cyprus for the Conservation of Priority Species and Habitats

Figure 4.5a The dense vegetation in the PMR of *Astragalus macrocarpus subsp. lefkarensis increases the competition (photo: PLANT-NET CY).

Figure 4.5b Mild weeding of the main competitors to decrease competition (photo: PLANT-NET CY).

visitors and at the same time to facilitate the access of visitors to each PMR.

e. Dispersal of seeds from the local populations in selected areas. The locations where the seeds were dispersed were selected based on the analysis of the conditions that could be favorable for seedling establishment. The number of seeds that were dispersed depended on the reproductive out-put of each species within each PMR. In total, the following numbers of seeds were dispersed: 7.000.000 for *Ophrys kotschyi, 100 for *Astragalus macrocarpus subsp. lefkarensis, 200 for *Centaurea akamantis and 10.000 for *Arabis kennedyae . Arti� cial seed dispersal was carried out in the most suitable season for germination of seeds in the � eld to avoid the risk of seed predation.

f. Removal of competitive � ora from small patches within the PMR of *As-tragalus macrocarpus subsp. lefkarensis. Based on this action, small open patches (size: 2 m X 2 m or 5 m X 5 m) were created within the *A. mac-rocarpus subsp. lefkarensis PMR, leading to the increase of the number of naturally emerging seedlings of the target species (Fig. 4.5 a & b).

• The enrichment of the subpopulations of the targeted species by out-plant-ing plantlets, produced in nurseries by seeds collected from the respective PMRs. Through these activities the project resulted in enriching the subpop-ulations of most of the targeted species as it is presented below:

a. The population size of the targeted species within each PMR was sig-ni� cantly increased by planting of new seedlings: approximately 200 plantlets from each targeted species (apart from *Ophrys kotschyi) were planted in the respective PMRs (Fig. 4.6 a, b & c). Moderate watering in extreme drought conditions was carried out for one to two years.

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b. Enrichment of the targeted species’ subpopulations was also achieved by the natural seed dispersal from the individuals that were under the management of the project’s activities (Fig. 4.7).

• The ex situ conservation of the targeted species, through the establishment of living collections at the Botanic Gardens of the Department of Forests (Fig. 4.8) and the storage of seed lots from all the targeted species at the national seed bank of Cyprus, which is based at the Agricultural Research Institute of the Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Environment (Fig. 4.9).

Public Awareness and Dissemination of Results

A signi� cant objective of this project was to raise public awareness on the im-portance of the conservation of the targeted species / habitats, as well as to involve the general public in conservation activities. The project aimed to en-hance the participation of di� erent stakeholders in the PMR conservation e� ort and promote awareness among the general public about the PMRs, the need of the protection and conservation of nature, as well as the overall EU conserva-tion policies. A wide range of awareness activities were developed within the framework of the project, most of which are presented in the Chapter 10 (Public use of PMRs: public awareness, social involvement and environmental educa-

Figure 4.6 Population enrichment of: a. *Centaurea akamantis, b. *Arabis kennedyae and c. *Astragalus mac-rocarpus subsp. lefkarensis (photos: PLANT-NET CY).

a

c

b

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CHAPTER 4 Establishment of a Plant Micro-Reserve Network in Cyprus for the Conservation of Priority Species and Habitats

Figure 4.7 Seed dispersal of *Centaurea akamantis on the walls of Avakas gorge (photo: PLANT-NET CY).

Figure 4.9 The National Seed Bank of Cyprus at the Agricultural Research Institute, where seed-lots of the targeted species were stored (photo: Constantinos Constantinou).

Figure 4.8 Planted *Centaurea akamantis in the Akamas’ Botanic Garden (Forestry Department) (photo: PLANT-NET CY).

tion (Fig. 4.10). An important initiative of the information campaign of the proj-ect was the organization of a bi-communal workshop, where Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot experts were informed about the project and explored ways of establishing cooperation for expanding the concept of the project to the north-ern part of Cyprus. The participants explored the idea of establishing an island-wide PMRs network for the conservation of the most rare and threatened plants of the island.

PLANT-NET CY also resulted in the publication of a series of scienti� c articles and the presentation of the project’s outcomes in professional conferences and scienti� c meetings. The present book is also one of the outcomes of the project. It is expected that the book will become the refer-ence publication for the planning, establishment and management of PMRs.

V. Outcome

PLANT-NET CY project secured the protection and sound management of the targeted species / habitats. The

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project resulted in a signi� cant increase in the knowledge regarding the biology and the ecology of the targeted species / habitat types, their conservation sta-tus, the threats that they face, as well as their genetic diversity. The implementa-tion of speci� c conservation measures within the PMRs (in situ) resulted in im-proving the conservation status of the targeted species / habitat types (based on measurable results).

In addition, the implementation of complementary ex situ conservation measures secured the conservation of the targeted species outside their natural habitats. The seed lots that were stored in seed banks and the living collections that were established at botanical gardens can act as pools of genetic material, which can be used in cases of re-introduction of the species when and where needed, or in cases of restoration of disturbed ecosystems.

Promoting public participation and awareness has been among the most important achievements of the project (see also Chapter 10). The information campaign had a great impact on the local people who participated volun-tarily in the application of certain conservation or management measures. An achievement of the project was the inclusion of the PMR approach in the o� cial ‘Implementation Guide for the Study of Environmental Education – Education for Sustainable Development, for primary education’s teachers’ as a case study which can promote the cooperation and interaction of students with organisa-tions, scientists and researchers.

The project also elaborated the After-Life Conservation Plan in order to secure the longer term management of the PMRs and of the targeted species/habitat types. The Plan constitutes an important and useful tool of the competent au-thorities of Cyprus (Department of Environment and Department of Forests) for the sound management of the targeted habitat/species in the future.

Moreover, a signi� cant impact of the project towards the conservation of Cy-prus’ natural heritage was (i) the rati� cation of an Article in Cyprus’ 2012 Forestry Legislation [Article 16: ‘Declaration of forest monuments and Micro-Reserves’],

Figure 4.10 Students of Asgata elementary school in *Astragalus macrocarpus subsp. lefkarensis’ PMR (photo: PLANT-NET CY).

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CHAPTER 4 Establishment of a Plant Micro-Reserve Network in Cyprus for the Conservation of Priority Species and Habitats

which de� ned the legal status of the PMRs as areas of great importance for the conservation of biodiversity in Cyprus and (ii) the successful promotion of the inclusion of the PMR approach in the curriculum of primary education, as a con-cept for nature conservation.

Last but not least, the project provided a platform for networking of all previ-ous LIFE projects with a focus on the establishment of PMRs in Europe. Through this platform scienti� c information and best practices were exchanged among the PMR experts and the possibility of establishing a European PMR network was extensively discussed. PMR experts consider that such a step could link all PMR projects that have been developed in Europe, thus facilitating the system-atic exchange of knowledge and experiences resulting from PMR initiatives.

VI. References

Andreou, M., Delipetrou, P., Kadis, C., Tsiamis, G., Bourtzis, C. & Georghiou, K., 2011. An integrated approach for the conservation of threatened plants: The case of Arabis kennedyae (Brassica-ceae). Acta Oecologica 37: 239-248.

Andreou, M., Kadis, K., Koutsovoulou, K. & Thanos, C.A., 2010. Management plan for the Plant Micro-Reserve of the species *Arabis kennedyae Meikle and the habitat type ‘*9590 Cedrus brevifolia forests’ at the Natura 2000 site ‘Koilada Kedron-Kampos’. LIFE – Nature program (LIFE08NAT/CY/000453), Cyprus: Nicosia. Available at: http://www.plantnet.org.cy/deliver-ables.html [Accessed on 6th May 2013].

Bilz, M., Kell, S.P., Maxted, N. & Lansdown, R.V., 2011. European Red List of Vascular Plants. Publica-tions O� ce of the European Union, Luxembourg.

Constantinou, C., Kadis, K., Andreou, M., Koutsovoulou, K. & Thanos, C.A., 2010a. Management plan for the Plant Micro-Reserve of the subspecies *Astragalus macrocarpus DC. subsp. lefkarensis Kircho� & Meikle at the Natura 2000 site ‘Periochi Asgatas’. LIFE – Nature program (LIFE08NAT/CY/000453), Cyprus: Nicosia. Available at: http://www.plantnet.org.cy/deliver-ables.html [Accessed on 6th May 2013].

Constantinou, C., Kadis, K., Andreou, M., Koutsovoulou, K. & Thanos, C.A., 2010b. Management plan for the Plant Micro-Reserve of the species *Ophrys kotschyi H. Fleischm. & Soό at the Natura 2000 site ‘Periochi Mitserou’. LIFE – Nature program (LIFE08NAT/CY/000453), Cyprus: Nicosia. Available at: http://www.plantnet.org.cy/deliverables.html [Accessed on 6th May 2013].

Cyprus Forestry Department, 2005. Cyprus, In: Merlo, M. & Croitoru, L., (eds.), 2005. Valuing Medi-terranean Forests - Towards Total Economic Value. CABI Publishing, United Kingdom: Oxford-shire.

Eliades, N., Kadis, K., Andreou, M., Koutsovoulou, K. & Thanos, C.A., 2010a. Management plan for the Plant Micro-Reserve of the habitat type ‘*9390 Scrub and low forest vegetation of Quercus alnifolia’ at the Natura 2000 site ‘Koilada Kedron-Kampos’. LIFE – Nature program (LIFE08NAT/CY/000453), Cyprus: Nicosia. Available at: http://www.plantnet.org.cy/deliverables.html [Ac-cessed on 6th May 2013].

Eliades, N., Kadis, K., Andreou, M., Koutsovoulou, K. & Thanos, C.A., 2010b. Management plan for the Plant Micro-Reserve of the species *Centaurea akamantis T. Georgiadis & G. Chatzikyriak-ou at the proposed Natura 2000 site ‘Chersonisos Akama’. LIFE – Nature program (LIFE08NAT/CY/000453), Cyprus: Nicosia. Available at: http://www.plantnet.org.cy/deliverables.html [Ac-cessed on 6th May 2013].

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European Council, 1979. Nature Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats. Available at: http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/cultureheritage/nature/bern/default_en.asp [Accessed on 6th May 2013].

European Council, 1992. Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 On the Conservation of Natural Habitats and of Wild Fauna And Flora (1992). O� cial Journal of the European Union L206: 7-50. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/legislation/habitatsdirec-tive/ [Accessed on 6th May 2013].

Geological Survey Department, 2002. The Geology of Cyprus, In Greek. Printco Ltd, Cyprus: Nicosia.

Kadis, C., Tsintides, T., Christodoulou, S.C., Papadopoulos, M., Georghiou, K., Thanos, C.A., Eliades, N.-G., Kounnamas, C., Constantinou, C., Kouzali, I. & Andreou M., 2012. Plant Micro-Reserves and ex-situ conservation of priority species/habitats in Cyprus. 6th European Botanic Gardens Congress: European Botanic Gardens in a Changing World. 28th May - 2nd June, Chios Island, Greece.

Kadis, C. Ch., 1995. The reproductive biology of strictly protected plants of Cyprus, PhD Thesis (In Greek), National and Kapodistrian University of Athens. Greece: Athens.

Laguna, E., 2004. The plant micro-reserve initiative in the Valencian Community (Spain) and its use to conserve populations of crop wild relatives, In: Kell, S., Maxted, N. & Ford-Lloyd, B. (eds.), 2004. Crop Wild Relative 2: Conserving Europe’s plant genetic resources for use now and in the future, 10-13.

Laguna, E., Deltoro, V.I., Pèrez-Botella, J., Pèrez-Rovira, P., Serra, L.I., Olivares, A. & Fabregat, C., 2004. The role of small reserves in plant conservation in a region of high diversity in eastern Spain. Biological Conservation 119: 421-426.

Laguna, E., Thanos, C.A., Kadis, C. & Deltoro, V., 2011. Intensively Monitored Plant Micro-Reserves (IMPMR), a new model of in situ plant conservation in the Eastern Mediterranean region. V Congreso Biologia de la Conservacion de Plantas. 28th September - 1st October, Menorca, Spain.

Paraskeva-Hadjichambi, D., 2010. Population dynamics of threatened endemic species of Cyprus’ � ora and their implementation in environmental education, PhD Thesis (In Greek), National and Kapodistrian University of Athens. Greece: Athens.

Smart, J., Imboden, Ch., Harper, M. & Radford, E. (eds.), 2002. Saving the Plants of Europe, European Plant Conservation Strategy. Plantlife International, UK: London.

Tsintides, T., Christodoulou, C.S., Delipetrou, P. & Georghiou, K., 2007. The Red Data Book of The Flora of Cyprus. Cyprus Forest Association, Cyprus: Nicosia.

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Large networks

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5A Pilot Network of Small Protected Sites For Plant Species in Bulgaria Using the Plant Micro-Reserve Model

Rayna NATCHEVA, Svetlana BANCHEVA, Vladimir VLADIMIROV & Valentina GORANOVA

Institute of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Research, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 23 Acad. G. Bonchev str., 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria

I. Introduction

The network of protected areas in Bulgaria under the Protected Areas Act (1998) consists of 966 sites, of which 3 national parks, 11 nature parks, 55 nature re-serves, 35 managed nature reserves, 513 protected sites and 349 natural monu-ments (data by May 2012). Part of the protected sites designated in the past three years were especially devoted to the protection of rare plant species and thus the establishment of a national network of Plant Micro-Reserves (PMR) began.

An analysis of the current state of Bulgarian threatened and rare plants showed that the populations of at least 299 species ful� ll the preliminary re-quirements for conservation in a network of PMR set by our team. The Bulgar-ian PMR network includes the populations of 47 of these species that need ur-gent conservation actions for their survival. The network consists of 60 sites, for which the concept of PMR is applied. This model proved especially suitable for our case because the populations of most target species are extremely small and fragmented. The network covers and protects the populations of plant species of European and national conservation importance (Biological Diversity Act 2002; Petrova & Velčev 2006; Act on Amending and Supplementing the Bio-logical Diversity Act 2007; Petrova & Vladimirov 2009, 2010; Peev et al. (in press)), which at present fall outside any protected area (Fig. 5.1) and their survival is under serious threat. Therefore, the main target was to legally establish a num-ber of protected areas for a relatively short period of time. The PMR model for biodiversity conservation in a network of small protected sites in Bulgaria has a large potential to be used in the future to add the localities of other threatened species to the network.

Having in mind the relevant national legislation, the target areas were desig-nated as ‘protected sites’ under the Protected Areas Act of Bulgaria.

All activities related to the PMR network were collaborated by members of the Regional Inspectorates of Environment and Water of Bulgaria (RIOEW), as

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Figure 5.1 Map of the Bulgarian PMR network.

well as members of local communities. In this way both active involvement and awareness rising of local authorities and communities were achieved.

It is noteworthy that protected areas (PMR) speci� cally designated for the conservation of bryophyte species were established in Bulgaria for the � rst time.

The total area of the PMR network in Bulgaria at this stage is 943 ha.

II. Objectives

Strategic Objective

The strategic objective of the PMR project in Bulgaria was to halt the loss and promote the conservation of plant diversity, with special focus on plant spe-cies that are unique to Bulgaria (endemics) or have strongly fragmented popu-lations on the territory of the country, whose populations fall outside existing protected areas.Operational objectives:

• To test the concept of PMR in Bulgaria by designation of a network of Small Protected Sites for plants.

• To elaborate Action and Monitoring Plans for the target species and start of long term monitoring of their populations.

• To promote the in situ and ex situ conservation of the target species.

• To elaborate a long-term strategy for sustainable development of the PMR network.

• To carry out information campaigns, training and dissemination of PMR ob-jectives and results of the � rst implementation of this concept in the country.

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CHAPTER 5 A Pilot Network of Small Protected Sites For Plant Species in Bulgaria Using the Plant Micro-Reserve Model

III. Targeted Species and Habitats

The project directly targets 47 species (44 � owering plants and 3 bryophytes) of European and national conservation importance that need urgent conserva-tion measures for their survival. They are selected on the basis of the following criteria:

• Species with up to 5 locations in Bulgaria or with strongly fragmented popu-lations and at least 50% of the populations of the species are not included in an existing protected area. Priority was given to species that have at least 50% of their world population in Bulgaria (Bulgarian or Balkan endemics).

• The populations directly targeted by the project are not included in an exist-ing protected area.

• The species is evaluated as Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable in the Red List of threatened plants in Bulgaria.

Flowering Plants

1. Achillea ochroleuca Ehrh. The species is represented by a single population in Bulgaria. It occupies an area less than 1000 m2 and has good density and vi-ability. Conservation status: Critically Endangered at national level.

2. Achillea thracica Velen. The species is represented by one population in Bul-garia. It occupies an area of ca. 600 – 700 m2. Conservation status: Critically En-dangered at national level, Bulgarian endemic, included in Biological Diversity Act of Bulgaria (2002), IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants, and the Bern conven-tion.

3. Aethionema arabicum (L.) Andrz. ex O.E.Schulz The species is represented by a single population in Bulgaria. It occupies an area less than 0.2 ha and there are ca. 50-60 individuals. Conservation status: Critically Endangered at national level, Tertiary relict, included in Biological Diversity Act of Bulgaria (2002).

4. Amygdalus х delipavlovii S.Seraf. The species is represented by three popu-lations in Bulgaria, only one of which is within an existing protected area. Two are outside any protected area and are a target of the current project. The total number of individuals is ca. 600. Conservation status: Critically Endangered at national level, Bulgarian endemic, included in Biological Diversity Act of Bul-garia (2002).

5. Anthemis argyrophylla (Halácsy & Georgiev) Velen. Only one population is found in Bulgaria covering an area of 3-4 ha, having ca. 450-500 individuals. Conservation status: Critically Endangered at national level, Bulgarian endemic, Tertiary relict, included in Biological Diversity Act of Bulgaria (2002) and IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants.

6. Artemisia chamaemelifolia Vill Only one location of the species is known in Bulgaria and on the Balkan Peninsula. The population has very few scattered

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individuals and covers restricted area due to speci� c habitat requirements. Con-servation status: Critically endangered at national level, glacial relict, included in Biological Diversity Act of Bulgaria (2002).

7. Astracantha thracica (Griseb.) Podl. Three populations are known in Bul-garia covering from 100 m2 to 50 ha. The number of individuals ranges between several of tens to ca. 100 individuals. Conservation status: Vulnerable at national level, included in Biological Diversity Act of Bulgaria (2002), Balkan endemic, Ter-tiary relic.

8. Astragalus dasyanthus Pall. Two populations are known in Bulgaria. The one in the town of Boboshevo covers an area of ca. 6.7 ha and counts ca. 500 in-dividuals. The second population in the village of Komarevo covers ca. 80 ha and has ca. 1000 individuals. Conservation status: Critically Endangered at national level, included in Biological Diversity Act of Bulgaria (2002) and IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants.

9. Astragalus physocalyx Fisch. Of the two populations in Bulgaria only one has survived nowadays. It covers an area of ca. 0.1 ha and counts 25 individuals. Conservation status: Critically endangered at national level, Tertiary relict, in-cluded in Biological Diversity Act of Bulgaria (2002), IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants, and the Bern Convention.

10. Bupleurum uechtritzianum S.Stoyanov Three populations are known in Bulgaria covering ca. 6-7 ha. The number of individuals is ca. 2 000-3 000. A re-cently described species. Balkan endemic. Only one site is established as a PMR.

11. Centaurea � nazzeri Adamović Only one population is known in Bulgaria covering an area of 40 ha and numbering ca. 1000 individuals. Conservation status: Critically endangered at national level, Balkan endemic, included in Bio-logical Diversity Act of Bulgaria (2002).

12. Centaurea trinervia Knowlet Only one population is known in Bulgaria numbering less than 20 individuals. Conservation status: Critically endangered at national level.

13. Centaurea wagenitziana Bancheva & Kit Tan Only one population is known in Bulgaria containing ca. 450 individuals on 2 km2. Conservation status: Critically Endangered at national level, included in Biological Diversity Act of Bulgaria (2002) and IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants.

14. Convolvulus althaeoides L. Only one population is known in Bulgaria com-posed of few groups of individuals each counting up to several hundred plants. Conservation status: Critically Endangered at national level, included in Biologi-cal Diversity Act of Bulgaria (2002).

15. Convolvulus holosericeus M. Bieb. A single population is known in Bul-garia. It consists of ca. 300 individuals growing on 3 neighbouring hills. Con-servation status: Critically Endangered, included in Biological Diversity Act of Bulgaria (2002).

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CHAPTER 5 A Pilot Network of Small Protected Sites For Plant Species in Bulgaria Using the Plant Micro-Reserve Model

16. Corynephorus divaricatus (Pourr.) Breistr. Only one population is known in Bulgaria composed of very few individuals. Conservation status: Critically En-dangered at national level, included in Biological Diversity Act of Bulgaria (2002).

17. Ephedra fragilis Desf. subsp. campylopoda (C. A. Mey.) Aschers. & Graebn. Two populations are known in Bulgaria, which are fragmented and have 4 individuals. Conservation status: Critically Endangered at national level, included in Biological Diversity Act of Bulgaria (2002).

18. Eriolobus trilobata M.J. Roem. Only two trees are known in Bulgaria. They produce fruits and viable seeds regularly but seed recruitment is lacking in na-ture. Conservation status: Critically Endangered at national level, included in Biological Diversity Act of Bulgaria (2002).

19. Erodium absinthoides Willd. subsp. balcanicum (Micevski) Greuter & Burdet The species is known from a single location in Bulgaria consisting of more than 1000 individuals, distributed on 20 ha. Conservation status: Endan-gered at national level, Balkan endemic, included in Biological Diversity Act of Bulgaria (2002).

20. Genista germanica L. The species is known from a single remaining lo-cation in Bulgaria consisting of less than 500 individuals. Conservation status: Critically Endangered at national level, included in Biological Diversity Act of Bulgaria (2002).

21. Geranium aristatum Freyn & Sint. In Bulgaria only one population occu-pies ca. 13 ha. The number of individuals is high and stable, with good seed and vegetative recruitment. Conservation status: Critically Endangered at national level, Balkan endemic, included in Biological Diversity Act of Bulgaria (2002).

22. Lathyrus palustris L. Only one population has remained in Bulgaria; the species has gone extinct at three more sites in the near past. The surviving population covers an area of ca. 5 ha and has several hundred individuals. Con-servation status: Critically Endangered at national level, included in Biological Diversity Act of Bulgaria (2002).

23. Lathyrus pancicii (Jurišić) Adamović The only population in Bulgaria is strongly fragmented. It covers an area of ca. 13 ha and counts several hundred individuals. Conservation status: Critically Endangered at national level, Balkan endemic, included in Biological Diversity Act of Bulgaria (2002) and IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants.

24. Leontodon saxatilis Lam. Only one strongly fragmented population is known in Bulgaria. The subpopulations are situated on less than 1 ha and con-sist of 100-150 individuals. Conservation status: Endangered at national level.

25. Limonium bulgaricum Ančev Two populations of the species are known in Bulgaria. They are strongly fragmented and comprise in total more than 1000 individuals. Conservation status: Critically Endangered, Bulgarian endemic, in-cluded in Biological Diversity Act of Bulgaria (2002).

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26. Lycopodiella inundata (L.) Holub (Fig. 5.2) Of the three known popula-tions in Bulgaria only one has survived. It has good density but occupies a very re-stricted area of ca. 100 m2. Conservation status: Critically Endangered, included in Biological Diversity Act of Bulgaria (2002).

27. Matthiola odoratissima (M. Bieb.) R. Br. Only one population is known in Bulgaria. It occupies an area of less than 10 km2, the subpopulations cover a total area of up to 0.1 ha. Conservation status: Critically Endangered at national level, in-cluded in Biological Diversity Act of Bul-garia (2002).

28. Merendera attica (Spruner ex Tomm.) Boiss. ex Spruner Two popula-tions of the species are known in Bulgaria. Each covers restricted area and is composed of small number of individuals. Conservation status: Critically Endan-gered at national level, Balkan endemic, included in Biological Diversity Act of Bulgaria (2002) and IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants.

29. Ophrys insectifera L. The species has three known populations in Bulgaria. Two of them are within protected areas and count ca. 10-15 individuals. The most numerous and healthy population comprising 140 individuals is not pro-tected and is targeted by the current project. Conservation status: Critically En-dangered at national level, included in Biological Diversity Act of Bulgaria (2002) and CITES.

30. Orchis provincialis Balbis Three populations (out of � ve) have remained in Bulgaria; the total number of individuals in the country is less than 200. Con-servation status: Critically Endangered at national level, included in Biological Diversity Act of Bulgaria (2002), Bern Convention, and CITES.

31. Plantago maxima Juss. ex Jacq. One population is known in Bulgaria, the total number of individuals is ca. 900. Conservation status: Critically Endangered at national level.

32. Potentilla fruticosa L. One fragmented population occurs in Bulgaria. It covers an area of 5-6 ha and comprises ca. 1500 individuals. Conservation sta-tus: Vulnerable at national level, included in Biological Diversity Act of Bulgaria (2002).

33. Ranunculus stojanovii Delip. The species is known from two populations, each consisting of ca. 1000 individuals. Conservation status: Critically endan-gered, Bulgarian endemic, included in Biological Diversity Act of Bulgaria (2002).

34. Salix rosmarinifolia L. Only one population has remained in Bulgaria. It covers ca. 500 m2 and is composed of several dozens of plants. Conservation

Figure 5.2 Lycopodiella inundata.

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CHAPTER 5 A Pilot Network of Small Protected Sites For Plant Species in Bulgaria Using the Plant Micro-Reserve Model

status: Critically Endangered at national level, included in Biological Diversity Act of Bulgaria (2002).

35. Serratula bulgarica Acht. et Stoj. One population is known in Bulgaria. It has ca. 2000-3000 individuals on 28 ha. Conservation status: Critically endan-gered at national level, Balkan sub-endemic, included in Biological Diversity Act of Bulgaria (2002) and IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants.

36. Spiraea crenata L. The single population in Bulgaria covers ca. 0.3 ha and consists of 33 shrubs, perhaps each of them is mostly of clonal origin. Conserva-tion status: Critically Endangered at national level, included in Biological Diver-sity Act of Bulgaria (2002).

37. Swertia punctata Baumg. The only population in Bulgaria consists of two subpopulations counting a total of 150 individuals. Conservation status: Criti-cally Endangered at national level, glacial relict, included in Biological Diversity Act of Bulgaria (2002).

38. Tragopogon � occosus Waldst. & Kit. Two populations are known in Bul-garia, consisting of up to several hundred � owering individuals. Conservation status: Critically Endangered at national level.

39. Tulipa pirinica Delip. (Fig. 5.3) Two populations are known in Bulgaria, counting 50 to 2000 � owering individuals. Conservation status: Critically Endan-gered at national level, Bulgarian endemic, included in Biological Diversity Act of Bulgaria (2002).

40. Verbascum anisophyllum Murb. The only population in Bulgaria is com-posed of ca. 200 individuals on 35 ha. Conservation status: Critically Endangered at national level, Bulgarian endemic, included in Biological Diversity Act of Bul-garia (2002) and IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants.

41. Verbascum purpureum (Janka) Hub.-Mor. The species is known from � ve locations in Bulgaria, two of which are outside protected areas and are targeted by the current project. Two populations are outside protected areas and are targeted by the project. They have low density (less than 0.05 individuals per m2); the proportion of vegetative vs. generative plants is ca 95:5. Conservation status: Endangered, Balkan sub-endemic, included in Biological Diversity Act of Bulgaria (2002), IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants, and Bern Convention.

42. Verbascum spatulisepalum Greuter & Rech.f. The species occurs at only one site in Bul-garia. It covers 14 ha with 170 individuals. Con-servation status: Endangered at national level, Bulgarian endemic, included in Biological Diver-sity Act of Bulgaria (2002), Balkan endemic. Figure 5.3 Tulipa pirinica.

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43. Verbascum tzar-borisii (Dav. ex Stoj.) Stef.-Gat. The species has two pop-ulations in Bulgaria occupying an area of less than 55 ha. The total number of individuals is ca. 1500 but only 3-5% of them are fertile. Conservation status: Critically endangered at national level, Bulgarian endemic, included in Biologi-cal Diversity Act of Bulgaria (2002).

44. Veronica multi� da L. Four populations are known in Bulgaria. They are composed of 2500 individuals on 100 ha. One of the populations is critically en-dangered by resort construction, and without a realistic chance for longer term survival. Therefore the remaining populations need urgent protection. Conser-vation status: Critically endangered at national level, included in Biological Di-versity Act of Bulgaria (2002).

Bryophytes

45. Mannia androgyna (L.) A.Evans The only known population in Bulgaria is composed of 10-20 patches, each of 2-5 thalli occupying an area of ca. 3 ha. Conservation status: Critically Endangered at national level.

46. Riccia crustata Trab. The only known population in Bulgaria is composed of 10-20 patches, each with numerous thalli occupying an area of ca. 3 ha. Con-servation status: Critically Endangered at national level, included in the Red Data book of European bryophytes.

47. Trichocolea tomentella (Ehrh.) Dumort. (Fig. 5.4) The species is known from three locations in Bulgaria but only two have been con� rmed in recent years. The populations are composed of ca. 10 patches each occupying an area of ca. 1.5 ha. Conservation status: Endangered at national level.

IV. Methodology – Actions Involved

Preparatory Actions

A.1: Primary data survey and acquisition of permissions. During this preliminary stage all available information about the past con-dition and present status of the populations was extracted. We investigated literature and herbarium sources, as well as personal com-munications with botanical experts and local authorities who have seen the populations of the target species in recent years. Data was gathered regarding the species biology, past and present distribution and population sta-tus of the target species.

Figure 5.4 Trichocolea tomentella.

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A.2: Training the project team to use digital maps and GIS. The quali� cation of the team members was increased by training on how to collect geographical data in a standard way for importing into the required GIS environment.

A.3: Initial inventory of the sites. All targeted sites, as well as additional ones revealed at the stage of primary data accumulation (Action A.1.), were visited. The primary population status was evaluated in terms of numbers, density, area, viability, direct and potential threats. The sites were located via GPS. During this stage, material (seeds, cuttings, etc.) for the ex situ collection was acquired (Ac-tion B.6.), as well as material for the gene bank at the Institute of Plant and Ge-netical Resources (Sadovo, Bulgaria).

A.4: Drafting of Monitoring Plans. A document was produced containing the technical description and justi� cation of a bio-monitoring program aiming to enhance the conservation and restoration of the populations of the targeted species. The parameters of the Monitoring plans were completely compatible with the National Network for Monitoring of the Executive Environment Agen-cy, so the information was readily used by the Agency.

A.5: Evaluation and selection of populations and sites. At this stage a selec-tion of sites that are appropriate for conservation according to Bulgarian conser-vation practices and ful� ll the requirements for PMR was made. The evaluation was performed by a Council of Experts. The Council consisted of the Chair (the Project Manager), 4 experts from the project team, and 4 external experts: one from the Ministry of Environment and Water, one representative from national environmental NGOs, one independent representative of a scienti� c institution related to nature conservation, and one representative of the Executive Environ-ment Agency.

A.6: Preparation of o� cial proposals for the designation of new protected areas. This is the � rst step of the legal procedure for the designation of Protect-ed sites (sensu Bulgarian legislation, Protected Areas Act of Bulgaria, Chapter 3). Proposals for the designation of the new protected areas, which have been accepted in action A.5., were prepared according to the procedures required by Bulgarian legislation.

A.7: Building an SPS network database. A database was created that incor-porated all parameters of the PMR network acquired during the � eld work. It contained information regarding: site position and boundaries of each site, monitoring parameters and state of each target species, details about actual and potential threats – degree of severity and damage, undertaken conserva-tion actions at the particular site.

A.8: Preparation of Action Plans. Forty-seven Action Plans were produced for each of the target species. During the preparation of the Action Plans data from actions A.1., A.3., B.1., B.2., and B.3. was used. They were elaborated according Art. 52 and Art. 53 of Bulgarian Biological Diversity Act and on the basis of the National Biodiversity Action Plan, and have 10 years legal prescription.

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A.9: Elaboration of a Strategy for sustainable development of PMR. The Strategy for sustainable development of PMR provided the basic framework and guidelines for the maintenance and development of the network of PMR in Bulgaria.

Concrete Conservation Actions

B.1: Mapping of the sites. The GPS data (delineation, position of populations, individuals, monitoring plots, monitoring data, as well as any in situ measures and reintroductions) about each of the 60 PMR gathered in action A.3. and B.3. was imported into a GIS environment. Thus high quality detailed maps of species � ne scale distribution (area), habitats and associated vegetation types, threats and actions undertaken at each site were produced.

B.2: Installation of permanent monitoring plots. Permanent plots for moni-toring the populations of the target species were installed in the � eld. The num-ber of plots per PMR and their size varied depending on the particular species and landscape. In certain cases the transect method was adopted. The plot de-sign complied with the methodology of the monitoring program of the Execu-tive Environment Agency of Bulgaria in order to obtain data that is compatible to their database.

B.3: Application of the Monitoring plans and � eld training of local experts. Short-term monitoring, according to the Monitoring Plans elaborated during action A.4., was performed in the � eld for each species. The � rst monitoring was performed by the project team experts in collaboration with experts from RIOEW or/and forestry experts who were trained to carry on the monitoring ac-tivities after the end of the project.

B.4. In situ conservation actions. Mild interventions were performed where needed and depending on the Action Plans. The actions were selected accord-ing to the speci� c needs of the species and concrete circumstances. They in-cluded: protection of naturally emerging seedlings, selective fencing or cover of adult individuals to reduce or eliminate herbivory/grazing, mild pruning, re-moving of single shrubs, and weeding to decrease the competition factor, re-moval of dried, � ammable biomass, etc. These resulted in an improvement of the state of the target populations.

B.5: Procedures for designation of SPS. The legal procedure for the desig-nation of protected sites includes the following steps (extracted from the Pro-tected Areas Act of Bulgaria, 1998):

1. Preparation of o� cial proposals and their submission to MOEW.

2. MOEW judges the relevance of the proposals.

3. MOEW assigns the preparation of standard set of documents for the des-ignation of the protected site to the depositor of the proposal. The set includes: i) objectives; ii) map materials; iii) spatial distribution of forests,

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63

CHAPTER 5 A Pilot Network of Small Protected Sites For Plant Species in Bulgaria Using the Plant Micro-Reserve Model

open lands and water bodies; iv) project-order for the designation of the protected site.

4. Six months after the deposition of the proposal the Minister of Environ-ment and Waters appoints a Commission. It includes members of RIOEW, Ministry of Agriculture and Food Supply, Ministry of Regional Develop-ment and Public Works, State Agency for Forests, municipalities, land and forest owners and regional governors.

5. The Commission votes for the proposal to designate a protected site and prepares project-order for designation. A protocol is kept. The Minister of Environment and Water makes the � nal decision for the designation or rejection of the Protected Site.

6. The Minister of Environment and Water issues an order for the designa-tion of a protected site, which includes: i) objectives; ii) major aims; iii) category of the area (in our case a protected site); iv) name; v) spatial dis-tribution of forests, open lands and water bodies; vi) regime of the major permissible activities within the Protected Site. Once the order is under-signed, the protected site is legally declared.

B.6: Establishment of ex situ populations and reintroduction. During this stage, ex situ populations of some of the target species were created. It was essen-tial that these species were conserved both outside their natural environment and on-site, including reintroduction and reinforcement of the populations. The populations of some critically endangered species (e.g. Eriolobus trilobata, As-tragalus physocalyx, Salix rosmarinifolia, Spiraea crenata, etc.) are very small and almost on the verge of extinction. These populations are extremely vulnerable, to unpredictable stochastic events and, besides the protection of the habitats, they need external support until reaching a stable viable size. Establishment of ex situ populations of such species is essential to secure their survival and to reinforce in situ populations.

Public Awareness and Dissemination of Results

This group of actions was intended to popularize the concept of PMR, the re-sults of our work, and plant conservation in general among local communities and authorities. It included 1) initial information meetings with local authorities and the public where the project objectives and concrete local species and ac-tions were presented and the aid of locals was sought; 2) workshop and sharing experience – it was open for a broad audience of experts, scientists, naturalists, etc.; 3) creation and update of project website; 4) setting of permanent notice boards (Fig. 5.5); 5) Layman’s report; 6) preparation and dissemination of infor-mation materials (brochures, posters, booklets); 7) � nal information meetings with local communities presenting the results of the work on PMRs.

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64 PART 3 LARGE NETWORKS

V. Outcome

The PMR network contributed to the e� cient nature conservation and supplemented the existing network of protected areas in Bulgaria. Ulti-mately, it contributed to the survival of species of European and national conservation value. The major out-comes were:

1. Creation of a model network of PMR to protect the popu-lations of plants of European and national conservation importance.

2. Legal designation of 60 protected sites.3. In situ conservation of species with single populations that are situated

outside existing protected areas applying the concept of PMR.4. Building a database for the enlargement and future sustainable manage-

ment of the network of PMR.5. Establishment of ex situ collection of species, whose populations need

external support to survive and reach stable numbers and functionality.6. Setting up the conditions for the extension and functionality of PMR in

Strategy for the sustainable development of PMR and by collaboration, training and involvement of target groups (experts from 14 local struc-tures of MOEW, local forestry units, NGOs, etc.).

7. Increased awareness and engagement of local people, stakeholders, ex-perts, etc.

VI. References

Act on Amending and Supplementing the Biological Diversity Act, 2007. State Gazette 94 (from 16.11.2007): 2-44 (in Bulgarian).

Biological Diversity Act. 2002. State Gazette 77 (from 09.08.2002): 9-43 (in Bulgarian).Peev, D. et al. (eds), In press. Red Data Book of the Republic of Bulgaria. Vol. 1. Plants and Fungi. IBEI –

BAS & MOEW. Bulgaria: So� a.Petrova, A. & Velčev, V., 2006. List of Bulgarian endemic species. – In: Petrova, A. (ed.). 2006. Atlas of

Bulgarian Endemic Plants. Gea-Libris. Bulgaria: So� a.Petrova, A. & Vladimirov, V. (ed.), 2009. Red list of Bulgarian vascular plants. – Phytol. Balcan. 15:

63-94.Petrova, A. & Vladimirov, V., 2010. Balkan endemics in the Bulgarian � ora. – Phytol. Balcan. 16:

293-311.Protected Areas Act, 1998. State Gazette 133 (from 11.11.1998) (in Bulgarian).

Figure 5. 5 Setting a notice board.

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6Micro-Reserves in Latvia

Sandra IKAUNIECE1 & Aigars KALVANS2

1Nature Conservation Agency, 7 Baznicas str., Sigulda, Latvia2State Forest Service, 13 Janvāra str., Riga, Latvia

I. Introduction

Establishment of micro-reserves for the protection of species and habitats in Latvia is a relatively new experience in the natural protection system, and has been implemented only for about 12 years. The history of creation of protected areas is much longer.

A long time before Natura 2000, various protected territories have been es-tablished in Latvia. The � rst nature reserve in Latvia, and one of the � rst two in the Russian Empire, was Moricsala, founded in 1912. Later, the Slītere reserve was established in 1921 and the restricted area Isles of Cieceres lake in 1923, followed by others. During the Soviet period, formation of protected territories was continued, but sometimes occurred without detailed scienti� c research and without permanent monitoring. Upon joining the EU in 2004, Latvia devel-oped the Natura 2000 network, based on the previous protected territories and newly established nature parks and restricted areas. The network now includes 336 territories under di� erent management regimes, which cover approximate-ly 12% of the total surface of the country.

Species distribution studies have shown that Natura 2000 sites can protect only part of the focal populations of species. For example, only 6% of the popu-lation of Lesser Spotted Eagle nests in Natura 2000 territories of Latvia. There-fore, it was urgent to develop species and habitat conservation tools for protec-tion outside of Natura 2000 territories.

Two other important nature protection methods are applied in Latvia – woodland key habitats and micro-reserves.

II. Woodland Key Habitats

In the early 1990s, the return of national independence and forming contacts with other countries in several thematic areas, including nature conservation

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and forestry, allowed transfer of knowledge utilising the experience of other countries. Swedish forest management and conservation experience had a ma-jor impact in the second half of the 1990s in Latvia, which included the natural forest habitat concept.

The Woodland Key Habitat (WKH) concept is very well known in Northern Europe. WKH are forest stands that provide habitat for rare and endangered spe-cies with highly speci� c demands for the habitat (Fig. 6.1). It is considered that the forest structures and features essential for these species are most commonly found in forest stands that have had temporal continuity for a long time and where no or insigni� cant management has been conducted. These habitats are distinguished by a high concentration of rare species, mainly � owering plants, bryophytes, lichens, fungi as well as insects and molluscs. In 1997, the Latvian State Forest Service and the Östra Götaland Regional Board of Forestry of Swe-den started a joint project entitled ‘Woodland Key Habitat Inventory’ to identify woodlands where the concentration of biological values is especially high and to implement their protection. The inventory was carried out in state owned forests managed by the Stock Company ‘Latvijas valsts meži’ (Latvia State for-ests), which include about 50% of all forests, both in managed and protected territories. Inventory was continued from 2000 till 2005. During the � rst years of operation, the WKH inventory Stock Company cancelled management activi-ties in stands recognized as WKH, and in the next years it attempted to avoid management in all these sites. Despite the enormous ecological values in WKH and their importance in conservation of biological diversity, in the period till 2010, WKH o� cially had no recognition by the nature protection authority (Min-istry of Environment Protection). Information about WKH was partly used by scientists during preparation of the Natura 2000 network in Latvia to create new protected territories in 2004.

However, WKH have a form of protection as part of the FSC certi� cation of managed forests, and thus until 2010 there was an o� cial link of WKH with pro-tected habitats. Methods of identi� cation of ES protected forest habitats also include quality assessment according to the WKH criterion. For several habitats, like 9010* ‘Western taiga’ and 9020* ‘Fennoscandinavian hemiboreal natural old broad-leaved deciduous forests (Quercus, Tilia, Acer, Fraxinus or Ulmus)’ WKH cri-teria are crucial aspects for identi� cation. For some others like 9080* ‘Fennoscan-dinavian deciduous swamp woods’ and 91D0* ‘Bog woodlands’ it is recommend-ed to use the WKH criteria.

Although voluntary protection of WKH is included in the FSC certi� cation, there is worry among forest ecologists and biologists in Latvia, as voluntary pro-tection without any legal framework, in the � nancially tense Latvian situation, is

Figure 6.1 WKH close to Gauja river (photo: S. Ikauniece).

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CHAPTER 6 Micro-reserves in Latvia 67

under threat and can change at any time. One possible way to o� cially protect WKH and other valuable habitats outside Natura 2000 is the establishment of micro-reserves.

III. Micro-Reserves

The history of the micro-reserve concept began during the Soviet period, when specially protected forest compartments were established by foresters. The pro-tected compartments were of diverse kinds – botanical reserves, nature parks, zoological reserves around nests of birds of prey, game management forests in capercallie leks, and forests on slopes and along rivers and others. Usually, non-intensive management was practised in these compartments or wood harvest was not conducted.

Protected forest compartment size was generally consistent with the size of the stand, usually ranging from 0.5 to 20 ha, but in some cases these com-partments were located side-by-side, creating larger areas for protection. For example, capercaillie leking sites protection, the so-called game management forests, could reach up to 60-80 ha in size, in which capercaillie hunting was al-lowed, but where wood removal was prohibited.

With the new Forest Law in 2000, new specially protected compartments were no longer established, and revision of previous established territories was started. The revision called for two options for each area: cancellation of pro-tected forest compartment status and inclusion as commercial forests or initia-tion of a micro-reserve.

In 2001, Regulations were issued by the Cabinet of Ministers on micro-re-serves creation, protection and management, giving them an essential function in the nature protection system in Latvia.

Micro-reserves are usually small in area, they are usually strictly protected and wood removal is prohibited. Their area can vary from 0.1 ha to 200 ha (in cases of micro-reserves for rare birds). Micro-reserves are established to pro-tect rare plants, birds, invertebrates, mosses, fungi, lichens and habitats. Usu-ally micro-reserves are established outside Natura 2000 territories in commer-cial forests. They are established on the basis of an administrative decision after expert proposal and assessment of conditions. The process of micro-reserve establishment is not very complex, but requires preparation of the necessary proposal documents, territory maps and also readiness, afterwards, to take part in court cases when the owner litigates the decision concerning micro-reserve establishment. It must be noted that the acceptance of the landowner is not necessary for establishing a micro-reserve.

In Latvia there are di� erent categories of Natura 2000 sites, which have dif-ferent management regimes and allowed actions. Nature reserves and restrict-ed areas usually have strict restrictions on forestry activities, but in others, for ex-ample, in national parks, nature parks and protected landscape areas there are

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often no signi� cant restrictions on agricultural land-use, and � nal felling and/or clear-cutting is permitted depending on zoning. In some cases, if management regimes are very ‘soft’ and various types of harvest are possible in forests of a Natura 2000 site, micro-reseves have been established. For example, a micro-reserve for the lesser spotted eagle was established in the nature park ‘Kuja’.

IV. Processes and Projects for Establishment of Micro-Reserves

The � rst micro-reserve was established in 2001 to protect the middle spotted woodpecker. The next were several micro-reserves for forests on slopes, screes and ravines in 2002.

Establishment of micro-reserves in Latvia from 2002 until now has been somewhat chaotic, as most have been initiated within small projects or by inter-ested ecologists. In general, the micro-reserves establishment processes can be divided into several large groups.

a. Orders of State Institutions In 2001, based on an order by the Latvian Environmental Protection and Re-gional Development Ministry, the inventory of specially protected habitats and species was compiled in the Ogre River Valley by the Latvian Fund for Nature. Proposals for protection were made for the establishment of 62 micro-reserves: 18 sites for forest habitats, 4 for meadow and 25 for rapids, 9 specially protected plant species territories, 1 spring fen, and 5 habitat complexes.

Of these, 16 micro-reserves were established: 12 forest sites, 1 protected meadow, 3 rapids.

b. Specially Protected Compartments (SPC)One of the widest activities was the specially protected compartment (SPC) in-ventory, which was implemented from 2003 till 2006.

The inventory of public forests was conducted by contracted experts uti-lizing AS LSF funding. In private forests the work was partly performed by the National Forest Service employees in the framework of their direct duties. As a result, after the evaluation, wood removal was allowed in large parts of SPC, but in some cases micro-reserves for WKH were established. The SPC evaluation has not yet been completed.

Much attention was devoted to game-management forests (capercaillie lek-ing site inventory). As a result a large number of micro-reserves for capercaillie protection was established. During the period from 2002 to 2007, which was the most intensive period of capercaillie lek inventory, 347 micro-reserves (17,657 ha) were established, or 90% of the present number of capercaillie micro-re-serves. Micro-reserve proposals were prepared by the Forest Service sta� mem-bers when performing their immediate tasks, and also in the framework of two small national projects:

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(i) 2005–2009. AS LSF � nanced the research project entitled ‘Present condi-tion of the spatial distribution of capercaillie leking sited and recommendations for their management based analysis of habitats’, and

(ii) 2006. Latvian Ministry of Agriculture � nanced the project entitled ‘Imple-mentation of a transect survey method for Gallifomes birds in Latvia’.

c. National fund � nancing for small projects By 2009, the Latvian Environmental Protection Fund had allocated funding for several projects to carry out an inventory of protected species and habitats and to prepare proposals for micro-reserves. Environmental Protection Fund � nanc-ing came from the State budget; it did not include foreign � nancing.

Some of the main projects that were important in the establishment of mi-cro-reserves were:

• Protected plant species inventory For several years, small sub-projects were implemented in di� erent Latvian

regions, during which past sites of rare species were identi� ed from histori-cal information and the areas were surveyed, after which micro-reserves pro-posals were made if the rare species still existed in a healthy population. For example, micro-reserves were established for species such as Cypripedium calceolus, Liparis loeselii, Carex brizoides, etc.

• Protected bird species nesting sites inventory ‘Implementing Directive 79/409/EEK about bird protection in Latvia’ (2007-

2008). In the framework of this project, an inventory of SPC was made, and information on nesting sites of protected birds was collected from experts and professionals. The result was the establishment of a series of micro-reserves for Ciconia nigra, Dendrocopos leucotos, Aquila pomarina, Columba oenas and Bubo bubo.

• Protected lichen micro-reserve project During the project, based on information from the WKH inventory and his-

torical data, sites for rare lichen species were identi� ed and proposals were made for micro-reserve establishment. Micro-reserves were established for Cetrelia olivetorum, Parmeliella triptophylla and Arthonia byssacea.

• Research on osprey The project entitled ‘Research and conservation of osprey Pandion haliae-

tus’, whose aimed to identify and verify all previous known nesting places of osprey and provide appropriate protection (Fig. 6.2). As a result, 10 micro-reserves were established.

There were other small projects aimed to prepare micro-reserve proposals (for protected snails, beetle Osmoderma eremita), but unfortunately they did not lead to speci� c initiatives.

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d. LIFE ProjectsIn the past 10 years, a number of LIFE proj-ects have been implemented in Latvia, which have focused on the protection of speci� c species or habitats, but the creation of micro-reserves has not been typically in-cluded in the project objectives. The goals have focused more on Natura 2000 area mapping, habitat management and con-servation plan development. Establishment of micro-reserves in these cases could be considered more as initiatives of specialists who considered that this form of protection was the only way to ensure the future of the species or habitat as a whole.

The only project in which objectives included micro-reserve establishment, was the one entitled ‘Protection and Management of the Northern Gauja Valley’ LIFE03NAT/LV/000082. Project activities included detailed habitat mapping and evaluation of the Gauja valley. Given the territory`s status (protected landscape area, where there are no signi� cant restrictions on economic activity, especially in private forests), micro-reserves were created for habitats protection. In the time period from 2006 till 2008 75 sites (225 ha) were approved as micro-re-serves for natural forest habitats and/or rare species, such as Chaenotheca pha-eocephala and Hapalopilus croceus.

e. Other funding sources Scienti� c interest of researchers and cooperation with scientists in other coun-tries has resulted in some projects important for nature conservation. For ex-ample, regarding the lesser spotted eagle Aquila pomarina, Germany’s Wildlife Conservation Fund in collaboration with researcher Uģis Bergmanis relocated more than 10 small eagle chicks to Brandenburg which in Latvia, as the second nested, would be doomed to death. Their relocation to Germany gave hope of successful acclimatization and slowing rapid decrease of the local eagle popu-lation. In exchange, the Foundation gave � nancial support for a 5-year project aimed at the creation of micro-reserves for lesser spotted eagle. As a result, more than 60 micro-reserves (over 1,050 hectares) were established, mostly in the nature park ‘Kuja’.

f. Researchers’ personal interest and initiativeWhile initiation of micro-reserves establishment has occurred mostly within projects, experts’ personal initiatives have also been important for species or habitat protection.

With the implementation of legislation on micro-reserves, and the rapid increase in the use of forest habitats, some researchers saw this administra-tive tool as a means to protect long-known rare species habitats, particularly

Figure 6.2 Osprey in the nest (photo: A. Kalvans).

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in cases when their research was being conducted at these sites. Māris Strazds initiated 101 micro-reserve proposals for micro-reserves for black stork Ciconia nigra, which has altogether 253 micro-reserves with an area of 4,904 ha.

Experts are called upon by the forest sector, private landowners, non-gov-ernmental organizations, in some cases also local governments, in situations when there might be a need for species or habitat protection.

By performing habitat and species inventory in the framework of various projects, or performing work duties that are not directly related to micro-reserve creation, it is possible to identify the site of a rare species, and very often it is an expert on private initiative who prepares a proposal to create the respective micro-reserve.

There are several examples where micro-reserves have been created in this way for protected forest and wetland habitats, as well as for rare species, such as Trichocolea tomentella (Fig. 6.3), Corallorhia tri� da, Bembix rostrata, Ceruchus chrysomelinus, Glauccidium passerinum and Carex rhynchophysa.

V. Micro-Reserve Statistics

At the beginning of 2012, about 2127 micro-reserves (~ 39,340 ha) had been established in Latvia, which represent about 2% of all protected territories. The highest proportion both in number and in size of established micro-reserves are for birds. In terms of area, bird micro-reserves contribute up to 88% , compared to 9% for forest habitats, 2% for plants, and 1% for mosses and lichens, while the other micro-reserves represent a very small part of the total area. The smallest possible micro-reserve covers an area of 0.1 ha, while the legislation allows to build large areas (60-200 hectares) for birds, such as Tetrao urogallus.

In general, economic activity is not allowed in micro-reserves, but there may be situations where management of habitat is required, such as hydrological regime restoration or clearing undergrowth in capercaillie leking sites. The re-quired measures are identi� ed by the expert proposing each micro-reserve, while preparing documents for its establishment.

To ensure even better protection, a bu� er zone may be included around micro-reserves. This bu� er zone has restricted management and is mostly used in cases of bird micro-reserves. For example, the restrictions might be for ban of clear-cutting, or the forestry activities in the spring period. In capercaillie micro-reserve bu� er zones forest management is not allowed from March 1 to July 31.

If a habitat has permanently lost its importance, for example, due to a fallen eagle nest tree and total destruction of a stand by windfall without possibility of building a new nest, the micro-reserve status may be removed.

Since 2006, � nancial compensation was available to private owners for for-est management restrictions in micro-reserves and this raised appreciation to-wards nature protection. Up to 2011 about 2.3 million EUR was paid from the

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state budget (information from the Nature Protection Agency) for compensa-tion, but now due to the � nancial crisis this process has been stopped. In future, compensations to private owners for forest management restrictions in micro-reserves are planned using EU funds depending on money availability.

VI. References

Auniņš, A. (red.). Eiropas Savienības aizsargājamie biotopi Latvijā. Noteikšanas rokasgrāmata. Latvijas dabas fonds, Rīga, 320.

Eiricsson, T.S., Berlund, H. & Östlund, L., 2005. History and biodiversity of woodland key habitats in south boreal Sweden. Biological Conservation 122: 289-303.

Ek, T., Suško, U., Auziņš, R., 2002. Mežaudžu atslēgas biotopu inventarizācija. Metodika. Rīga: Valsts meža dienests.

Junninen, K. & Kouki, J., 2006. Are woodland key habitats in Finland hotspots for polypores (Basid-iomycota)? Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research 21: 32-40.

Ķuze, J., Lārmanis, V., Lūkins, M. & Petriņš, A., 2000. Mežaudžu atslēgas biotope inventarizācijas audits. Atskaite, Latvijas Dabas fonds, Rīga.

Timonen J., Kotiaho J. & Mönkkönen M., 2009. Woodland key habitats (WKHS) in the Fennoscandi-an and Baltic countries. Book of Abstracts of 2nd European Congress of Conservation Biology, Prague, Czech Republic, pp. 144.

Useful links:1. http://daba.gov.lv/public/lat/ipasi_aizsargajamas_dabas_teritorijas/

2. http://www.ldf.lv/upload_� le/28554/ZGatskaite.pdf

3. http://www.lvaf.gov.lv/

4. http://www.vmd.gov.lv/?sadala=355

Figure 6.3 Trichocolea tomentella (photo: S. Ikauniece).

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Other projects

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7The Micro-Reserve Project in the Regional Park of the Slovenian Karst

Andrej SOVINC1 & Bojana LIPEJ2

1 Sečovlje Salina Nature Park, Seča, 115, 6320 Portorož, Slovenia2 B.Sc, DOPPS-BirdLife Slovenia, Škocjanski Zatok Nature Reserve, Staničev trg 16, 6000 Koper, Slovenia

I. Introduction

In the south eastern part of Slovenia, a massive limestone ridge delimitates the border between the continental and the coastal part of Slovenia. This ridge, which delimitates the typical � ysch surface from the limestone plateau, is char-acterized by rich diversity of habitats, � ora and fauna. The outstanding cultural landscape, which has emerged slowly over the centuries, when man tried to adjust to nature, gives additional value to the area. In this landscape the semi natural dry grasslands interlace with the rocky limestone slopes, screes and karstic ponds.

Throughout the centuries, the local population of the Karst Edge area (Fig. 7.1) deliberately interfere with nature, by transforming it, but at the same time, they had not threatened the existence of � ora and fauna; moreover, some plant and animal species have become dependent on human activities. In re-cent decades, many people, due to the political and economic situation, left the Karst Edge area and , as a result, an extensive overgrowth of dry grasslands and Karst meadows began. Habitats were truncated and threatened and a lot of plant and animal species became endangered.

Figure 7.1 Karst Edge area in Slovenia (photo: L. Lipej).

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II. Objectives

The main objective of the project, which was successfully completed in Septem-ber 2005, was to preserve the natural resources (endangered habitats, � ora and fauna) and cultural landscape, improve the conditions for the local population and support the development of the Karst Edge area (Fig. 7.2) as an area for natural science tourism.

III. Targeted Species and Habitats

Habitat types present in the Karst Edge area and directly targeted by the project are:

• Semi-natural grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareous substrates (6210 Natura 2000 code).

• Medio-European calcareous scree (8160 Natura 2000 code).

• Chasmophytic vegetation on rocky slopes (8210 Natura 2000 code).

• Mediterranean temporary ponds (3170 Natura 2000 code).

Species present in the Karst Edge area and directly targeted by the project are:

• 1 plant species – Moehringia tommasiniana.

• 5 amphibians – Triturus carnifex, Bombina variegatae, Bufo viridis, Hyla arbo-rea and Rana dalmatina.

• 7 butter� y species - Callimorpha quadripunctaria, Coenonympha oedippus, Eriogaster catax, Euphydryas aurinia, Lopinga achine, Parnassius mnemosyne and Zerynthia polyxena.

Figure 7. 2 A typi-cal landscape of the Karst Edge area (photo: B. Lipej).

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77CHAPTER 7 The Micro-reserve Project in the Regional Park of the Slovenian Karst

IV. Actions

Several actions were needed to achieve the main objective of the project:

1. Identi� cation of the most valuable areas with endangered habitats and spe-cies and mapping of habitat types.

2. Preparation of site speci� c management guidelines for sustainable manage-ment of the most valuable areas with endangered species and habitats.

3. Preparation of proposal for legal protection of the Karst Edge area.

4. Stipulation of agreements with land-owners and implementation of the sys-tem for management of these areas and subsidies for their protection.

5. Addressing the consequences of deserti� cation processes (overgrowth, dis-appearance of karstic ponds and removal of characteristic hedges as speci� c structures in Karst landscape) with reconstruction of four (4) karstic ponds and 150 ha of overgrown dry calcareous grasslands.

6. Awareness and dissemination campaign to promote the meaning and im-portance of the Karst Edge area and its sustainable development (local bul-letin Kraški rob, web site, di� erent workshops, cooperation with the Agricul-ture chamber, lea� ets, video � lm and monograph on Plant Micro-Reserves).

7. Establishment of an information centre in the village Rakitovec in order to support the promotion of the Karst Edge area.

V. Outcome

The project provided the background for the e� ective conservation of targeted species and habitats through sustainable management and introduced long-term commitments with the land-owners to maintain and manage their land in a way which is crucial for biodiversity conservation. More than 300 ha of the habitats most endangered, comprising dry calcareous grasslands, screes, rocky slopes and temporary ponds have been restored and the ‘survival’ of these habi-tats has been secured by signing long-term agreements with the land owners. These areas have been inter-connected and a network of Plant Micro-Reserves has been established.

In addition, the project has also contributed signi� cantly in raising aware-ness of the importance of the Karst Edge area and its natural values. Part of these activities includes the renovation of an old school in the village of Rakitovec and its transformation into an information centre with two permanent exhibitions about biodiversity of Karst area. The centre is now becoming one of the main at-tractions of this remote part of the project area and represents a new tourist site.

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VI. References

Čelik, T., Verovnik, R., Rebeušek, F., Gomboc, S. & Lasan, M., 2004. Strokovna izhodišča za vzpostav-ljanje omrežja NATURA 2000. Metulji (Lepidoptera). Končno poročilo. Biološki inštitut Jovana Hadžija ZRC SAZU. 297pp, digitalne priloge.

Kaligarič, M., 1997. Rastlinstvo Primorskega krasa in Slovenske Istre: travniki in pašniki (Vegetation of Karst of Primorje and Slovene Istra: Meadows and Pastures). Annales majora. Zgodovinsko društvo za južno Primorsko, Koper & Znanstveno raziskovalno središče RS, Koper. 111 str.

Poboljšaj, K. & Lešnik, A., 2003. Strokovna izhodišča za vzpostavljanje omrežja NATURA 2000: Dvoživke (Amphibia) (končno poročilo). Naročnik: MOPE, ARSO, Ljubljana. Center za kartogra-� jo favne in � ore. Miklavž na Dravskem polju. 37 str.

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8Micro-Reserves: A Useful Tool for the Conservation Strategyof the Natural Environmentin Castilla – La Mancha (Spain)

Miguel Ángel RUBIO

Junta de Comunidades de Castilla-La Mancha. Consejería de Agricultura. Dirección General de Montes y Espacios Naturales. c/ Quintanar de la Orden s/n. 45071 Toledo

I. Introduction

In the region of Castilla - La Mancha (central Spain), the Conservation Plan of the Natural Environment was the main instrument for the management of the environment and natural resources at regional level. It was approved back in the 90s and marked the beginning of the conservation strategy for this region. The ‘Conservation of wildlife and nature reserves. Restoration of natural habitats’ has been one of the initial strategic lines and it has been maintained over successive revisions. This is of paramount importance in an area of 7.9 million hectares and one of the richest in Spain in terms of climatic, geological, edaphic, geographical and biological diversity. On the other hand, the Spanish Strategy for the Con-servation and Sustainable Use of Biological Diversity, adopted by the Spanish Environment Sectoral Conference in 1998, marked an important milestone in the planning of conservation policies based on a global and inclusive approach, which channelled subsequent legislative development in this domain.

II. Methodology and Objectives of the Micro-Reserves (MRs)

In this way, in agreement with the main conservation objectives, Law 9/1999 of 26 May, of Nature Conservation (Anonymous, 1999) was enacted in Castilla - La Mancha, making room for a new legal � gure, that of ‘Micro-Reserve’ (MR) within the Regional Network Protected Areas (Rubio, 2011). Its aim was to accommo-date small-sized sites concentrating populations or communities of � ora and fauna of high value, and whose strict protection is of importance.

Some authors have made an attempt to list the number of native species present in Castilla - La Mancha, bringing the number of vascular plant species to a � gure ranging between 3,500 and 4,000 -updated in the year 2011-, a number which represents almost half of the vascular � ora of the Iberian Peninsula. Of

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these, 471 are included in the Regional Catalogue of Threatened Species, and in subsequent revisions of 2001 in di� erent categories of protection (‘endangered’, ‘vulnerable’ and ‘special interest’).

To achieve the objectives sought with their creation, MRs were endowed with a legal backing. Therefore, their declaration is made by a Decree of the re-gional government, by which their boundaries are established. Moreover, a spe-ci� c regulation is adopted to control the existing threats for certain protected species and to implement a monitoring protocol, aiming to promote a more e� ective management. Its immediate objectives were to ensure the conserva-tion of � ora and fauna, geology, water, landscape, wildlife and atmosphere of small sites as well as the structure, dynamics and function of their ecosystems and geosystems.

In the same way, a second aim was to guarantee the restoration of natural areas and resources that could have been degraded by human activities and to ensure the sustainable use of renewable natural resources, in a way compatible with the conservation of other natural values , facilitating insofar as possible the compatibility with other traditional uses. A � nal aim was to promote research linked to nature conservation and to disseminate the knowledge thus gained.

III. Outcome

The � gure of MR has been the one experiencing the most signi� cant develop-ment since its inception. Currently, there are 48 of them out of the 104 sites that make up the network of the natural areas in the region (Rubio, 2011). Despite the fact that they only cover a surface of 7,101 ha (Table 8.1), thus accounting for a mere 1.3% of the surface of the aforementioned network, micro-reserves have been used extensively and successfully to o� er protection to some valu-able resources. Some threatened bat species linked to caves as well as relict Luso-extremadurenses peat lands, Murcia-Almeria chalky steppes, or seasonal freshwater wetlands on calcareous or sandstone soils, are present within the micro-reserve network. It is worth mentioning here that micro-reserves have proved particularly useful for the protection of sites hosting plant species with very small distributions and in most cases vulnerable due to the fact that they represent ‘ecological islands’.

The sites that make up the current micro-reserve network of Castilla - La Mancha can be grouped into two categories (Table 8.1), according to the pur-pose of their declaration:

• Sites for protected fauna: mainly cave bats (Microreservas de la Cueva de la Judía, o del Túnel de Niebla).

• Sites for protected vegetation and endangered plants, mainly including:

a. Aquatic or hydrophilic communities, such as acid bogs, temporary ponds, etc. (i.e. MR Bonal de Puebla de Don Rodrigo, Fig. 8.1, MR Garganta de las Lanchas).

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CHAPTER 8 Micro-Reserves: A Useful Tool forthe Conservation Strategy of the Natural Environment in Castilla – La Mancha (Spain

Figure 8.1 PMR in Bonales de Puebla de Don Rodrigo (photo: M.A. Rubio).

b. Halophilous and gypsicolous communities, such as Lygeum spartum or Limonium spp. formations (i.e. MR Albardinales de Membrilla - La Solana, MR Salobral de Ocaña, Fig. 8.2).

c. Rupicolous communities (i.e. MR Ardal y Tinjarra).

d. Communities on inland sandy soils (MR Arenales de Caudete).

Table 8.1 Number and surface of MRs in Castilla - La Mancha

Targeted biological group and type of habitat Nr of MRs Total surface (ha)

Fauna

Caves and other refuges for Chiroptera 10 374.48

Plants and vegetation

Bogs/Fens 12 205.59

Salt lagoons 7 785.62

Freshwater lagoons and temporary ponds 4 259.96

Rocky sites 4 3014.00

Inland dunes with psammophile vegetation 1 125.04

Gypsum steppes 1 830.25

Other habitats containing endangered plant species 9 1506.82

AMOUNT 48 7101.76

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For more information, available data (in Spanish) can be found at the web-sites www.castillalamancha.es/ and http://agricultura.jccm.es/inap/forms2/in-apf101.php.

In any case, these special places were created in order to safeguard the spe-cies they shelter that, due to their rarity, they require extra attention and man-agement. Within these sites, species such as Vella pseudocytisus subsp. pseudo-cytisus, Coincya rupestris subsp. rupestris, Erodium paularense and well preserved formations of Lygeum spartum or Suaeda vera can be found.

Finally, it should be noted that currently the European ecological network of protected areas for the conservation of biodiversity, Natura 2000, is now a fact, due to the completion of the lists of Sites of Community Importance (SCIs) and Special Protection Areas for birds (SPAs). Thus, we � nd ourselves at a crucial time in which land management will be necessary to reconcile the conservation of species in the context of a comprehensive land use planning. To achieve this goal, one of the most useful tools for the identi� cation of species requiring con-servation actions will be MRs.

IV. References

Anonymous, 1999. Ley 9/1999, de 26 de mayo, de Conservación de la Naturaleza. Diario O� cial de Castilla-La Mancha 40.

Rubio, M.A., 2011. Espacios Naturales Protegidos: Red regional de Áreas Protegidas de Castilla-La Mancha. Apostando por un futuro mejor, valorando nuestro patrimonio natural. Foresta 47-48: 219-225.

Figure 8.2 Salobral de Ocana (photo: M.A. Rubio).

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9Proposals of Plant Micro-Reservesin Sicily (Italy)

Angelo TROIA

Dipartimento di Biologia ambientale e Biodiversità, Università degli Studi di Palermo, via Archirafi 38, 90123 Palermo, Italy

I. Introduction

Similarly to the Valencian Region, where Plant Micro-Reserves (PMRs) were con-ceived and � rst realized, the island of Sicily (and surrounding islets) is rich in local endemics, often in small, scattered and restricted populations, sometimes surrounded by cultivated � elds or built-up areas.

The Region of Sicily, founded by a Royal Decree in 1946 (before the foun-dation of the Italian Republic, 1948), is the � rst established region and has the widest legislative power in Italy. It has a special form and condition of autonomy pursuant to the special statute adopted by constitutional law. Under the art. 117 of the Italian Constitution, the Region of Sicily has exclusive legislative powers in all � elds that are not expressly covered by State legislation. In spite of the inclusion of ‘protection of the environment and of the ecosystem’ in these � elds, in Sicily only Regional Natural Reserves and Regional Natural Parks exist, accord-ing to a Regional Law on Parks and Reserves (1981) that preceded the National Law (1991). Although Sicily has a good legislation on natural parks and reserves, it is one of the 3 only Italian regions (out of 20), which has no speci� c law to protect the wild � ora, yet, the regional Red List of vascular plants is up-to-date (Raimondo et al., 2011) and could be the basis for this law. In any case, the tool of the PMRs could help to protect plant populations, especially the ones occurring in small sites outside protected areas.

II. Objectives and Methodology

The possibility to introduce the tool of PMRs in Sicily, and in the Aeolian Archi-pelago in particular, emerged within the LIFE-Nature project ‘Eolife99 - Conser-vation of priority plant species in the Aeolian Islands’ (LIFE99 NAT/IT/006217, http://web.tiscali.it/ecogestioni/eolife/). During that project, Dr. Emilio Laguna (PMR pioneer, Generalitat Valenciana) came to Lipari to participate in a work-shop in April 2002, and he explained in detail the idea of PMRs to protect specif-

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ic areas of high � oristic value. Therefore, establishing a PMR could be a suitable measure to protect the Silene hicesiae (Fig. 9.1) population in its locus classicus, the Panarea island.

S. hicesiae is a strictly endemic species, occurring only in two of the Aeolian islands, with a total population of 350 individuals. It is included as ‘priority spe-cies’ in the Annex II of the Habitats Directive. The small population in Panarea, occurring within a Regional Natural Reserve and a Site of Community Interest, was actually subject to various potential disturbances, mainly anthropic (e.g. wild� res, alien species, touristic pressure) but also natural (e.g. landslides). The PMR could be the right tool to manage that situation. This proposal follows the model of an ‘intensively managed PMR’. Unfortunately, the di� cult normative and administrative situation, and then the end of the LIFE project, did not even-tually allow the implementation of the idea.

III. Outcome

More recently, the idea emerged again. This time, in the opposite part of Sicily, namely Trapani, near Palermo. Here, in February 2010, an international meeting was held about the protection of an endangered endemic, Calendula maritima:

Figure 9.1Silene hicesiae (photo: E. Laguna).

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this species is not included in the Annexes of the Habitats Directive but, as one of the most threatened Mediterranean insular species, it was selected (togeth-er with Silene hicesiae and others) for the IUCN ‘TOP 50’ project (Montmollin & Strahm, 2005). One of the invited speakers of the meeting was Patricia Pérez-Ro-vira, from the Generalitat Valenciana’s PMR team, who presented the experience of the PMRs and the results achieved in Spain (Troia & Raimondo, 2011). Again, establishing a PMR was proposed to protect to protect the Calendula maritima populations occurring outside protected areas. And, again, the idea got tempo-rarily lost, waiting for a successful synergy among the Region Government, local authorities and botanists.

IV. References

Montmollin, B. de & Strahm, W. (eds), 2005. The Top 50 Mediterranean Island Plants: Wild plants at the brink of extinction, and what is needed to save them. IUCN SSC Mediterranean Islands Plant Specialist Group. IUCN, Switzerland and UK: Gland and Cambridge.

Raimondo, F.M., Bazan, G. & Troia, A., 2011. Taxa a rischio nella � ora vascolare della Sicilia. Biogeo-graphia 30: 229-239.

Troia, A. & Raimondo, F.M. (eds), 2011. Proceedings of the International Meeting ‘The Calendula of Trapani, an emblematic threatened Mediterranean endemic’, Trapani, Sicily, 20 February 2010. Il Naturalista Siciliano 35: 1–129. Also available on the internet: http://www.sssn.it/indice.htm (accessed: 30 November 2012).

Image on next page: Scrub and low forest vegetation of Quercus alnifolia (photo: M. Andreou)

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10Micro-Reserves Network for Medicinal Plants in Saint Katherine Protectorate (Sinai Peninsula, Egypt)

Joan PÉREZ BOTELLA1 & Emilio LAGUNA2,3

1 Generalitat Valenciana, Servicio Territorial de Alicante, c/Churruca, 20. E-03003 Alicante2 Generalitat Valenciana, Servicio de Vida Silvestre, c/Francesc Cubells, 11. E-46011 Valencia3 Generalitat Valenciana, CIEF, Avda. Comarques País Valencià 114, E-46930 Quart de Poblet, Valencia

I. Introduction

The Sinai Peninsula has an enormous importance from a biogeographical point of view, as it represents the junction between Asian and African continents. In 1996, a protected area -Saint Katherine Protectorate (SKP)- with a surface of 4,350 km2 was established in the most mountainous part of Sinai. In addition to its role as a botanical hotspot, it includes cultural values of high interest, such as Mount Sinai (Gebel Musa, 2285 m) and the Monastery of St. Catherine, declared a World Heritage Site in 2002. This region accounts for 30% of the total � ora of Egypt with a high percentage of endemism and � oristic singularities (Khedr et al., 2002; Fayed et al., 2004). Within the limits of the SKP, 400 species of vascu-lar plants have been cited –19 are exclusive endemics to this area-, of which 10 are considered as critically endangered and 53 as endangered (Guenther et al., 2005).

The main threats to the � ora are overgrazing and plant harvesting for fuel, fodder for camels and, particularly, for medicinal use. In 2002, the project ‘Conservation and, Sustainable Use of Medicinal Plants in Arid and Semi-Arid Ecosystems’ (MPCP) was set up, sponsored and funded by the GEF (Global En-vironment Facility) and the UNDP (United Nations Development Programme), implemented by the EEAA (Egyptian Environmental A� airs Agency) and with the active involvement of the scienti� c team led by the late Dr. Mohammed El-Demerdash (Mansoura University). The project aimed at the conservation and sustainable use of medicinal plants within the SKP. The Bedouin tribes of the area were traditional harvesters but have recently increased their pressure on these taxa as they are selling these plants to tourists. The idea was to utilise pro-tected areas (PMRs) as natural reserves of seeds or propagules of these species.

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II. Objective of the Project

The project focuses on medicinal plant species and priority is given to endemic and threatened taxa. (Annex I; Anonymous, 2001). The � rst expected result is the protection of critically endangered species. To achieve this goal, these species will be searched in the SKP and their distribution will be mapped. This informa-tion will allow identi� cation of primary conservation areas that will be primarily used for plant protection and secondary areas, where the emphasis will be put on the sustainable use of plant resources. Perez-Botella & Laguna (2007) sug-gested generating a list of consecutive PMR proposals by taking into account three basic issues: 1) selection and prioritization of species from bibliographic data and collection of specimens deposited in herbaria, and information gener-ated from surveys; 2) selection of places, as a result of contributions from a panel of expert botanists and local social agents (naturalists, rangers, healers) supple-mented with geographic information compiled in a GIS; and 3) legal basis, gen-erating additional legislation on matters relating to the collection, regulating its traditional development and making it compatible with the conservation of target species. It is proposed that grazing should be regulated in areas where it negatively impacts plants of medicinal interest that must be preserved.

III. Outcome

The initial phase of the project (2001-2006) produced a list of up to 42 taxa of particular relevance (Fayed et al., 2004), establishing also a theoretical and prac-tical basis for the creation of a network of PMRs. However, this project is cur-rently held back by the socio-political upheaval that has taken place in Egypt since 2011. Among the species to be included in the network, priority has been given to the taxa Nepeta septemcrenata, Origanum syriacum subsp. sinaicum (Fig. 10.1), Bufonia multiceps, Crataegus sinaica, Deverra triradiata, Phlomis au-rea, Thymus decussatus, Verbascum sinaiticum (Fig. 10.2), Anarrhinum pubescens, Plantago sinaica, Ballota kaiseri. According to Guenther (2005), establishing a plan for the number of species that are listed and which are ranked as priority ones by the MPCP, among the places where PMRs could be established, the fol-lowing sites could be proposed: 1) ‘Gebel Safsafa’ with 8 species 2) ‘Farsh The Loz’ and ‘Al-Rommana Farsh’ with 5 species 3) ‘Farsh Meseila, ’ Shaq Wadii Musa ‘, ‘ Wa-dii Al Tallaha ‘ and ’ Wadii Ahmar ‘ with 4 species. It is considered that by setting up 5 PMRs in a � rst phase, 11 species (i.e. 27% of those considered as priority ones) would be protected and subject to management measures.

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CHAPTER 10 Micro-Reserves Network for Medicinal Plants in Saint Katherine Protectorate (Sinai Peninsula, Egypt)

Figure 10.1 Origanum syriacum subsp. sinai-cum.

Figure 10.2 Verbascum sinaiticum.

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IV. References

Anonymous, 2001. Conservation and Sustainable Use of Medicinal Plants in Arid and Semi-Arid Eco-systems . Project Appraisal Document. Egyptian Environmental A� airs Agency. Egypt: El Cairo.

(http://www.thegef.org/gef/sites/thegef.org/� les/gef_prj_docs/GEFProjectDocuments/Bio-diversity/Egypt%20-%20Medicinal%20Plants/Proj%20Brief%20and%20Response-05-29-01.doc).

Fayed, A. A., El-Garf, I. A., Abdel Khalil, K. N. & Osman, A. K., 2004. Flora of Saint Catherine Protector-ate. Report for Conservation and Sustainable Use of Medicinal Plants Project in Egypt. Egyptian Environmental A� airs Agency. Egypt: El Cairo.

Guenther, R., 2005. Vegetation grazing in the St. Katherine Protectorate, South Sinai, Egypt Report on plant surveys done during Operation Wallacea expeditions during 2005. OpWall Plant Report. Operation Wallacea project. (http://opwall.com/wp-content/uploads/Rebecca_� nal_report1-plants-egypt.pdf).

Guenther, R., Gilbert, F., Zalat, S. & Salem, K.A., 2005. Vegetation grazing in the St. Katherine Pro-tectorate, South Sinai, Egypt. Egyptian Journal of Biology 7: 55-66.

Khedr, A., Cadotte, M. W., El-Keblawy, A. & Lovett-Doust, J., 2002. Phylogenetic diversity and eco-logical features in the Egyptian � ora. Biodiversity and Conservation 11: 1809-1824.

Perez-Botella, J & Laguna, E., 2007. Proposal for the establishment of a plant microreserve network for medicinal plants in St. Katherine’s Protectorate. Mission report for the Medicinal Plants Conser-vation Project. Unpublished report. Egyptian Environmental A� airs Agency. Egypt: El Cairo.

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11Rúben F. PAZ1, Sónia C. J. CATANHO1 & Miguel MENEZES DE SEQUEIRA2

1 Universidade da Madeira, Campus da Penteada, 9000 Funchal 2 Centro de Estudos Macaronésicos (CEM), Departamento de Biologia da Universidade da Madeira, Cam-pus da Penteada, 9000 Funchal

I. Introduction

This chapter summarises the results of a project developed at the University of Madeira (Portugal) according to a protocol between this institution and the Funchal City Hall. The objectives were to obtain an inventory and cartography of the areas of natural or semi-natural vegetation cover in order to propose a network of micro-reserves of the local � ora and vegetation (PMRs). The main objective was therefore to conserve the sites of ecological interest that still re-main on the limits of the Funchal County below 250 m a.s.l. In fact, Mesquita et al. (2005) refer to the paramount importance of preserving the last remaining Mediterranean plant communities, due to the fact that only residual areas were included in the Natural Park of Madeira and the Natura 2000 Network.

II. Brief Characterization of the Study Area

The Madeira archipelago is composed of three groups of islands, Porto Santo, Madeira and Desertas. The Madeira island (32°38’ and 32°52’ N and 16°39’ and 17°16’ W) is situated approximately 600 km northwest of the Western African coast and 900 km from Portugal mainland. The Island of Madeira has 737 km2 surface and the maximum altitude is reached in Pico Ruivo at 1861 m. The Funchal county is located on the south of Madeira and covers a total area of 7,630 ha. Table 11.1 summarizes the information on the forest habitats occur-ing in the island of Madeira, which are included in the Annex I of the Habitats Directive. It is important to emphasise that both the ‘Endemic macaronesian heaths’ and the ‘Macaronesian Laurel Forests’ are priority habitats for the Euro-pean Union.

Although the County of Funchal spreads from 0 to 1818 m a.s.l., the study area corresponds to the lowland infra-Mediterranean areas, below 250 m a.s.l. The potential vegetation corresponds to the following climatophyllous series:

Establishment of a PMR Network on Funchal (Madeira, Portugal): Inventory and Cartography of Natural and Semi-natural Vegetation Areas of Special Interest

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1) Mayteno umbellatae-Oleo maderensis sigmetum [series of madeiran oleaster tree]; 2) Helichryso melaleuci-Sideroxylo marmulanae sigmetum (series of mar-mulano tree), and 3) Semele androgynae-Apollonio barbujanae sigmetum (medi-terranean laurel/ barbusano-tree forest series). Although most of the former agricultural areas have been replaced by urban areas, several small landscape relicts were known to exist.

Apart from the climatophyllous and other scrub and forest habits mentioned above, other important plant communities can be found on landscape mosa-ics, such as the Musschiaetum aureae, a rupicolous community dominated by Musschia aurea (Fig. 11.1), and other endemics such as Andryala crithmifolia, Aeonium glandulosum, A. glutinosum, Sinapidendron angustifolium, Helichrysum monizii and Erysimum maderensis (Costa et al., 2004 ). These endemic rich com-munities lack protection as they are poorly represented on the protected areas of Madeira (both the Madeira Natural Park and the Natura 2000 Network).

Table 11.1 List of forest or scrub habitats and their coding according to Habitats Directive (Decree - Law no. 140/99 of the 24th of April) (Sequeira et al., 2007). Priority habitats are marked with*.

Type Code DesignationPlant communities and their phyto-

sociological correspondence

Temperate heath and scrub

4050*Endemic macaronesian heaths

High altitude heath (Polysticho falci-nelli-Ericetum arboreae) and secondary heath vegetation (Vaccinio padifoli-Ericetum maderincolae)

Thermo-Mediter-ranean and pre-steppe brush

5330

Thermo-Medi-terranean and pre-desert scrub

Scrub community of Madeiran tree-spurge (Euphorbietum piscatoriae)

Mediterranean sclerophyllous forests

9320Olea and Cera-tonia forests

Microforest of madeiran oleaster (May-teno umbellatae-Oleetum maderensis)

Mediterranean sclerophyllous forests

9360

*Macarone-sian Laurel Forests (Lau-rus, Ocotea)

Laurisilva forests (Clethro arboreae-Oco-teetum foetentis and Semele androgyna-Apollonietum barbujanae), Micro-forest of Sideroxylon marmulano (Helichryso melaleuci-Sideroxyletum marmulanae); Mahogany riverine forests of Persea indica (Diplazio caudatae-Perseetum indicae); Caulirosetted phanerophyte communities (Isoplexido sceptri-Euphor-bietum melliferae)

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CHAPTER 11 Implementation of a PMR Network on Funchal (Madeira, Portugal): In-ventory and Cartography of Natural and Semi-natural Vegetation Areas of Special Interest

III. Methodology

Orthophotos (1:5.000) (Fig. 11.2) were used to map the di� erent landscape features between 0 and 250 m a.s.l. Phytosociological relevés were used for landscape description using the vegetation model proposed by Capelo et al. (2004) . This initial approach was complemented by � oristic and phytosociological relevés. The data obtained allowed a qualitative and semi quantitative evaluation of � oristic and ecological diversity, endemism, as well as the listing of each site’s species and habitats included in the Habitats Directive and Bern Convention. For each site several other landscape features were registered including: constructions, trails, roads, threats (e.g. trash deposi-tion, evidence of recent � res, etc.) All data were included in a GIS using ArcGIS 9.2.

IV. Outcome and Conclusions

A total of 60 Macaronesian endemic taxa and 35 Madeira exclusive endemics could be found revealing a remarkable richness. Thirteen taxa are included in the Annexes of the Habitats Directive, two being priority taxa (Chamaemeles coriacea Lindl. and Convolvulus massonii F. Dietr.), and one included in the Bern Convention -Musschia aurea (L.f.) Dumort. In the valleys of the rivers João Gomes, Santa Luzia, São João, Socorridos and Gonçalo Aires remains of the endemic laurel forest Semele androgynae-Apollonietum barbujanae could still be found, they correspond to a priority habitat (HD). Other for-est habitats included in the Habi-tats Directive correspond to: Eu-phorbietum piscatoriae (HD 5330), Mayteno umbellatae-Oleetum ma-derensis (HD9320), Myrto commu-nis-Hypericetum canariensis (DH 9360), Helichryso melaleuci-Sider-oxyletum marmulanae (DH 9360), Artemisio argenteae-Genistetum tenerae (DH 5330), Sonchetum pin-

Figure 11.2 Orthophoto of Funchal (photo: R.F. Paz, S.C.J. Catanho & M.M. Sequeira).

Figure 11.1 Musschia aurea (photo: R.F. Paz, S.C.J. Cat-anho & M.M. Sequeira).

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nati (DH 1250), Scrophulario hirtae-Salicetum canariensis (DH 9360) , Sedo nudi-Aeonietum glutinosae (DH 1250), Musschiaetum aureae (DH 1250) and Crithmo-Helichrysetum obconicae (DH 1250). Apart from these communities, others were also found e.g. Deschampsietum argenteae, a madicolous Madeiran endemic community.

From a total of 148 studied sites (ranging from 198 square meters to 18 ha) seven were selected to be included in a PMR network (four in Socorrido’s val-ley and Chão da Loba, Pináculo and Garajau with a site each), these ranging from 9.833 square meters to 2.2 ha. The selected sites are located in the valleys of rivers and cli� s, an orographic protection that prevented their destruction by human activities. These refuge areas are good examples of past indigenous vegetation that disappeared due to agricultural and urban development. We propose that these sites should be included in a PMR network (Laguna, 2001; Laguna et al. 2004 ) and preserved from increasing pressures such as nearby buildings, trash and debris deposition and competition with alien species.

V. Acknowledgements

This project was carried out due to the interest and commitment of Henrique Costa Neves (Councilman in the City Hall of Funchal); we also express our spe-cial thanks to Virginia Valente. An ArcGis 9.2. licence was kindly provided by Esri Portugal-Sistemas e Informação Geográ� ca SA.

VI. References

Capelo, J., Menezes de Sequeira, M., Jardim, R. & Costa, J. C., 2004. Guia da Excursão geobotânica dos V Encontros Alfa 2004 à ilha da Madeira. In Capelo, J., 2004. A paisagem vegetal da Ilha da Madeira. Quercetea, 6: 5-45.

Costa, J. C., Capelo, J., Jardim, R., Menezes de Sequeira, M., Espírito-Santo, D., Lousã, M., Fontinha, S., Aguiar, C. & Rivas-Martínez, S., 2004. Catálogo sintaxonómico e � orístico das comunidades vegetais da Madeira e Porto Santo. In Capelo, J., 2004. A paisagem vegetal da Ilha da Madeira. Quercetea, 6: 61-185.

Laguna, E., 2001. The micro-reserves as a tool for conservation of threatened plants in Europe. Nature & Environment series nº 121. Council of Europe. France: Strasbourg.

Laguna, E., Deltoro, V. I., Pérez-Botella, J., Pérez-Rovira, P., Serra, Ll., Olivares, A. & Fabregat, C., 2004. The role of small reserves in plant conservation in a region of high diversity in eastern Spain. Biological Conservation 119: 421–426.

Mesquita, S., Menezes de Sequeira, M. & Capelo, J., 2005. Floristical Biodiversity hotspots and nature conservation areas in Madeira, Portugal. In Espírito Santo, M.D. & Monteiro, A. (eds.), 2005. Abstracts 48th Annual Symposium of the International Association of Vegetation Science. Lisbon, July 24-29th: 112. ISA Press, Departamento de Protecção de Plantas e de Fitoecologia. Portugal: Lisbon.

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12Plant Micro-Reserves as a Tool for the Protection of Endangered Flora: the Bizkaia Case (Basque Country, Spain)

Juan Antonio CAMPOS1, Diego LIENDO1, Amador PRIETO2, Gustavo RENOBALES2 & Mercedes HERRERA1

1 Departamento de Biología Vegetal y Ecología (Botánica). Facultad de Ciencia y Tecnología. Universidad del País Vasco. Apdo. 644. 48080 Bilbao (España)2 Sociedad de Ciencias Naturales de Sestao. C/Los Baños nº 55. 48910 Sestao (España)

I. Introduction

This project arises from a proposal made by the Provincial Council of Bizkaia (Basque Country) to assess the possibility of creating a network of PMRs after the model developed by the regional government of the Valencian Community. The territory of Bizkaia covers an area of 2,217 km2 in the north of the Iberian Peninsula. Despite its small size, it has a population of over one million inhabit-ants, which results in a very high anthropogenic pressure on the environment.

II. Objectives

The main purpose for the creation of a network of PMRs in Bizkaia is the pro-tection of threatened plants included in the Basque Catalogue of Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora -the o� cial list of protected species-, as well as those singular species deserving special protection. The network also provides for the protection of the habitats where these species grow, especially those of Com-munity interest included in the European Union’s Directive 92/43/EEC.

III. Species and Habitats to be Protected by Plant Micro-Reserves

The analysis of the degree of presence of threatened plant species within the existing network of protected natural areas of Bizkaia revealed that 28 of these taxa had all their populations outside the network, whereas nine of them were poorly represented. Therefore, a total of 37 threatened plant species were con-sidered as priority ones for inclusion within a network of micro-reserves, should such a network was created. Some signi� cant examples are Chamaesyce peplis (Critically Endangered, CR) (Fig. 12.1), Culcita macrocarpa (CR), Epipactis phyl-

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lanthes (CR), Genista legionensis (CR) and Armeria euscadiensis (VU), the latter being an endemic species of the Basque coast.

Regarding habitats, 9 habitats of Community interest (Annex I of Habitats Directive), including 4 priority ones, are poorly represented in the net-work of existing protected natural areas (<20% of their surface included within the current net-work). Thus, PMRs could complement the protec-tion already a� orded by the existing protected areas’ network. The codes of these habitats in the Annex I of the Directive 92/43/CEE are: 1210, 1230, 4040*, 6210*, 6220*, 8220, 91E0*, 9240 and 9260.

IV. Methodology

Data on threatened plant species were obtained from the database used in the drafting of the Red List of Vascular Flora of the Basque Country. For each species we obtained information on the number of 1x1 km UTM squares, in which the species is present (each grid cell is considered to represent a single population) as well as the inclusion or not of these squares within the Natura 2000 network. For habitats we used habitat cartography as well as current vegetation and land use mapping of the Basque Country.

The selection of the areas of special botanical interest proposed as PMRs, which were all located outside the Natura 2000 network, was based on two cri-teria: (1) presence of threatened and/or singular species of � ora and (2) pres-ence of vegetation units that can be ascribed to habitats of Community interest. A GIS programme was used in order to manage available information.

V. Outcome

We identi� ed seven areas in our territory which accounted for a signi� cant number of the 1x1 km UTM squares that contain a large number of threatened plants. Of these, 3 are within SCIs, whilst the remaining 4 are largely outside SCIs.

Twenty sites were proposed as an open catalogue of Sites of Special Interest for Plants that could accommodate PMRs in the future. All of them are located outside the network of protected natural areas of Bizkaia, although micro-re-serves could also be established within their boundaries. We believe that the species and/or habitats outside these areas should be given priority in the de-velopment of a network of PMRs. Of the 20 proposed sites, 9 shelter streams and ravines on sandstones while 6 and 5 are located on mountain and coastal areas, respectively.

Figure 12.1 Chamaesyce peplis (photo: J.A. Campos).

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13Plant Micro-Reserves inCastilla y Leόn (Spain)

Alberto SALDAÑA1, Francisco AMICH2, Federico FERNÁNDEZ-GONZÁLEZ3, Emilio PUENTE4 & Enrique RICO2

1 Servicio de Espacios Naturales, Dirección General del Medio Natural, Consejería de Fomento y Medio Ambiente, Junta de Castilla y León, c/Rigoberto Cortejoso, 14. E-47014 Valladolid2 Departamento de Botánica, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de Salamanca, E-37007 Salamanca3 Facultad de Ciencias Ambientales y Bioquímica, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, E-45071 Toledo4 Departamento de Biodiversidad y Gestión Ambiental (Botánica), Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas y Ambi-entales, Universidad de León, E-24071 León

I. Introduction

Castilla y León is a region of northern Spain, straddling the Mediterranean and Euro-Siberian biogeographical regions. It covers a surface of approximately 94,000 km2 and it consists of an extensive high plateau in the centre surrounded by peripheral mountain ranges. In 2001, the regional administration undertook a speci� c course of action for the conservation of wild � ora, driven by obliga-tions under the Habitats Directive 92/43/EEC. Thus, the regional administra-tion, in collaboration with the Univeristies of Salamanca and León, developed a large database, which compiled all the citations and references that provided information on the geographical distribution of the species of vascular � ora of Castile and Leon. This database includes data from both literature (scienti� c ar-ticles, dissertations, etc.) as well as from the material deposited in the herbaria of these Universities. In late 2002, it already contained over 350,000 citations. This allowed the administration to make an initial draft of the Catalogue of the Vascular Flora of Castilla y León (approximately 3,300 species) and to develop a � rst list of threatened � ora. In order to protect these species, an administrative regulation was passed, Decree 63/2007, which included a total of 301 species in various categories of threat and also established a new protection legal entity called ’Plant Micro-Reserve’.

II. Objectives and Procedures

The goal of creating a network of PMRs is to ensure an e� ective protection of the species included in the aforementioned Decree 63/2007, especially those

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which face a greater degree of threat. The Decree states that the sites to be de-clared as PMRs must ful� l two requirements: they hold at least one species of protected � ora and do not exceed 200 ha in size. In the event of the area being of private property, an additional requirement is established: the owners’ con-sent. The declaration procedure involves a public information procedure and the hearing of stakeholders.

The declaration of a particular site as PMR entails a number of generic limita-tions, such as a prohibition to disturb the soil, dump waste or chemicals, carry out mining activities, drain or modify water regimes, destruct vegetation or stock cattle at inadequate densities. Further limitations can be added in the norm by which PMRs are declared. Additionally, the PMRs provide for the pos-sibility of establishing management agreements with landowners.

III. Species and Sites to be Protected

In order to have an initial proposal of sites where PMRs could be established, the regional administration has again collaborated with the mentioned Universities, as well as with that of Castilla-La Mancha, which have selected 90 sites that meet the previously mentioned requirements. These sites incclude a viriety of habi-tats, among which: very slightly disturbed forests, both Atlantic and Mediter-ranean high mountain areas, bog areas, sub-halophylous enclaves, etc.

It is noteworthy that the site selection and preparation of reports on each PMR proposal is carried out simultaneously with the development of revisions of the distribution, biology, ecology and conservation threats for each of the species.

Overall, the proposal would o� er protection to the majority of the 301 spe-cies listed in the regional Decree, as it is presented below:

• In the relatively small area covered by the 90 proposed PMRs (6,230 ha, or just 0.007% of the total regional surface), 211 out of the 301 species pro-tected by Decree 63/2007 can be found.

• 30 of the PMRs shelter, each, 5 or more protected species, while only 17 are home to a single protected species.

• The analysis by categories is also satisfactory:

1. Of the 17 species which are listed in the category “endangered - EN”, 15 are included in a proposed PMR. These 15 species are: Androsace cantabrica, Antirrhinum lopesianum, Astragalus devesae, Carex lainzii, Delphinium � s-sum subsp. sordidum (Fig. 13.1), Drosera longifolia, Echium cantabricum, Erodium paularense, Geranium dolomiticum, Gyrocaryum oppositifolium (Fig. 13.2), Luronium natans, Omphalodes brassicifolia, Puccinellia fascicu-lata subsp. pungens, Pseudomisopates rivas-martinezii y Senecio coincyi.

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99CHAPTER 13 Plant Micro-Reserves in Castilla Y Leόn (Spain)

2. Of the 48 species catalogued as vulnerable (‘VU’), 43 are included in a proposed PMR.

3. Of the 230 species ‘under preferential monitoring’ 147 are included in a proposed PMR. Some of them are present in between 2 and 5 micro-re-serves.

IV. Current Problems

The declaration of the PMR network is encountering more di� culties than an-ticipated, the most obvious being those arising from the current economic situ-ation, with a signi� cant reduction in available funds and personnel. This hinders the establishment of PMRs on private land where agreements were expected to be reached on the basis of some kind of � nancial compensation that currently seems unfeasible. But these are not the only di� culties. In a region as large and relatively well preserved as ours, conservation work carried out at a scale as small as this, has not always enjoyed the necessary understanding.

Figure 13.1 Delphinium � ssum subsp. sordidum (photo: F. Amich).

Figure 13.2 Gyrocaryum oppositifolium (photo: A. Saldana).

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It seems necessary to achieve better knowledge of wild � ora and better ap-preciation (by the society in general) of the importance of the rarest species, which is likely to have an impact on the setting of policy priorities, and also, more pressingly and speci� cally, by the sta� (technicians, wardens, etc.) in-volved in nature conservation, in whom we see a willingness and a huge de-mand for information. In any case, even during the declaration process, these areas are taken into account by environmental managers, in the drafting of re-ports and environmental impact assessments, so that from the moment the list of potential sites has become available they enjoy some kind of supervision by the administration so as to prevent their deterioration.

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14Plant Micro-Reserves in the Murcia Region (South-Eastern Spain)

Miguel Ángel CARRIÓN1, Justo GARCÍA1 , Juan GUERRA2 & Pedro SÁNCHEZ-GÓMEZ2

1 Servicio de Biodiversidad, Caza y Pesca Fluvial. Dirección General de Medio Ambiente. Consejería de Presidencia. Región de Murcia2 Grupo de Investigación E005/07. Departamento de Biología Vegetal (Botánica). Universidad de Murcia. Campus de Espinardo s/n. 30100. Murcia

I. Introduction

The Autonomous Community of the Murcia Region is located in the southeast of the Iberian Peninsula and has an approximate area of 11,000 km2, with a max-imum elevation range of more than 2,000 m. In this region, frost-free territo-ries coexist with others where frosts are common and the annual rainfall ranges from 200 to 600 mm. Add to this a complex topography and the outcome will be the di� erent microclimates that characterise the province. On top of these, there is a wide geological variety that accounts for the rich edaphic typology to be found in Murcia. Finally, stochasticity must be taken into account, as well as natural history and human in� uence so as to explain the occurrence of about 2000 species of vascular plants (Sánchez-Gómez & Guerra, 2011).

II. Methodology and Objectives

Work to identify sites of interest for plants began in 1987, with the rise of the Department of Plant Biology (Botany), University of Murcia. This university de-partment drafted a catalogue of natural sites of interest of the Murcia region, in the framework of a comprehensive inventory of the regional plant heritage for the Department of Social Policy and Public Works. These documents remained in oblivion until 1999, when the cooperation of the Regional Directors with the area of Botany was resumed. As a result of this renewed collaboration, a micro-reserve list was drafted and reported in 2005 (Sanchez-Gomez et al., 2005). Sub-sequently, in 2007 and, as a result of the joint work between the University of Murcia and the Ministry of Environment, new areas were added to the previous proposal.

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The establishment of the network allows the achievement of several objec-tives, which include the creation of a network of monitoring plots for protected vascular plant species, thus ensuring biotope protection for these species and their habitats. The following actions are carried out within the network: 1) regu-lar monitoring of populations of rare, endemic or endangered species as well as other in situ measures deemed necessary; 2) ex situ conservation measures, such as periodic seed harvesting for gene banks; 3) signage and passive routing for visitors (path signals, roped tracks, etc.); 4) plot fencing to study the e� ect of wild herbivore exclusion or selective grazing, where this is the main threat; 5) population reinforcements of threatened species, mainly aimed at � xing the ex-perimental protocols; 6) reintroduction of locally extinct species under scienti� c supervision; 7) controlled cultivation and propagation of endangered species; 8) genetic and molecular studies; 9) testing and � ne-tuning of germination pro-tocols of wild plant species; 10) calculating the risk of extinction, etc.

III. Outcome

The 2005 draft incorporates almost all protected plant species at regional level (Decree 50/2003, Anonymous, 2003). The network includes 93%, 95% and 84% of the plants listed under the Endangered, Vulnerable and Of Special Interest categories, respectively. This proposal also includes the vast majority of protect-ed plant species at national level -by Law 42/2007 (Anonymous, 2007) and Royal Decree 139/2011 (Anonymous, 2011)- with 75% of the plants listed as Endan-gered and 100% of the species under the Special Protection Regime and Vulner-able categories. Also included in the draft were 41 habitat types of Community interest, which account for 77% of those mapped in the Murcia region.

In 2007, other proposed sites were included, most of them corresponding to unprotected areas, although publicly owned or in the public domain. If this protection � gure is � nally implemented it could prove particularly relevant for species that are poorly represented in both the Protected Natural Areas Network or in the Natura 2000 network, as occurs for example with Asparagus maritimus (Fig. 14.1), an asparagus growing in dune habitats and considered as Critically Endangered in the last national list with the new IUCN criteria (Moreno, 2008). Or even for unprotected Endangered Species such as Helianthemum motae.

The choice of sites was based primarily on data collected for the elaboration of the Red Book of Wild Protected Flora of the Murcia Region (Sánchez-Gómez et al., 2002), which represented the technical basis of Decree 50/2003 as well as on speci� c botanical works, developed by the research team at the University of Murcia and the prior knowledge of areas of high botanical interest (Alcaraz et al., 1987). In general, we have included the populations of threatened taxa, rare and/or endemic to the region.

In the 1987 list, 44 areas were considered of natural botanical interest. In the 2005 proposal, 89 micro-reserves were planned, whilst in the 2007 proposal the

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number reached 102 with a total surface less than 3500 ha. Additional data on the sites and relevant species can be found at the websites (in Spanish) http://www.� oraprotegida.es/microrreservas.php and http://www.murcianatural.carm.es/geocatalogo/.

As for the legal status of micro-reserves, the Regional Ministry responsibile for the environment made an attempt to declare them; this attempt unfortu-nately failed due to the simultaneous adoption of Law 42/2007 (Anonymous, 2007). The new Law on Nature Conservation and Biodiversity of the Region of Murcia, currently undergoing processing, provides legal protection for the plant micro-reserves.

IV. References

Alcaraz F. J., Egea, J. M.,. Carrión, J. S., De la Torre, A., García, A., Ríos, S., Robledo, A. & Sánchez-Gómez, P., 1987. El patrimonio vegetal de la Región de Murcia. Unpublished report. Comunidad Autónoma de la Región de Murcia. Spain: Murcia.

Anonymous, 2003. Decreto n.º 50/2003, de 30 de mayo por el que se crea el Catálogo Regional de Flora Silvestre Protegida de la Región de Murcia y se dictan normas para el aprovechamiento

Figure 14.1 Asparagus maritimus (photo: J. Lopez & J. Robles).

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de diversas especies forestales. Boletín O� cial de la Región de Murcia, núm. 131.

Anonymous, 2007. Ley 42/2007, de 13 de diciembre, del Patrimonio Natural y de la Biodiversidad. Boletín O� cial del Estado núm. 299.

Anonymous, 2011. Real Decreto 139/2011, de 4 de febrero, para el desarrollo del Listado de Especies Silvestres en Régimen de Protección Especial y del Catálogo Español de Especies Amenazadas. Boletín O� cial del Estado núm. 46.

Moreno, J. C. (coord.), 2008. Lista Roja 2008 de la � ora vascular española. Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, y Medio Rural y Marino, y Sociedad Española de Biología de la Conservación de Plantas. Spain: Madrid.

Sánchez, P., Carrión, M. Á., Hernández, A. & Guerra, J., 2002. Libro rojo de la � ora silvestre protegida de la Región de Murcia. 2 vols. Dirección General del Medio Natural. Spain: Murcia.

Sánchez-Gómez, P. & Guerra, J. (eds.), 2011. Nueva Flora de Murcia. Spain: Murcia.

Sánchez-Gómez, P., Guerra, J., Rodríguez, E., Vera, J. B., López, J. A., Jiménez, J. F., Fernández, S. & Hernández, A., 2005. Lugares de Interés Botánico de la Región de Murcia. Dirección General del Medio Natural. Spain: Cartagena.

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15Legal Framework for Plant Micro-Reserves

Emilio LAGUNA1,2 & Vicente DELTORO1

1 Generalitat Valenciana, Servicio de Vida Silvestre, c/Francesc Cubells, 11. E-46011 Valencia2 Generalitat Valenciana, CIEF, Avda. Comarques País Valencià 114, E-46930 Quart de Poblet, Valencia

I. Introduction

One of the essential conditions of PMR is their legal protection, within the legal framework of each country, region or other territorial ranges with regulatory capacity. Di� erent legislations may adopt PMR under di� erent names, provided that the criteria we have indicated in the section ‘concept of PMR’ are met. In fact, with the exception of the network operating system, many nature reserves, nat-ural monuments or other protected natural spaces of small dimension, whose objective has been the protection of certain plant taxa since the middle of the twentieth century, could in fact be considered PMRs (Laguna, 2001). However, in reverse, the legal framework existing in a given territory can in� uence substan-tially the possibilities of creating PMRs or designating an equivalent under other names (Dulloo et al., 2008), usually as a result of the complicated procedures required to modify existing regulations, especially if they have to be approved by parliaments or councils of national or regional governments.

The typology of protected areas for � ora, and some equivalent forms of habi-tat protection, is relatively varied (Klemm, 1997; Klemm & Shine, 1996) and it can be said that there is virtually no country in Europe that has a model of ter-ritorial protection similar to another, with the exception of those resulting from a recent and agreed split of a former larger country, as is the case of the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Nonentheless, the guidelines for these types of sites do not di� er substantially from the characteristics of other types of protected ar-eas, indicatively de� ned by Lausche (2011).

Exceptionally, in countries where the legislation on the rights of private property reaches a remarkable importance in regard to nature conservation –e.g. Great Britain– it could be admitted that sites not legally protected, but given over inde� nitely to plant conservation could well be considered PMRs. This exceptional decision would be based on the most recent criteria for IUCN protected areas as described by Dudley (2008: 8-9): ‘A protected area is a clearly de� ned geographical space, recognised, dedicated and managed, through le-

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108 PART 5 PMRs IN PRACTICE

gal or other e� ective means, to achieve long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values’. Relevant examples would be many of the private nature reserves maintained by Plantlife in Britain.

II. Plant Micro-Reserves Under the Conceptual Framework of IUCN Natural Protected Areas

Although Leroux et al. (2010) have stressed the relevant role of small-protected areas in conservation, these have not found accommodation under any of the categories of protected areas described by the IUCN (1994). Considering such categories in their original conception, PMRs could be regarded in most cases as small-scale expressions of Category IV ‘Habitat/Species Management Area’, such as habitats that are or will be subject to conservation management and which do not necessarily have restrictions on human use or access compatible with conservation. This category accommodates well small-sized areas (Laguna, 2001), since high levels of naturalness required by other categories –see below– mean, almost intuitively, that they should be located in large and well preserved environments. Considering recent approaches – Dudley (2008), Dudley & Phil-lips (2006), Boitani et al. (2008) based on the recommendations by Bishop et al. (2004) – which tend to put more emphasis on the functionality of the areas rather than in their management regimes, many of the PMRs would correspond to the categories ‘Strict Nature Reserve’/’Area Managed mainly for science or wilderness protection’ or more easily to ‘Wilderness Area’/’Area Managed Mainly for wilderness protection ‘.

Dudley & Phillips (2006: 21) also mention that in certain Latin American countries, some protected areas that are subject to management similar to that of natural reserves are being named ‘micro reserves’, and that they � t better in the V ‘Protected landscape/seascape ‘/’Area managed mainly for landscape/seascape conservation or recreation’, but this interpretation is usually applied only to sites whose extension is actually larger than those discussed herein, or to sustainably managed forestry exploitations subject to certi� cation and with a high degree of naturalness.

III. Regulatory Frameworks

Roughly considering the legal frameworks, the � rst delimitation to be made is that of the legal name of the protected area. At least three options are possible:

1. PMR. Strictly speaking, PMRs focus on the conservation of one or more spe-cies of wild plants, although the concept is also often generically applied to fungi, including lichens, or habitats or unique vegetation types.

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2. Micro-Reserve (=MR), whose objective is to achieve a global protection of the natural environment, usually based on one or more outstanding fea-tures. When an MR is declared primarily for the protection of plants or veg-etation types, it is in fact a PMR.

3. Small Protected Areas (=SPA) under other designations (nature reserves, na-tional parks, natural monuments, protected forest areas, etc.).

Within the community of experts on � ora and plant conservation there is a consensus regarding the legal recognition of PMRs. Such aspiration can be futile owing to the excessive rigidity of existing legal frameworks, which are some-times very di� cult to amend, requiring legislative changes to be adopted by national or regional parliaments. Hence, it may be much easier to adopt two practical solutions in SPAs:

1. to retain the name of the generic designation and to include the name PMR in the ‘title’ or legal name of the speci� c site to be protected: e.g. Natural Monument ‘Plant Micro of ... ‘ for a site or particular species.

2. to include the name PMR, at least in the signage, interpretive boards, text management rules, etc.

As a particular example of the � rst alternative, the Spanish legal framework (Anonymous, 2007) allows that recovery plans of threatened species –which in Spain are subject to regulatory approval and are published in the O� cial Ga-zette– contain areas speci� cally designated for the conservation of species, with speci� c limitations to be established. These sites are often named in most Autonomous Communities as ‘conservation area’ or ‘recovery area’. In a recent workshop in Guipúzcoa (Basque Country), on the future coordinated approval of more than 50 recovery plans for endangered plants, it was suggested that the speci� c name of each of the conservation areas include the term PMR.

An important issue is that the PMR concept implies that the sites will be ac-tively managed for conservation. Therefore, areas which are subject only to pas-sive or preventive protection, namely those based on the simple avoidance of impacts, should not be considered PMRs unless in the cases of strict reserves. Laguna (2001) included in this section examples such as those of the British SSSI or several of the so-called PEIN Areas in Catalonia (Spain), which have no speci� c management rules for each protected area, but general limitations for owners, visitors, etc. In fact, if owners of SSSIs do not receive a negative reply in a short time –and the corresponding economic compensation– by the competent au-thority in response to a demand to carry out a particular activity that involves the destruction of the protected site, they can proceed with their initiative, with the ensuing devaluation or elimination of natural values. Thus, new SSSIs must be declared continuously since it is estimated that each year up to 5% of the areas previously protected by the same system are lost or degraded (Laguna, 2001).

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Model 1: Legal frameworks as Plant Micro-Reserves

The government of Valencia, Spain, drafted the � rst legal proposal for the cre-ation of PMRs in 1994, even before that of MR. According to the precept that established PMRs legally –Decree 218/1994 (Anonymous, 1994) –, these would be areas rich in rare, endemic or threatened � ora up to 20 ha in size, to be de-clared on public or private land, provided that owners accepted a permanent limitation on land use, which would be given over to the conservation and man-agement of plant species or particular types of vegetation. The goal of PMR was to become part of a network of sites representative of the Valencian botanical uniqueness and diversity (Fig. 15.1). Within PMRs, hunting and other tradition-al activities would be generally permitted, but might be restricted in particu-lar sites if speci� cally provided for in their corresponding management plans, which are approved by the same legal precept by which the PMRs themselves are established. Subsequently, a di� erent precept established a compensation and incentive scheme to encourage the creation of PMRs within sites owned by natural or legal entities –see speci� c section in this book. Additionally, a stan-dard for signs to be used in their delimitation was established (Anonymous, 1996). The ensuing declarations of PMRs have been published in the O� cial Ga-zette of the Generalitat Valenciana, since 1998 (Anonymous, 1998). Some issues that were not originally thought of, such as marine PMR, are now dealt with by Decree 70/2009 (Anonymous, 2009) which in turn modi� es the goal of the new micro-reserves to be established in the future, so that the emphasis is now put on conservation of threatened � ora and not so much on preservation of en-demic species (Fig. 15.2).

Figure 15.1PMR ‘Marjal dels Moro’, speci� cally declared to protect the best population known of the Valencian endemic Limonium dufourii (Girard) Kuntze (photo: E. Laguna).

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In 2007, Decree 74/2007 of the government of the autonomous region of Castilla y León was passed. This legal precept established PMRs as a legal pro-tection tool for this Spanish region. Although similar in philosophy to Valencia PMRs, they di� er with regard to some issues, such as their surface, which can be larger –up to 200 ha– and the fact that they can be established on private land without the owner’s consent. Additionally, active conservation management is not an established legal requirement in Castilian PMRs. However, private owners can, by virtue of collaboration agreements with the local government, promote the development of such actions.

More recently, as an outcome of two LIFE projects for the establishment of networks of micro-reserves in the province of Chania (Crete, Greece) and Cyprus, their corresponding national regulations have been amended to speci� cally in-clude the name of PMR among the provisions relating to protected woodlands or natural areas. In the case of Greece, the amendments were adopted in 2009, while in Cyprus they are currently being developed –see speci� c sections on the PMR of Crete and Cyprus in this book.

Model 2: Legal frameworks as Micro-Reserves (MR)

MRs appear in various regulations with the maximum legal range. In the case of Spain, they are included in the regulatory framework of two regions:

• Castilla-La Mancha: Law 9/1999, of May 26, on Conservation of Nature (Anon-ymous, 1999).

• Balearic islands: Law 5/2005, of 26 May, Conservation of Relevant areas (Anonymous, 2005)

The regulatory framework in both cases is relatively similar and close to the na-ture reserves included under IIb IUCN category. However, the development of the two legal frameworks has been very di� erent, according to the executive will of regional executives, so that whilst in Castilla-La Mancha there has been an

Figure 15.2Summer aspect of the Mediterranean temporary pond ‘La-guna de Talayuelas’ (Cuenca, Castilla-La Mancha, Spain), a MR both focusing on the � ora, fauna and other natural elements (photo: E. Laguna).

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112 PART 5 PMRs IN PRACTICE

active policy of MR establishment (Martin-Herrero et al., 2004), as described in a speci� c chapter of this book, MRs are still to be developed in full in the Balearic Islands (Fig. 15.3).

At the national level, MRs have a legal status in Latvia. Article 13 of the Lat-vian Law on Protection of Species and Habitats (TTC, 2005) –adopted on March 16th, 2000 – creates MRs. Article 4.4 states that the Cabinet of Ministers deter-mines the legal precept by which MRs are established. The e� ective designation and management of MRs corresponds to the State Forest Service and the State Fishery Board within the territories under their jurisdiction, and to the Ministry responsible for environmental issues in the remaining areas and within nature reserves and national parks, when zoning within protected areas provides insuf-� cient protection to particular plant or animal species. MRs can include both public and private land, although the latter can bene� t from speci� c compensa-tions through the law passed by the Saeima, Parliament of the Republic of Lat-via, on June 30, 2005, entitled ‘On the Rights of Landowners to Compensation for Restrictions on Economic Activities in Specially Protected Territories and Mi-cro-Reserves’ (TTC, 2007). In the case of MRs in forest land, the ‘Nature Protection Regulations in Forest Management’ (TTC, 2002), Regulation No. 189 adopted by the Cabinet of Ministers on May 8, 2001, establishes special regulations for MRs –including some speci� c limitations or the creation of bu� ers– particularly, for those established for wildlife conservation. Additionally, there are supplemen-tary provisions in the ‘Law on the Conservation of Species and Biotopes’, adopt-ed on 16 March 2000, with several amendments made until 2009 (VVC, 2010). More detailed information on these rules can be found in the speci� c chapter of this book on the Latvian MRs.

Model 3: Legal frameworks as Special Protected Areas

Most European countries have protection tools in their respective legal frame-works, which are, in fact, managed as PMRs (Laguna, 2001). Nevertheless, to

Figure 15.3Temporary pond

‘Torre Llafuda’ (Men-orca) with traditional dry stone walls, pro-posed as PMR under

the Balearic laws (photo: E. Laguna).

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date, their legal recognition as such is pending only in Bulgaria –see speci� c chapter in this book–. In this country, a functional di� erentiation between dif-ferent types of nature reserves has been already set, in accordance with the main objectives of protection (botanical, zoological, etc., cf. Laguna, op. cit.) (Fig. 15.4).

IV. International Regulatory Support

PMRs have been speci� cally mentioned in international documents of techni-cal and political consensus. These documents can be useful when fostering the designation of PMRs as a legal tool within national or regional legislations. A � ne example worth mentioning is the European Strategy for Plant Conserva-tion (Smart et al., 2002), arising from the collaboration between the Council of Europe and the European platform for conservation of wild � ora, Planta Europa. In a similar geographical area but with a greater degree of international support, Resolution 2.68 of the World Conservation Congress in Amman (IUCN, 2000) should also be mentioned.

Figure 15.4Visit of the attendants to the meeting on Bulgarian PMRs (June 2007) to the microsite hold-ing a population of Lathyrus pancicii Adamov., proposed to be converted into a protected PMR (photo: E. Laguna).

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V. References

Anonymous, 1994. Decreto 218/1994, de 17 de octubre, del Gobierno Valenciano, por el que se crea y regula la � gura de protección denominada Microrreserva Vegetal. Diari O� cial de la Generalitat Valenciana, núm. 2.378.

Anonymous, 1996. Orden de 5 de diciembre de 1995, por la que se regula la señalización de las microrrservas vegetales. Diari O� cial de la Generalitat Valenciana, núm. 2.658.

Anonymous, 1998. Orden de 16 de noviembre de 1998, de la Conselleria de Medio Ambiente, por la que se declaran 14 microrreservas vegetales en la provincia de Castellón. Diari O� cial de la Generalitat Valenciana, núm. 3.385.

Anonymous, 1999. Ley 9/1999, de 26 de mayo, de Conservación de la Naturaleza. Diario O� cial de Castilla-La Mancha, núm. 45.

Anonymous, 2005. Ley 5/2005, de 26 de mayo, para la Conservación de Espacios de Relevancia Ambiental. Butlletí O� cial de les Illes Balears, núm. 85.

Anonymous, 2007. Decreto 63/2007, de 14 de junio, por el que se crean el Catálogo de Flora Protegida de Castilla y León y la � gura de protección denominada Micerorreserva de Flora. Boletín O� cial de Castilla y León núm. 119.

Anonymous, 2009. Decreto 70/2009, de 22 de mayo, del Consell, por el que se crea y regula el Catálogo Valenciano de Especies de Flora Amenazadas y se regulan medidas adicionales para su conservación. Diari O� cial de la Comunitat Valenciana núm. 6.021.

Bishop, K., Dudley, N., Phillips, A. & Stolton, S., 2004. Speaking a common language – the uses and performance of the IUCN System of Management Categories for Protected Areas. Cardi� Univer-sity, IUCN and UNEP/WCMC. UK: Cardi� .

Boitani, L., Cowlking, R. M., Dubin, H. T., Mace, G. M., Parrish, J., Possingham, H. P., Pressey, R. L., Rondinini, C. & Wilson, K. A., 2008. Change the IUCN protected area categories to re� ect biodi-versity outcomes. PLoS Biology 6: 436-438.

Dudley, N. (ed.), 2008. Guidelines for applying Protected Area Management Categories. IUCN. Swit-zerland: Gland.

Dudley, N. & Phillips, A., 2006. Forest and Protected Areas. Guidance on the use of IUCN protecetd area management categories. Best Practice Protected Area Guidelines Series, nº 12WCPA. IUCN. Switzerland and UK: Gland and Cambridge.

Dulloo, M.E., Labokas, J., Iriondo, J. M., Maxted, N., Lane, A., Laguna, E., Jarvis, A. & Kell, S. P., 2008. Genetic Reserve location and design. In Iriondo, J. M, Maxted, N. & Dulloo, M. E. (eds.), 2008. Conserving Plant Genetic Diversity in Protected Areas. Population management of Crop Wild Rela-tives: 23-64. CABI. UK: Wallingford.

IUCN, 1994. Guidelines for Protected Area Management Categories. CNPPA with the assistance of WCMC. UK: Cambridge.

IUCN, 2000. Resolution 2.68. Conservation of plants in Europe. Resolutions du Congrés Mondiale de Conservation. International Union for Nature Conservation. Jordan: Amman. Available at:

http://www.iucn.org/amman/content/resolutions/res68.pdf.

Klemm, C. de, 1997. Comparative analysis of the e� ectiveness of legislation for the protection of wild � ora in Europe. Nature and Environment series nº 88. Council of Europe. France: Strasbourg.

Klemm, C. de & Shine, C., 1996. Legal measures for the conservation of natural areas. Nature and Environment Series, Nº 82. Council of Europe. France: Strasbourg.

Laguna, E., 2001. The micro-reserves as a tool for conservation of threatened plants in Europe. Nature and Environment series nº 121. Council of Europe. France: Strasbourg.

Lausche, B., 2011. Guidelines for protected areas legislation. IUCN Environmental Policy and Law Paper nº 81. International Union for Nature Conservation. Gland and Cambridge.

Leroux, S. J., Krawchuck, M. A., Schmiegelow, F., Cumming, S. G., Lisgo, K., Anderson, L. G. & Pet-

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kova, M., 2010. Global protected areas and IUCN designations: Do the categories match the conditions?. Biological Conservation 143: 609-616.

Martín-Herrero, J., Frontaura, M. C. & Plaza, F., 2004. Microrreservas. Una � gura útil para la estrate-gia de conservación de la Naturaleza. Medio Ambiente Castilla-La Mancha 11: 1-48.

Smart, J., Imboden, Ch., Harper, M. & Radford, E. (eds.), 2002. Saving the Plants of Europe. European Plant Conservation Strategy). Planta Europa, Council of Europe and Plantlife International. UK: London.

TTC, 2002. Nature Protection Regulations in Forest Management. English version made by Tulkošanas un terminoloģijas centrs (Latvia’s Translation and Terminology Centre, TTC). Riga. Available at: http://www.vvc.gov.lv/export/sites/default/docs/LRTA/MK_Noteikumi/Cab._Reg._No._189_-_Nature_Protection_Regs_in_Forest_Management.doc [Accessed on the 15th March 2013].

TTC, 2005. Latvian Law on Protection of Species and Habitats. English version made by Tulkošanas un terminoloģijas centrs (Latvia’s Translation and Terminology Centre, TTC). Riga. Available at: http://www.vidm.gov.lv/eng/likumdosana/� les/text/Elikumd/sug_biotop//E_sug_biotop_lik.doc [Accessed on the 15th March 2013].

TTC, 2007. On the Rights of Landowners to Compensation for Restrictions on Economic activities in Specially Protected Territories and Micro-reserves. English version made by Tulkošanas un terminoloģijas centrs (Latvia’s Translation and Terminology Centre, TTC). Riga. Available at: http://www.vvc.gov.lv/export/sites/default/docs/LRTA/Likumi/Rights_of_Landowners_to_Compensation.doc [Accessed on the 15th March 2013].

VVC, 2010. Law on the Conservation of Species and Biotopes. English version made by Valsts valodas centrs (Latvia’s State Language Centre). Riga. Available at: http://www.vvc.gov.lv/export/sites/default/docs/LRTA/Likumi/Law_on_the_Conservation_of_Species_and_Biotopes.doc [Accessed on the 15th March 2013].

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Nepeta sphaciotica

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16PMR Site Selection and Boundary Procedures

Emilio LAGUNA1,2 & Vicente DELTORO1

1 Generalitat Valenciana, Servicio de Vida Silvestre, c/Francesc Cubells, 11. E-46011 Valencia2 Generalitat Valenciana, CIEF, Avda. Comarques País Valencià 114, E-46930 Quart de Poblet, Valencia

I. Establishment of a Plant Micro-Reserve

The initial purpose of creating a PMR for a particular species or habitat and its realization through the declaration of a protected site itself are separated by a number of preliminary activities that include � eld and o� ce work. These tasks are part of the ‘establishment’ process of a PMR which basically consists of three steps: 1) site selection, 2) characterization (including geo-referencing, mapping) and 3) signalling. The last of these steps can be carried out after the declara-tion. Nevertheless, it is advisable to establish some sort of preventive signalling so as to help avoid impacts on the area scheduled to become a micro-reserve (Laguna, 2001; Laguna et al., 2004). All the steps included in this procedure are to some extent determined by the purpose with which the micro-reserve is de-clared, so that those PMRs intended for very intensive monitoring and manage-ment which are part of networks consisting of a few protected areas (Laguna et al., 2011), must be characterized in much greater detail, while those which are part of large networks and thus subject to a moderate intensity of monitoring can be characterized with less detail.

II. Monitoring Plan

Adequate monitoring of a PMR requires at least 3 working levels. This will allow to record changes in the medium and long term and to evaluate whether man-agement being carried out at the site is adequate or not. The 3 working levels are:

1. Floristic catalogue, Plant list: it consists of the list of species found within a particular MR (at least for the group whose protection and management is intended, e.g. vascular � ora). Indicative estimates of abundance within the PMR can be added to the list. The abundance of a species within a MR can be estimated using simple and intuitive indicators, similar to those included

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in identi� cation keys of regional � oras, which often use up to 5 values to es-timate abundance: very abundant, abundant, medium abundance, rare and very rare.

2. Characterization of vegetation. Where possible rapid methods should be used. The simplest is probably the � oristic-phytosociological characteriza-tion of the Zürich-Montpellier school or Braun-Blanquet and Tü xen, as ex-plained in Braun-Blanquet (1972). Other methodologies may be used as well (Kershaw, 1973; Kent & Coker, 1992; Mueller-Dombois & Ellenberg, 2003; Weaver & Clements, 1938; McIntosh, 1978; Grieg-Smith, 1983). Sketches or maps of the spatial arrangement of the di� erent types of vegetation being characterised may also be used, their accuracy being proportional to the type and intensity of monitoring to be performed. For simple monitoring using the phytosociological methodology of Braun-Blanquet, it is advisable to establish one or more inventories of selected � xed samples for regular monitoring of the changes in abundance-dominance of species (e.g. Lagu-na, 2012).

3. Census and monitoring of species. Generally speaking, each PMR has one or more relevant species that must be subject to regular monitoring. In the simplest case, the abundance of the species can be followed by a census, either by direct or indirect observation, but more intensive work commonly requires more re� ned demographic techniques to be used, such as those of Iriondo et al. (2008, 2009) derived from Elzinga et al. (1998).

III. Site Selection

The selection of sites for the establishment of a PMR is implemented in 2 steps: 1) at a large scale, for the selection of the population or site, and 2) at a low scale, in order to establish the boundaries of the site to be protected.

PMRs are suitable for becoming genetic reservoirs for one or more species or speci� c habitat units. To fully achieve this goal, the advice given by Dulloo et al. (2008) regarding location and design of genetic reserves should be fol-lowed. For instance, the selected area should contain one or more populations of the target species. These populations should be stable or predictably stable in the medium to long term due to conservation programmes potentially be-ing carried out on the site. In addition to data on the biology of the species, it is particularly important to determine risk factors to which the species may be vulnerable and the possibilities to minimize the e� ect of such factors via speci� c conservation actions. The more information managers may have about the site, and especially about the relationship between man and vegetation, the easier it will be to � ne-tune the design of the site to be preserved (Dulloo et al., op. cit.).

The choice at a macro-geographic level can be made using one of the three options discussed below:

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1. Expert advice: This is the most common case. The information on the loca-tion of a relevant species originates from those who have previously studied the taxon, who in turn provide advice on protecting a particular site based on an ample knowledge of the species. The design of large PMR networks often requires the participation of large teams of specialists with � oristic knowledge of the territory, as it is often the case that each expert usually specializes in a speci� c plant group.

2. GIS-guided selection: Using GIS allows a � rst approach to large-scale areas when looking for added value in the choice of sites, such as the selection of plots with a high concentration of endemic or threatened plants in a small area. Usually, the major constraint to the use of GIS is the scale, as � oristic information often comes at grid cells of 10x10 or 1x1 km. This level of detail is useful for the designation of large protected areas at a regional scale or, at most, IPAs or similar designated areas. For instance, the selection of IPAs in Slovakia was carried out with the assistance of the geographical informa-tion database of the Daphne organization, as explained by Anderson et al., (2005). Nevertheless, large scales may allow the localization of microhabitats extremely rich in unique and highly localized � ora, such as the Mediterra-nean temporary ponds. Proportionally, GIS containing information at a very small scale can be used to set the boundaries of a particular area to become a PMR (Draper et al., 2003).

3. ‘Non-expert’ advice: In the � rst phase, PMR networks are established on the basis of information coming from leading experts in the knowledge of the � ora of a given area and its conservation methods. Nevertheless, in networks with a high number of sites, the location of unique sites little known to sci-entists can be relevant. This can be done thanks to information contributed by people who know their surroundings well, such as naturalists, hikers, or other collaborators not involved in research. This type of contribution of sites to PMR networks would therefore be similar to a model of micro protected areas, for instance British SSSIs (Laguna, 2001).

IV. Delimitation of a PMR, Mapping and Geographic Information Systems

Usually the information from the sources listed above allows the location of the core area of a PMR, but not of its limits, unless they correspond to very speci� c geographical landmarks. In the precise de� nition of such limits, factors of natu-ral and human origin play an important role, and in particular the property and the possibility to manage the site. Ideally, a PMR should contain the core area where the relevant plant species is found as well as that containing the key fac-tors responsible for its conservation, i.e. a certain soil or rock type, the commu-nities on which its pollinators rely, etc. (Dulloo et al., 2008), as well as an area to

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bu� er the negative impacts that may a� ect the stability of the population of the species of concern, following the recommendations of Cox (1993) for any type of protected natural area.

Usually, setting the limits of a PMR will require reaching a compromise be-tween the most suitable situation for the preservation of the species from the biological perspective and the actual possibilities to manage the site by the corresponding entity (NGO, government body, private owner etc.). In strongly modi� ed territories, where every vegetation remnant is to be protected, it may be impossible to include bu� er zones within the limits of PMRs because it is naturally impossible.

Current technology allows information on the population of key species, habitat types, natural factors that a� ect them at a small scale –such as soil or rock type, slope, water sources, etc.– and any element of interest to be geo-referenced and fed into a GIS. This technology is achieving greater importance in PMR networks that have been recently set up, and particularly in those sub-ject to intensive monitoring (Thanos et al., 2006; Kadis et al., 2011; Laguna et al., 2011). Field data collection is done by using GPS, usually with a precision of a few meters, although more precise proposals for delimitation and protection of areas have been made by using devices that o� er a precision below 1 m (Marco-Molina et al., 2006).

V. Landmarking and Signposting

The identi� cation of PMRs in the � eld is a requirement for their preservation as well as a legal obligation, since users of the territory must be aware of their ac-cess to areas where certain limitations apply. The publication of these limits in the o� cial gazette at the time of their declaration, together with the restrictions that apply to each of these protected areas, is often not enough and must be accompanied by physical signalling in the � eld.

Adequate signalling should include up to three types of signals: 1) informa-tive, 2) indicative and 3) perimetric. Of these, only the latter is usually strictly necessary from a legal standpoint, but often the other 2 are the most useful for the purposes of conservation of the site.

Informative signals

Informative signs usually consist of boards that provide information to visitors to the PMR about its content and the restrictions that apply within the site (Fig. 16.1). There are no rules for their design, although in most instances these boards share common design elements within a region or country – i.e. logos, dimensions, colour palette– that attest to their integration into a network. The amount of information to include depends largely on the judgment of manag-ers, who are often faced with the dilemma of providing limited information to

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avoid arousing the interest of visitors who may attempt to collect the plant to be protected, and conversely, to prevent damage to the species out of ignorance on the side of occasional bypassers. There is apparently a progressive trend to-wards the adoption of the second option.

At the same time, the physical identi� cation of the species through pho-tographs or drawings, linked to issues of importance to local idiosyncrasies –uniqueness of the plant or the area, local symbolic character, etc.– are increas-ingly appreciated in the � eld of environmental education, and can help promote the conservation of the site in the long term and a better social acceptance. Of-ten, informative signs bear pictograms that inform visitors about the activities that are either allowed or restricted. Overuse of pictograms should be avoided as it usually discourages their interpretation. Additionally, emphasis should be put on positive messages and not on prohibitions, so as not to elicit feelings of rejection among visitors to the PMRs.

Indicative signals

Indicative and guidance signalling can play a twofold objective. On one hand, it lets visitors who access a PMR know that they � nd themselves in their vicinity. On the other hand, it can gives access to guided tracks that lead to the pro-tected area. When this type of signalling is placed outside the PMR it can help pre-empt unwanted impacts by visitors, as they can be warned to adopt a more environmentally friendly behaviour before entering the perimeter of the PMR (Fig. 16.2). In the Valencian PMR network, where perimetric signs are of a very cryptic colour, indicative signals have a striking red colour (Fig. 16.3). These signs are occasionally damaged purposefully, presumably because vandals think they have already entered the PMR. In these instances no further dam-ages to the PMR have been observed. As in the case of informative signs, guid-

Figure 16.1Explanatory board holding information on the PMR ‘Penyal d’ Ifach Nord’ (Calp. Valencian Community).

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ance signalling may include pictograms illustrating activities, routes or paths, etc. (Fig. 16.4).

Perimetric signals

The role of perimetric signalling is to establish the precise boundaries of a PMR in situ. Consequently, this signalling marks the border to the development of

Figure 16.4Orientation boards to access the proposed PMR ‘Pas d’En Revull – Barranc de S’ Algen-dar’ in Ferreries (Menorca, Balearic Islands) (photo: E. Laguna).

Figure 16.2Main board at the entrance

of the PMR ‘Torre de la Sal’ (Cabanes, Valencian Commu-

nity) (photo: E. Laguna).

Figure 16.3Indicative landmarks, which signify the proximity of a PMR boundary, in the Valencian PMR network (photo: E. Laguna).

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many activities, environmental alterations, etc. Unlike the above, the location of such signals cannot be modi� ed, so that its anchorage must be assured in the long term with the use of an appropriate � xation. Wherever possible, the signs must be placed so as to allow correlative viewing –when standing next to a sign it should be possible to see the following one (Fig. 16.5)– but sometimes this is inoperative, very expensive or even impossible (e.g. in woodlands). Dis-tances between signs of 50 or 100 m may be adequate in most small-scale PMRs, but if visibility is not hindered by obstacles or the PMR boundaries are well de-� ned by natural landmarks –i.e. clear boundaries or traditional signs in stone, wood, trees, etc.– signs could be placed without risk at much greater distanc-es. In some exceptional cases – i.e. small islands– signalling can be completely avoided for aesthetic or environmental reasons. In these instances, alternatives to conventional signalling must be used to let visitors know they are entering an area where certain restrictions of use apply – i.e. inclusion in marine charts, external signalling buoys, etc.

The materials that can be used for boards, signs or displays are extremely varied, from plastic to metal (Fig. 16.6), wood, concrete or stone, etc. The best practice is to agree on the type of materials to be used with local authorities or, more desirably, to involve the local population in the selection and the design of the materials, since they are the ones who will most often visit the protected area. At the same time, it is important to consider the e� ect of environmental factors, which can be extremely varied depending on the location of each PRM, e.g. wood signs, usually protected with various treatments to increase their du-

Figure 16.5The borderline signs at the PMR of *Ophrys kotschyi in Mitsero area (Cyprus) indicate the boundaries of the PMR (photo: I. Kouzali).

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rability, do well when set up under tree canopies that confer some sort of protection, but deteriorate rapidly in sun-exposed areas of the Mediterranean climate. In the case of the Valencian PMRs where perimetric signalling is made of extruded aluminium, signs that are set up in the coast have an average life span of about 5 years before symptoms of wearing o� show up due to the accumulation of salt, sea spray erosion (Fig. 16.7), etc.

Figure 16.6Boundary landmark of the Valencian PMR

network, at the PMR ‘Lloma de Coca’ (Real, Valencian Community) (photo: E. Laguna).

Figure 16.7Abrasion caused by the marine spray in the boundary landmarks of the coastal PMRs in the Valencian Community (photo: E. La-guna).

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VI. References

Anderson, S., Kusik, T. & Radford, E., 2005. Important Plant Areas in Central and Western Europe. Priority sites for plant conservation. Plantlife International. UK: Salisbury.

Braun-Blanquet, J., 1972. Plant Sociology: The study of plant communities. Hafner Publ. Co. New York.

Cox, G. W., 1993. Conservation Ecology. W.C. Brown. Dubugue, Iowa.

Dulloo, M. E., Labokas, J., Iriondo, J. M., Maxted, N., Lane, A., Laguna, E., Jarvis, A. & Kell, S. P., 2008. Genetic reserve location and design. In Iriondo, J.M., N. Maxted & M.E. Dulloo (eds.): Conserv-ing Plant Genetic Diversity in Protected Areas. Population management of Crop Wild Relatives: 23-63. CABI. UK: Wallingford.

Draper, D., Rosselló-Graell, A., Garcia, C., Gomez, C. & Sergio, C., 2003. Application of GIS in plant conservation programmes in Portugal. Biological Conservation 113: 337-349.

Elzinga, C. L., Salzer, D. W. & Willowghby, J. W., 1998. Measuring and monitoring plant populations. Bureau of Land Management. USA: Denver.

Iriondo, J. M., Ford-Lloyd, B., De Hond, L., Kell, S. P., Lefèvre, F., Korpelainen, H. & Lane, A., 2008. Plant population monitoring methodologies for the in situ genetic conservation of CWR. In Iriondo, J.M., Maxted, N. & Dulloo, M. E. (eds.), 2008. Conserving Plant Genetic Diversity in Pro-tected Areas. Population management of Crop Wild Relatives: 88-123. CABI. UK: Wallingford.

Iriondo, J. M., Albert, M. J., Giménez-Benavides, I., Domínguez, F. & Escudero, A., 2009. Populations in peril: Demographic viability of threatened Spanish vascular � ora. Ministerio de Medio Ambi-ente y Medio Rural y Marino.

Kadis, C., Pantazi, Ch., Tsintides, T., Christodoulou, S. C., Papadopoulos, M., Thanos, C. A, Georghiou, K., Kounnamas, C., Constantinou, C., Andreou, M. & Eliades, N. G., 2011. Establishment of a plant micro-reserve network in Cyprus for the conservation of priority species and habi-tats. In Fraga, P. (coord.), 2011. Programme and Book of Abstracts: 2nd Botanical Conference in Menorca, ‘Islands and Plants: Preservation and understanding of � ora on Mediterranean Islands. 26-30th April 2011, Es Mercadal, Menorca’: 38-39. Consell Insular de Menorca, Institu Menorquí d’Estudis & Universitat de les Illes Balears. Mahón/Maó, Menorca. Available at: http://www.plantnet.org.cy/� les/poster_menorca.pdf http://lifereneix.cime.es/WebEditor/Pagines/� le/Kadis_2011.pdf [Accessed on the 15th March 2013]

Kent, M. & Coker, P., 1992. Vegetation description and analysis: a practical approach. CRC Press. USA: Boca Raton.

Kershaw, K. A., 1973. Quantitative and dynamic Plant Ecology. Ed. 2. E. Arnold. UK: London.

Laguna, E., 2001.The micro-reserves as a tool for conservation of threatened plants in Europe. 119 pp. Nature & Environment series nº 121. Council of Europe. France: Strasbourg.

Laguna, E., 2012. El método � tosociológico aplicado al seguimiento de la evolución de la � ora en espacios protegidos: el caso de Limonium dufourii en la microrreserva de � ora ‘Cap de Cullera’ (Valencia). In Cunill, R., Pèlachs, A., Pérez-Obiol, R., & Soriano, J. M. (eds), 2012. Las zonas de montaña: Gestión y Biodiversidad. VII Congreso Español de Biogeografía: 262-268. Departament de Geogra� a, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona. Spain: Barcelona.

Laguna, E., Ballester, G., Ranz, J., Fabregat, C., Olivares, A., Serra, L., Pérez-Botella, J., Deltoro, V. I. & Pérez-Rivira, P., 2004. Valencian Micro-Reserve experience. A practical approach managing small protected, natural areas. PDF � le in LAGUNA, E. (ed.): Microhabitats Forum 2002-2003. CD-ROM. Generalitat Valenciana, Conselleria de Territori i Habitatge. Spain: Valencia.

Laguna, E., Thanos, C., Kadis, C. & Deltoro, V., 2011. Intensively monitored Plant Micro-Reserves (IMPMR), a new model of in situ plant conservation in the Eastern Mediterranean region. In Rita, J., Ll. Gil & M. Mus: ‘Programa y Libro de Resúmenes: V Congreso de Biología de Conservación de Plantas’: 117. Universitat de les Illes Balears / Sociedad Española de Biología de la Conser-vación de Plantas. Palma de Mallorca. Available at:

http://www.uibcongres.org/imgdb//archivo_dpo11493.pdf [Accessed on the 15th March

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2013].

Marco - Molina, J. A., Padilla, A., Sánchez A. & Giménez, P., 2006. Helianthemum caput-felis Boiss. entre Punta Prima y Cabo Roig (Litoral Sudalicantino). In Giménez, P., Marco, J. A., Matarre-dona, E., Padilla, A. & Sánchez, A. (ed.), 2006. Geografía Física y Medio Ambiente: 169-182. Asociación Española de Geógrafos. Spain: Alicante.

McIntosh, R. P., 1978. Phytosociology. Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross. USA: Stroudsburg.

Mueller-Dombois, D. & Ellenberg, H., 2003. Aims and methods in Plant Ecology. Blackburn Press. USA: Caldwell.

Greig-Smith, P., 1983. Quantitative Plant Ecology. University of California Press 3rd Ed. USA: Berkeley – Los Angeles.

Thanos, C.A., Fournaraki, Ch. & Gotsiou, P., 2006. Plant micro-reserves. Knowlede, protection, preser-vation. Endangered, rare and endemic plants in Crete. NKUA, MAICh and the Forest Directorate of Chania. Crete: Chania.

Weaver, J. E. & Clements, F. E., 1938. Plant Ecology. McGraw-Hill. USA:New York.

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17Relevant Plant Recovery Programmes. Conservation Management of Plant Micro-Reserves and Ecological Restoration

Emilio LAGUNA1,2, Vicente DELTORO1, P. Pablo FERRER2, Albert NAVARRO2, Inmaculada FERRANDO2, Mari C. ESCRIBÁ2 & Francisco J. ALBERT2

1Generalitat Valenciana, Servicio de Vida Silvestre, c/Francesc Cubells, 11. E-46011 Valencia2Generalitat Valenciana, CIEF, Avda. Comarques País Valencià 114, E-46930 Quart de Poblet, Valencia

I. Introduction

The purpose of the creation and maintenance of PMRs is not just mere passive conservation of unique plant species and their habitats, but active conserva-tion through actions tailored to the speci� c needs of each taxon. In the most extreme case, some PMR can be declared only to ensure the passive conserva-tion of a given species, with monitoring of populations –census, demographic studies, etc.– as the only intervention. But this is probably an exception to the general rule. By contrast, most species whose physical protection is ensured through PMR are threatened plants that need direct intervention on the popu-lation or the surrounding environment, or other unique species –endemic, rare– with which there is little management experience. In this instance, PMR play the role of plots in which management techniques can be tested, with a view to � ne-tuning protocols in situ for a variety of situations.

In most cases, the PMRs have been proposed for the protection and develop-ment of species speci� c conservation actions, so that the management of these areas must revolve around the maintenance and improvement of their popula-tions. This requires an intervention on the species or habitat, the intensity of which should be properly planned. The range of activities that can be carried out is ample, and often requires planning beforehand. Basically, the models that can be applied are:

• Site speci� c Planning: Management plan of a given PMR, which regulates all activities and scheduled to be developed. It may consist of a synthesis of guidelines, as it is being done in the PMR network of Valencia, or more detailed and complex programs, such as those established for PRM created in Crete or Cyprus.

• Local Implementation schedules for species or habitats: consisting in the ad-aptation and implementation in a PMR of the guidelines of a conservation plan for a particular species or habitat

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In an ideal situation, even if the PMR has a management plan, its provisions on a particular threatened species must be in accordance with its recovery plan, which in turn must have been prepared in agreement with technical regulations or rules in force for each territory. Several introductory works, such as Laguna (2004, 2005a and b) or Laguna et al. (2001) stress the need for a � ne correlation between management plans of PRM and recovery programs for such taxa. How-ever, there might not be a recovery plan for the species. Additionally, in some situations the PMR can shelter a substantial proportion of the population of a threatened species, so that the management plan of the PMR can play the role of the recovery plan for that particular taxon.

II. The Contribution of Ex Situ Activities

Regardless of a certain amount of o� ce work –collection of scienti� c and tech-nical information, drafting of management plans or adjustment of recovery plans, regulatory process, etc.– the purpose of the action often involves in situ management work on the species and/or habitat as well as ex situ activities. In the case of the most endangered species, it is necessary to ensure the conser-vation of the species reproductive material through accessions in gene-banks or living plant collections and the � ne-tuning of germination protocols and plant production in specialized nurseries. Although this text does not elaborate these activities in detail, we recommend reading some basic work for the con-servation and ex situ management of wild species intended for reintroduction in genetic reserves (PMRs, nature reserves, etc.) such as Hernández-Bermejo et al. (1990), Iriondo & Perez-Garcia (1999), Bacchetta et al. (2006, 2008) and Smith et al. (2003). Data on germination and other ex situ activities with species with which conservation work has been carried out in PMR can be found, among others, in the works of Herranz et al. (2002) in Castilla-La Mancha (Spain), Four-naraki & Thanos (2004) and Fournaraki et al. (2007) in Crete (Greece), or type et al. (2006), Ferrer et al. (2012) and Escribá et al. (2006) and Laguna (2007) in Valencia (Spain).

III. Census and Monitoring

Conservation of threatened species and detailed monitoring of biodiversity changes in PMR in the long-term requires regular collection of populational data of the species within each plot. For techniques and examples regarding these issues, in addition to what has been explained in the chapter on research within PMR in this book, the synthetic works of Iriondo et al. (2008, 2009) should be consulted as well as other works on demographic studies of endangered species through population viability analysis (Morris et al., 2002; Morris & Doak,

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2002). A good number of the examples cited by Iriondo et al. (2009) for Spanish plants correspond to species included in PMRs in Castilla-La Mancha and Va-lencia, or whose inclusion in the network is planned when other regions adopt this legal protection � gure. With regard to sampling of protected species within PMR, when they are not subject to detailed demographic studies, a census can be made every few years. Navarro et al. (2010) suggest a sampling method con-sisting of a census of the species using ‘bu� ers’ of 1-2 m around each point of data collection established with GPS in the � eld. This technique is recommend-ed for PMR networks with a large number of protected sites, while the detailed demographic studies are optimal for extreme cases of highly endangered spe-cies, or for intensively monitored PMR networks.

IV. Species Conservation

The basics of conservation programs of wild plants and their realization through recovery plans can be considered su� ciently summarized in synthetic ap-proaches such as Wyse-Jackson & Akeroyd (1994) or more developed treaties such as that of Maxted et al. (1997). Preservation techniques have been sum-marized and developed by Kell et al. (2008), and much of it is presented in Table 17.1.

In the case of representative PMR networks whose goal is to preserve select samples of the plant diversity of a region, it is likely that part of the PMR may not require actions aimed at conserving the species, and that mere passive habitat preservation may be enough to ensure their conservation. Since a share of the Valencian PMR network is designed for this purpose, some of the plots are suf-� ciently protected by signage –see speci� c chapter in this book– and regular monitoring, either by o� cial sta� or through voluntary agreements with con-servation NGOs, etc. However, the most common case in the design of PMRs is that they contain one or more threatened species. In these cases educational signage is often put in place -see speci� c section in this book on these type of activities – as has been done in all areas where PMRs have been established physically – Valencia, Crete, Cyprus, Castilla-La Mancha, etc.

Most PMR are proposed and declared for the conservation of one or a few species, usually threatened. Once the causal factor or factors responsible for population decline and the threatened status of the species have been pin-pointed or inferred, the development of a conservation program or its inclusion in the management guidelines of the PMR should be considered. In order to increase the status or functionally improve the population of the endangered species management of the species itself (i.e. reinforcement, reintroduction if considered extinct, etc.) and of the species that interact with it might be re-quired (competition, mutualistic interactions, etc.), or even management of the whole habitat. The diversity of causal factors that can in� uence plant conserva-

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tion status is so large that it is impossible to establish rules for feasible solutions. Only general guiding principles can be recommended. The practical application of these or other solutions may depend on biological issues inherent to the spe-cies, the convenience to use a particular technique in relation to sociology and local idiosyncrasies, or even issues that exceed the capacity of the managers of the species (i.e. need for legal changes). For example, the presence of low levels of pollination and subsequent poor seed production due to the rarefaction of an insect pollinator a� ected by the excessive use of insecticides in peripheral

Table 17.1 Indicative table of problems and solutions for the management of endangered species, as well as complementary or reinforcement accessions.

Problem Basic solution Reinforcement

Trampling, physical damage to the plant

Limit access Indicative or educational boards

Harvesting Limit access, intensive monitoring

Indicative or educational signage, Contact sectors exerting pressure on the species (collectors, horti-culturalists)

Lack of genetic diver-sity or other genetic issues

Population reinforcement or creation of new popula-tions with genetic criteria (with ex-situ genetic im-provement if necessary)

Establishment of new close populations/creation of bridge-population to favour ecological connection

Low seed set Improvement of natural pollinators or arti� cial pol-lination

Contact sectors exerting pressure on the species (farmers using pesticides in the area)

Lack of recruitment owing to juvenile plant predation

Control of predatory pres-sure, support irrigations, limitation of access to ungulates

Contact sectors exerting pressure on the species (farmers, hunt-ers that favour particular game species)

Decline in plant num-bers or � tness due to plagues or illness

Biological or integrated control of causal agents

Contact farm sector, particularly if plagues may come from host-crops nearby

Displacement by com-petitive species

Thinning of vegetation or selective removal of competitors

Contact land managers (forest, landscape managers…)

Displacement by invasive species

Removal and control of invasive species

Contact sectors exerting pressure (horticulture, urban gardening authorities of nearby areas, inter-urban road managers, etc.)

Constantly low num-ber of individuals

Population reinforcements Apply one of the former

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areas can be addressed by speci� c regulations to limit the use of biocides, but if that limitation cannot be implemented or can only be addressed in the long term, arti� cial pollination can be a temporary alternative, as shown in the work currently being done in the PMR sheltering Ophrys kotschyi in Mitsero (Cyprus). Some solutions for complex cases involving a combination of threats such as in some plant species like Medicago citrina, Silene hifacensis or Frangula alnus subsp. baetica in Valencia have recently been synthesized in the work of Laguna (2011), Ferrer et al. (2011a and in press) and Laguna et al. (2011).

The second level comprises the varied typology of practical applications for each of the technical solutions provided. Once a solution has been chosen or designed, it can be reached by using di� erent materials, at varying intensities, deadlines, etc. and this may in� uence decisively the result of the action to be performed. For example, population reinforcement, reintroduction or establish-ment of new populations, the goal of which is the introduction of new speci-mens which did not exist or whose numbers were too low, can be achieved by sowing seeds, planting newly produced specimens or trans-locating individuals from another area, and in all cases it may be necessary to develop a speci� c pro-tocol. In our opinion, the best way to achieve this is as part of a work-in-process to establish the optimal restoration protocol for the species, involving conduct-ing di� erent experiments (i.e. how deep should seeds be sown or plantings planted, what is the most appropriate age for seedlings to be planted, how far should individuals be planted from one another, what kind of protective devices should be put in place to prevent predation of plants, is it necessary to water newly introduced plants and how often, etc.) rather than attempting to estab-lish more ‘idealistic’ goals which can only be attained in the long term, such as of saving this species from extinction (Laguna et al., 2003a). It is preferable to develop a battery of small, localized experimental actions, before attempting to carry out a major work, i.e. reinforcement with a large number of plants, whose success cannot be adequately guaranteed. Overall meta-analytic type assess-ments show that moderate success can be expected for works dealing with rein-troduction projects or other forms of population reinforcement (e.g. Godefroid et al., 2011) carried out by sowing or planting.

Generally speaking, there is still a reduced exchange of results on these ac-tivities, and many of those that have been obtained worldwide over the past decades have not been published in technical or scienti� c journals that allow their assessment; some of those obtained in the framework of the Valencian PMR network are listed in Table 17.2. The review by Kell et al. (2008) compiles abundant technical literature for each speci� c action to be developed (thinning of vegetation, fences, etc.) but it is important to note that the results of the same technique can be contradictory depending on the particular species, type of habitat, etc., and that all too often results are not published so that their e� ec-tiveness remains undetermined. For instance, the experimental exclusion of her-bivores by means of fences to protect populations of Limonium dufourii in the PMR ‘Marsh dels Moros’ or Marsilea strigosa in the PMR ‘Lavajo de Arriba’, both in

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Valencia, lead to the conclusion that the technique is not appropriate, because although they restrict access of large herbivores that can harm species, fenc-ing (Fig. 17.1) also greatly limits access to the plots of other smaller herbivores that exert control over competing plants -Halimione portulacoides and various grasses, respectively- that eventually have displaced those intended to protect. On the contrary, ungulate exclusion fences at the PMR ‘Avakas Gorge’ in Cyprus to protect Centaurea akamantis plantations in cli� crowns have provided satis-factory results so far.

An emerging issue to be evaluated in the design and implementation of adaptive conservation programs in PMRs is the presence of hidden or di� cult to detect causes acting against a particular species, as well as those derived from speci� c problems associated with small populations of endangered plants (see Ballou et al., 1995). These factors are especially important when, in the frame-work of the management of a PMR, the reintroduction of locally extinct species is intended, as it is often the case that the cause of extinction is not su� ciently known and may have not disappeared at the time when the reintroduction is carried out (see indications in Falk et al., 1996). It is likely that problems of re-cruitment, survival of seedlings, etc.. that have often been attributed to inbreed-ing or the existence of genetic bottlenecks, actually are the result of hidden or di� cult to evaluate causes (e.g. a need for either mycorrhization or association with bacterial symbionts, some e� ect of root pests, etc.). In a recent communica-

Table 17.2 Some examples of conservation works on singular species within the PMR net-work of the Valencian region, with published results (E: English; S: Spanish; F: French).

Species Addressed problems Published in

Silene hifacensis Rouy Reinforcement and new

populations in a rupicolous

environment

Laguna et al. 2011 (E)

Medicago citrina (Font Quer)

Greuter

Reintroduction/Restoration

of populations a� ected by

plagues

Laguna, 2011 (E);

Fabregat & Laguna, 2013

(E); Laguna & Jiménez,

1995 (S)

Gypsophila struthium L.

subsp. struthium

Erosion in gypsum outcrops Ferrer et al., 2011b (F)

Teucrium lepicephalum Pau Negative e� ect of former

reforestations, erosion on

gypsum outcrops

Ferrer et al., 2010 (S); Fer-

rer et al., 2007 (F)

Limonium mansanetianum

M.B. Crespo & Lledó

Erosion on gypsum outcrops Ferrer et al., 2009 (S)

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tion on conservation works of the Valencian endemic Lupinus mariae-josephae in the PMR Lloma Coca it became evident that the options to strengthen or cre-ate new populations for this species are strongly determined by the bacterial nodulation with Bradyrhizobium strains, without which development of plants is not very vigorous and does not result in seed yield su� cient to ensure adequate population turnover rate (Navarro et al., 2013).

Finally, it should be acknowledged that some of the activities that have been carried out are particularly complex. As an example, Draper et al. (2006a) pro-posed the establishment of a PMR in Portugal for the endangered plant Narcis-sus cavanillesii protected by the Habitats Directive. The technique of transloca-tion included removal of soil and rock fragments containing the species to be placed on a future safe site, as the former location of the plant is now within the � ooded area of the new Alqueva reservoir, and this would certainly result in the complete disappearance of the species in Portugal (Draper et al., 2006b).

V. Habitat Conservation and Ecological Restoration.

The above-mentioned guidelines for species are suitable for habitats too, apply-ing similar techniques when they are threatened in the entirety of their original � oristic composition; in fact, some of the causal factors of threat formerly in-dicated for some species, (Table 17.1), such as trampling, predation by ungu-lates, expansion of invasive alien species, etc., often simultaneously a� ect most species within a given PMR, and not only the main species undergoing protec-tion or management. Problems that are usually not regarded as risk factors for threatened species, such as soil erosion, coastal erosion, recurring forest � res, etc. must be considered as well. Although exceptionally some species may de-rive bene� t from some of these processes (e.g. endemic pyrophytic plants in the case of � re) often these factors entail signi� cant risks for the plants whose conservation is intended, and their amendment will require the involvement

Figure 17.1Small, experimental fenced plot to monitor the e� ects of herbivores on the population of Marsilea strigosa Willd. in the PMR ‘Lavajo de Arriba’ (Sinarcas, Valencian Community) (photo: E. Laguna).

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of multidisciplinary teams –i.e. civil engineers, foresters, hydraulic engineers– and high economic input. Again, the review by Kell et al. (2008) provides a wide range of works that can be consulted for each of the main technical solutions, but at the heart of these there is the general philosophy of ecological restora-tion.

The contribution of technical solutions to the prevention and restoration of damaged ecosystems requires an understanding of habitats as � ne-tuned as possible, including a detailed characterization of its main components (see La-guna et al., 2003a). In the case of the � rst PMR networks, such as the one in the Valencian Community, numerous habitat conservation actions have been car-ried out (Laguna et al., 20003b), but as a rule of thumb they consisted of works aimed at bene� ting one or a few species, except for wetland restoration (Sebas-tian et al., 2008), where it is relatively easy to work with many species simulta-neously. However, the Valencian PMR statement as well as their management plans often include generic preventive actions common to many PMRs, such as reduction of the fuel load in the surroundings of relict forest vegetation (e.g. yew tree or linden forests, etc.) which is highly vulnerable to wild� res.

The goal of ecological restoration, the foundations of which date back to the 70s and 80s, is to restore, at any time, appropriate balance in ecosystems through the maintenance of interspeci� c relationships by means of a combina-tion of techniques –such as plantations (Fig. 17.2), structural reinforcements, etc.– (Young, 2000). As in the case of species, the combination of technical prob-lems and techniques is extremely varied and, at most, we can only recommend a set of studies ranging from general treaties that address the fundamentals and results of ecological restoration (Jordan et al., 1987; Cairns Jr., 1995; Gilbert & Anderson, 1998; Nash & Burch, 2001; Nicolau et al., 2003; Sutherland & Hill, 1995) and some case studies (including Hammitt & Cole, 1998; Munshower, 1994; Saunders et al., 1993), as well as some comprehensive manuals that tackle most restoration needs and even include ‘primers’ or ‘toolkits’ to be developed (Gil-bert & Anderson, 1998; FWS-NOAAFS, 1996; Parker, 1995; Perrow & Davy, 2002; SER, 2004). As it is often the case, the starting point is the existence of an altered state where natural restoration reaches a changing balance that deviates from the classical concepts of primary succession (Walker & del Moral, 2003) and that points to the need of using adaptive techniques of habitat management (Salaf-sky et al., 2001). In the PMR network of Valencia, numerous examples have been addressed and have been summarized by Laguna et al. (2003a). These include preventive enclosures, structures to redirect visits and access, elevated roads to avoid tra� c on PMRs (Fig. 17.3), sowing and planting of structural species that favour optimal future habitat for the threatened species, etc. Several of the areas proposed for housing PMRs in Minorca have undergone restoration works such as dry stone walls (Fig. 17.4), which in turn support a rich microhabitat of mosses and ferns in the relict forest of Laurus nobilis of S’Algendar ravine, or the re-colonisation of vegetation as a result of soil de-compaction and planting of native species in various enclaves of a PMR proposed for the site of Ets Alocs,

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which include among other interesting plant communities riparian thickets of Vitex agnus-castus. Pedestrian access redirection, which prevents the dispersal of visitors across PMRs has also been implemented in several PLANTNET-CY LIFE project areas in Cyprus.

A key element in the development of restoration projects is the choice of species when threatened plants and those providing support to the ecosystem structure must be combined. Ferrer (2007) –working in the Center for Forestry Research of the Generalitat Valenciana– has developed a methodology for the

Figure 17.2Planting and watering Silene hifacensis Rouy at the coastal cli� s crown in the PMR ‘Cap de Sant An-toni’ (Xàbia, Valencian Community) (photo: E. Laguna).

Figure 17.3A wooden path crosses over the PMR ‘Marjal dels Borrons’ (Xeresa, Valencian Community) to allow the development of educational and recreative activities (photo: E. Laguna).

Figure 17.4Traditional dry stone walls made close to the proposed PMR ‘Ets Alocs’ (Minorca, Balearic Is-lands) to avoid uncontrolled car parking near the riverine vegetation of Vitex agnus-castus (photo: E. Laguna).

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selection of species by combining 1) dominant structural plants, 2) threatened or rare species and 3) determinant taxa for ecosystem through its mutualistic or facilitative function. This selection procedure is called ‘structural basis of the habitat’ and is still undergoing trials. Similarly, another technique is being de-veloped and tested in the Valencian PMR network consisting of the preliminary implementation of facilitator species of threatened plants, so that the latter naturally colonize new environments under restoration, following a ‘stepping stone’ model. This model is being applied to sites which shelter relict taxa of high mountain forest vegetation –Taxus baccata, ravines with Tilio-Acerion communi-ties, etc.– by combining the plantation of structural slow dispersing species (e.g. Quercus rotundifolia, Q. faginea) with other wind-dispersed trees (Fraxinus ornus, Acer granatense etc.) and especially fruit bearing plants that attract and stabilize populations of thrushes and other forest birds, ultimately responsible for the es-tablishment of Taxus baccata, Sorbus aria, S. torminalis, etc. (García-Martí et al., in press). A previous proposal to those dealt with so far is that of ‘synaccessions’ or seed samples with appropriate proportions of basic species required for restor-ing a particular habitat (Laguna et al., 2008).

Among the most important emerging issues that require the use of restora-tion techniques is combating invasive alien species, including the rehabilitation of the sites from where they are extracted, which must often be re-vegetated with native plants (see Myers & Bazely, 2003; Sandlung et al., 1999; Veitch & Clout, 2002). The presence of abundant invasive species in large areas of the European continent, and particularly in the Mediterranean, results in that many of the works that are carried out in PMR or their immediate surroundings, in order to prevent their invasion, deal with the same invasive species, such as Carpobrotus edulis, Agave americana, Opuntia spp., etc. For instance, thorough eradication of invasive species has been carried out in coastal PMRs of Minorca and Valencia, as well as in sites of botanical interest linked to heavily urbanized areas (Fig. 17.5).

Figure 17.5Eradication of the invasive exotic Opuntia ammophila Small on the dunes bordering the PMR ‘Marjal dels Moros B’ (Sagunto, Valencian Community) (photo: J. E. Oltra).

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Munshower, F.F., 1994. Practical handbook of disturbed land revegetation. CRC Press, Boca Raton.

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Myers, J. & Bazely, D. (eds.), 2003. Ecology and control of introduced plants. Cambridge University Press, UK: Cambridge.

Nash, K. & Burch, F. (eds.), 2001. Conservation of biodiversity within ecosystems. Imperial College at Wye, University of London.

Navarro, A.J., Oltra, J.E., Pérez Botella, J., Pérez Rovira, P. & Laguna, E., 2010. Cartografía de pobla-ciones de táxones del Catálogo Valenciano de Especies de Flora Amenazadas. In Giménez, P., Marco, J.A., Matarredona, E., Padilla, A. & Sánchez, A. (eds.), 2010. Biogeografía. Una ciencia para la conservación del medio: 99-107. Universidad de Alicante. Alicante.

Navarro, A., Oltra, J.E., Durán, D., Rey, L., Sánchez-Cañizares, C., Ruíz-Argüeso, T., Imperial, J., Laguna, E., Escribá, M.C., Albert, F.J., Ferrando, I., Ferrer, P.P. & Fos, S., 2013. Reintroducción del altramuz endémico valenciano Lupinus mariae-josephae mediante la inoculación de cepas seleccionadas de bacterias del género Bradyrhizobium. In NEIKER-Tecnalia (ed.): IV Congreso Nacional de Biodiversidad - Bilbao, febrero 2013 - Ponencias y Pósters: 191. Gobierno Vasco. Vitoria-Gasteiz.

Nicolau, J.M., Rey, J.M. & Espigares, T. (eds.), 2003. Restauración de ecosistemas mediterráneos. Universidad de Alcalá de Henares. Espagna: Madrid.

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18PMRs as Field Laboratories for Scientific Research

Costas A. THANOS, Apostolis KALTSIS & Katerina KOUTSOVOULOU

Department of Botany, Faculty of Biology, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Panepistimiopolis, Athens 15784, Greece

I. Introduction

Although solid � eld conservation and scienti� c monitoring of rare and endan-gered plants is the essential rationale underlying the PMR concept, it is more than evident that once created, PMRs o� er plenty of opportunities for scienti� c research on many aspects of Plant Science and Ecology. PMRs are practically a type of natural botanical garden and natural � eld lab as well, where research-ers can observe natural processes, collect accurate and reliable time series of data, test and evaluate techniques and methods. This joint and interdependent conservation-oriented research work produced at the PMRs, contributes to the enrichment of the available knowledge on the biology, physiology and ecology of the respective plant species and might eventually be applied for the re� ne-ment and specialization of the conservation actions. In this chapter, we present a concise overview of the scienti� c research carried out in the seven PMRs of Western Crete, established in the framework of the CRETAPLANT Project, LIF-E04NAT_GR_000104 (Thanos et al., 2007; Dimopoulos et al., 2008).

II. Topics of Scientific Research inside a PMR

Life cycle features. Most plant species targeted as deserving a PMR of their own are usually rare or endangered and often occur in isolated habitats. Therefore, there is commonly a signi� cant lack of knowledge on their overall biology and ecology. Regular monitoring of speci� c individuals within a PMR can reveal in-teresting features of a plant species life cycle, such as lifespan, time gaps in the reproductive stage (years with no � ower and seed production), periods of veg-etative dormancy (for geophytes) and so on.

Phenological variations with respect to microclimatic conditions. The recording of the microclimatic conditions of an area where a PMR is situated (e.g. through the installation of an autonomous small weather station) can help in the evalu-

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ation of data concerning annual reproductive � uctuations of a plant species (number of � owering individuals, number of � owers, seed production etc.).

Microhabitat e� ects on population size and density. The habitat of a plant spe-cies in some cases can be a mosaic of vegetation, geological substrate etc., but even within a generally uniform habitat there could be important variations as regards biotic and abiotic parameters. Systematic monitoring and recording of population parameters at di� erent selected sites within a PMR can enable the determination of the parameter or set of conditions which are critical for a plant species.

Reproduction and regeneration. Various aspects of the reproductive processes can be adequately studied and monitored in the PMRs, such as pollination and identi� cation of pollinators, seed dispersal and the role of various biotic and abi-otic factors, time of seedling emergence and percentage of successful seedling establishment.

Population dynamics and trends. Population dynamics is a preferential � eld of research on the PMRs, as the latter enable the regular monitoring of a represen-tative portion of a plant species population and the production of comparable results. Perennial species require long-term data series (>10 years) before re-liable conclusions are stated about the population trends, but for annual, bi-ennial or monocarpic species, whose populations � uctuate from year to year, possible detectable patterns may be revealed even in shorter time. Then, these datasets should be used for a comprehensive and specialized population viabil-ity analysis (PVA) for each species in study.

III. Case Studies of Scientific Research from the PMRs of Western Crete

Bupleurum kakiskalae

Bupleurum kakiskalae is a perennial monocarpic plant, growing in almost verti-cal cli� s at two locations of Lefka Ori. The Micro-Reserve of Bupleurum kakiskalae is located at Xyloskalo, near the entrance of Samaria Gorge.

Research issues

• What portion of the total number of plants reaches the reproductive stage every year?

• What is the number of the new plants established every year?

• What is the lifespan of Bupleurum kakiskalae individuals?

As a monocarpic species, Bupleurum kakiskalae plants � ower once in their life, producing numerous seeds and then die. Depending on various, not su� ciently

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known factors, a small or larger number of plants reach the � owering stage ev-ery year. These plants are then ‘removed’ from the subpopulation, while new plants deriving from germinated seeds are recruited. Therefore, the scienti� c re-search on this species focuses mostly on the assessment of the annual popula-tion � uctuations within the PMR, the identi� cation of a possible pattern on the number of plants reaching the reproductive stage every � owering season and the estimation of the lifespan of the plants.

MethodsBupleurum kakiskalae is an obligatory chasmophyte; the actual locations of the plants are almost totally inaccessible. Due to the relatively large size of ro-settes and � owering stems, monitoring of the species is feasible from a distance through telescopic observation (Fig. 18.1). The telescope is placed on the same point in every � eld visit, while a photographic camera is attached to the tele-scope and a photographic archive is kept. Field visits are conducted annually, from the middle to the end of July, when plants have reached full � owering stage.

ResultsThrough a six-year regular annual monitoring, it has been observed that the total number of individuals recorded within the PMR is rather stable, varying from 70-90 individuals. It should be noted that this is the minimum number of individuals actually present on the PMR, as there are almost certainly plants growing on rock crevices not visible from the observation point. The number of plants reaching the � owering stage every year can vary signi� cantly, from 4 (2008) to 47 (2012). Further data are required to investigate if there exists an endogenous or an environmen-tal stimulus that triggers the massive � owering of plants on a more or less regular time period.

Regarding the age in which Bu-pleurum kakiskalae plants reach the reproductive stage, and thus the end of their life cycle, Greuter (1995), who � rst described the species, suggested an age of 12 years. Plants grown in our small Botanical Garden, at the Omalos Plateau, reached maturity as early as 3 years after seed germination, while two plants naturally established with-in a small fenced area at the base of the PMR cli� � owered in the 4th year. These cases may represent a plastic response of the species to optimal

Figure 18.1 Telescopic monitoring of Bupleurum kakiskalae plants in the respec-tive PMR.

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growth conditions (richer substrate, absence of grazing). With the use of our photographic archives, speci� c individuals are monitored and the exact year they reach reproductive stage can be determined (Fig. 18.2), although their ‘birth’ year cannot be determined easily.

Cephalanthera cucullata

Cephalanthera cucullata is an endemic orchid of Crete, growing on forest areas of all four, large Cretan mountain massifs, on shady and moist places, at alti-tudes ranging from 700 to 1500 m. The Micro-Reserve of Cephalanthera cucul-lata is situated on the location Koukouli, above the village Koustogerako, on the western slopes of Lefka Ori.

Research issues

• Which is the actual fraction of the total subpopulation that is growing above ground each year?

• What is the overall pattern of vegetative dormancy in Cephalanthera cucullata?

• What is the relationship between ground moisture and number of � owering plants and stems recorded?

As observed in other orchid species, Cephalanthera cucullata exhibits an inter-annually erratic, above-ground growth (vegetative dormancy). Therefore, the total number of individuals � owering each year might signi� cantly � uctuate. Moreover, each individual can produce one or more � owering stems and so the total � ower and seed production can also vary from year to year. As this orchid tends to grow on moist and shady places, ground moisture � uctuations during the year can be a factor that in� uences the above-ground growth (reproductive stage) of the plants.

Figure 18.2 The same Bupleurum kakiskalae individual plant shown in vegetative stage (2011, left) and in � owering (2012, right).

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MethodsWithin a fenced area in the PMR (where grazing from large herbivores is excluded) all individuals with � owering stems are recorded and also tagged with plastic labels placed on a stake, � xed on the ground a few centimeters away (Fig. 18.3). This process takes place every year when new individuals with � owering stems appear. In this frame, every single individual is visited annually to record whether there is above-ground growth or not. Field visits take place from late May to early June. Meteorological data are also retrieved from a micro-station located within the PMR.

ResultsApproximately 180 individuals have been recorded within the 0.8 ha of the fenced area of the PMR during a six-year study period. Typically, a small portion of these (35-45% of the total) is recorded to bear � owers every year, though one year (2007) the majority of the individuals � owered (148 individuals). The ma-jority of � owering individuals bear 1 � owering stem, but there are cases where plants have 3 to 11 � owering stems, giving an average of 2 � owering stems per plant. Through this six-year period, there are very few (<10) individuals which bear � owering stems each year, while cases of plants with up to 4 years vegeta-tive dormancy are also recorded.

Anthemis glaberrima

Anthemis glaberrima is a small annual plant, growing among calcareous coastal rocks on the islets of Imeri and Agria Gramvousa, at the NW corner of Crete. The Micro-Reserve of Anthemis glaberrima is located on the northern side of the islet of Agria Gramvousa.

Figure 18.3 A tagged Cephalanthera cucullata individual in � ower, at the respective PMR.

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Research questions

• What is the pattern of interannual population � uctuations?

• What is the quantitative relationship between � ower production and seedling emergence?

• What is the e� ect of microhabitat on the population density?

As all annual plants, the total number of A. glaberrima individuals can � uctuate signi� cantly from year to year. The plants of A. glaberrima � ower in April and May, while the seeds ripe in June and July. Seedlings emerge after the raining season has begun, by late November to early December (Fig. 18.4, left). As there is limited capability of the seeds to be dispersed through the wind, the number of seedlings recorded in every plot represents, to a high degree, the potential of the individuals recorded in every plot to produce new plants. This potential should be considered in more than a year time basis, as the existence of a soil seed bank seems rather possible (seeds produced in one � owering period can remain in the ground and germinate after one year or more). This hypothesis is supported by the low germination percentages manifested by A. glaberrima seeds under various temperature and light regimes, in the laboratory.

MethodsTwenty permanent monitoring plots are implemented within the PMR, covering three biotopes/microhabitat types (coastal rocks, stony slopes, steep cli� s). Field visits should be conducted twice per year: (a) in the late � owering season (early May), where the total number of individuals and capitulas per individual in each monitoring plot is assessed and (b) a few weeks after the beginning of the rainy season, where the majority of the seedlings have emerged and the total num-ber of them can be recorded (Fig. 18.4, right).

Figure 18.4 A few-weeks-old seedling of Anthemis glaberrima (left). Seedlings in a pit of coastal rocks; the pit is serving both as a ‘growing pot’ and as a permanent monitor-ing plot (right).

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ResultsThe results of monitoring on the total number of individuals/capitulas and the number of seedlings emerging every year cover only a two-year period and are presented at Table 18.1; it is evident that they cannot be utilized to extract conclusions on population dynamics unless a number of at least 6–8 years time series of data is obtained. It seems though that even with these few data, the most suitable habitat for the species are the small pits with little soil among the coastal rocks, as 2–5 times more plants per plot are recorded in this type of microhabitat.

Hypericum aciferum

Hypericum aciferum is a perennial chasmophytic plant, growing on coastal rocks at the southwestern part of Crete, in the area of Sfakia (between Sougia and Agia Roumeli). The Micro-Reserve of Hypericum aciferum is situated on the local-ity Fournoti, including a small coast and the exit of a gorge.

Research issues

• What is the ratio between mature and juvenile plants?

• What is the ratio between the plants with the two distinct � ower forms?

Hypericum aciferum is a perennial plant and its population can be considered rather stable at the time being, but the investigation of the relative presence of juvenile plants on the PMR is important, as well as the renewal rate (dying plants compared to new plants established). The most intriguing research is-sue observed in Hypericum aciferum is distyly (the phenomenon where � owers develop either considerably higher styles than stamens, - type I � owers - or vice versa, - type II) (Fig. 18.5). An individual plant can bear � owers only of one type and, according to the knowledge on other cases of plant species with distyly, insect pollination can take place only between the two di� erent types of � ow-ers (a mechanism believed to enhance the inter-individual exchange of genetic material).

Table 18.1 Recording of � owering plants and seedlings of Anthemis glaberrima for 2 con-secutive years, at the monitoring plots (20 in total) established in three di� erent biotopes (A: � at coastal rocks, B: stony slope, C: steep rocks).

Biotope 2006 2007

Plants Seedlings Plants Seedlings

A (10 plots) 167 539 429 463

B (5 plots) 28 55 42 29

C (5 plots) 76 108 73 17

Total 271 702 544 509

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MethodsFifteen permanent virtual plots are used for the monitoring of Hypericum aciferum (Fig. 18.6). All mature and ju-venile plants are recorded in each plot, while the type of � owers (type I or II) in each � owering plant was determined with the use of a magnifying glass. Field visits are conducted close to the end of the � owering period (late Sep-tember - early October).

ResultsIn a two-year period of monitoring, the juvenile plants recorded within the monitoring plots represent about 20% of the total number of individuals within the PMR. At least 6-8 years are required to form a su� cient image on the population dynamics. As regards the number of plants with the two dif-ferent � ower forms, the ratio between plants with type I � owers and those with type II � owers was estimated to 1:1.5 (n=59), but the sampling num-ber is considered rather low. This issue should be monitored in the future, as such a signi� cant deviation from the ratio 1:1, dictated by ESS (evolutionari-ly stable strategy), could have a nega-tive e� ect on pollination, seed production and regeneration, in general.

Nepeta sphaciotica

Nepeta sphaciotica is a perennial alpine plant, growing merely on the stony, northern slope of Svourichti summit in the Lefka Ori mountain massif, at an al-titude from 2100 to 2350 m. As a consequence, the Micro-Reserve of Nepeta sphaciotica is located on Svourichti summit and encompasses the entire known population of the species.

Research issues

• What is the ratio between mature and juvenile plants?

• What is the density pattern of the population?

Nepeta sphaciotica forms a rather large population (more than 30.000 individu-

Figure 18.5 Distyly in Hypericum aciferum; individual plants have either long (left) or short (right) styles as well as short or long stamens, respectively.

Figure 18.6 A virtual monitoring plot(1 m2) in the Hypericum aciferum PMR.

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149CHAPTER 18 PMRs as Field Laboratories for Scientific Research

als is estimated to occur on Svourichti) on an isolated and stable environment (Fig. 18.7). Periodical recording of juvenile plants is conducted for assessing the renewal potential of the population. Another issue approached was the distri-bution of the individuals within the area of occurrence of the species (density map) with respect to habitat variations (substrate, inclination).

MethodsFive permanent monitoring plots are implemented on Svourichti summit, where the number of � owering and juvenile plants is regularly recorded. Field visits are conducted at the end of July - early August. Population density was assessed in numerous plots of 1 x 1 m (Fig. 18.7) across 8 parallel and crossing sections and then a density prediction map was produced with the use of suit-able cartographic software.

ResultsIn the three-year time of monitoring, the juvenile plants recorded within the monitoring plots represent approximately 10% of the total number of individu-als within the PMR. As regards to the density, it was estimated to 0.77±0.1 indi-viduals/m², with a slight increase of density on sites with lower inclination (the mean inclination of the slope is approximately 30%). As mentioned above, de-tection of possible changes in population composition and dynamics require extended (at least 6-8 years) time series of data.

Androcymbium rechingeri

Androcymbium rechingeri is a perennial bulbous plant, growing on sandy coastal areas along the western coast of Crete (Imeri Gramvousa Islet, Falassarna, Ela-fonisos Islet). The Micro-Reserve of Androcymbium rechingeri is situated on the westernmost part of Elafonisos islet, at the SW corner of Crete.

Research issues

• What portion of the total number of plants � owers every year?

Figure 18.7 Nepeta sphaciotica plants in their typical habitat at the respective PMR (left); population density was assessed with the use of a 1 m² frame (right).

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• What is the population density?

Androcymbium rechingeri in Elafonisos Islet forms a very large subpopulation, estimated to approximately 350.000 individuals. As most of the geophytes in the Mediterranean area, the parts of the plant appearing above the ground are dried out during the summer period. Adult plants � ower during the winter, while plants bearing only leaves appear too. It is not yet clari� ed whether the plants in vegetative stage are exclusively immature plants or there is a possibil-ity that adult plants in this species might not � ower every year.

MethodsFive permanent plots have been established in the PMR for the purpose of population monitoring (Fig. 18.8). The total number of plants in each plot is as-sessed, as well as whether they are in � owering or vegetative stage. As a peren-nial species, possible negative or positive population trends require extended time series of data to be detected. Field visits should be paid at the end of the � owering period (February).

ResultsDuring three consequent annual recordings, no signi� cant di� erences in the total number of plants or population density were recorded in each monitor-ing plot (Table 18.2). Similarly, the total number of � owering plants does not also vary signi� cantly from year to year (the smaller number in the 3rd year of monitoring is explained by the fact that the � eld visit was conducted in the early � owering period); the � owering plants compose approximately 60% of the to-tal number of plants recorded in all � ve plots. The population density was esti-mated to an approximate value of 10 individuals/m². As mentioned above, data from at least 8-10 years of monitoring is required to detect possible trends.

Figure 18.8 Monitor-ing of Androcymbium rechingeri population density with the use of 1 m² frames.

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Phoenix theophrasti

Research issues

• What is the ratio between male and female individuals within the PMR?

• What portion of the total number of trees produces reproductive structures ev-ery year?

• What is the number of full seeds produced ever year?

Sex ratio is a critical parameter for the populations of dioecious species, like Phoenix theophrasti. A signi� cant de� ciency in the number of male or female trees can lead to limited (or no) seed production. Moreover, reproductive trees may not produce � owers every year, due to environmental limitations, e.g. water stress. All the above mentioned parameters, along with the distance between male and female trees (i.e. density of a subpopulation) in� uence the total seed production and the potential for recruitment of new individuals.

MethodsAll palm trees within the PMR are tracked and labeled, while their sex is recorded (if and when they produce reproductive organs). Annual observations are car-ried out during the � owering period (May) to record the number of palms in bloom, as well as the number of in� orescences. Then a new visit is paid, late in the fruiting period (August – September) to determine any viable seeds pro-duced. It should be noted that arti� cial pollination also took place for the facili-tation of seed set.

ResultsA total of 48 palms were recorded within the PMR. After 3 years of monitoring, only 4 trees were identi� ed as female individuals and 9 as male. So far, it has not

Table 18.2 Recording of � owering (F) and vegetative (V) Androcymbium rechingeri indi-viduals for 3 consecutive years, at the 5 monitoring plots (1x1 m). (T: total)

Permanent plot

2005 2006 2007

F V T F V T F V T

1 52 76 128 - - - 36 96 132

2 86 120 206 114 130 244 96 114 210

3 152 34 186 143 32 175 62 118 180

4 38 15 53 39 26 65 36 18 54

5 44 32 76 53 34 87 46 43 89

Total 372 277 649 349 222 571 276 389 665

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been possible to determine whether the rest of the trees are either non repro-ductive or mature individuals which are not � owering every year. It seems that the whole subpopulation is considerably stressed, due to limited water avail-ability. Therefore, no viable seeds have been produced during this three-year period, even though arti� cial pollination was applied as well. An initial parthe-nocarpic development is usually observed, but after a few weeks all fruits are aborted (Fig. 18.9).

IV. Future Research Perspectives in the PMRs of Western Crete

As seen before, research issues studied on the PMRs refer mainly to population dynamics, reproductive potential, as well as the role of biotic and abiotic factors (habitat) on the plant sustainability. These parameters are directly related with the fundamental idea of the PMR establishment, which is the long-term protec-tion and management of rare plant species. In the same framework, as the study of the biology and ecology of the rare plants progresses, new research issues of interest will arise.

Seed dispersal. There are two intriguing cases as regards seed dispersal among the seven plant species protected at the respective PMRs.

a. Androcymbium rechingeri is a plant growing only on sandy coasts along the western coast of Crete. In some studies, A. rechingeri is considered as native to Libya as well. This issue is not yet fully clari� ed, but it conforms nicely to our hypothesis concerning fruit hydrochory; according to our data, fruits are waterproof and have a very low speci� c mass. Thus, fruits can � oat on

Figure 18.9 Parthenocarpic development is observed on female Phoenix theophrasti plants. Development of seedless green fruits (early July, left) is eventually followed by complete abortion (late August, right).

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sea water and, when drifted by sea currents, may travel along considerable distances and colonize new coastal locations. This is not a unique case, as many ‘islet specialist’ plants have � oating diaspores. If this hypothesis gets supported by experimental evidence, then subpopulations of A. rechingeri in Crete could be considered as distinct metapopulations.

b. Another case of interest is the dispersal of Hypericum aciferum seeds by ants (myrmecochory). The seeds bear an elaiosome (an excellent source of ener-gy and nutrients) which attracts ants. This type of dispersal is well known and adequately investigated (Lengyel et al., 2010); in a rather common pattern, ants carry seeds into their nest, consume the elaiosome and then discard the seed. A properly designed, � eld experiment could give more data on this process and might even explain the chasmophytic life habit of H. aciferum.

Climate change impacts. Rare and narrow-ranged plant species have limited abil-ity to adapt to new environmental conditions, particularly when the rate of the changes is as fast as predicted by the climate change scenarios. Two of the plant species in study are ideal models for the investigation and evaluation of the im-pacts of climate change on the mid-term sustainability of their populations.

a. The majority of the Anthemis glaberrima individuals on Agria Gramvousa grow among the coastal rocks, on altitudes from 2 to 5 m. This fact makes that part of the population susceptible to a possible sea level rise due to cli-mate change, which can cause habitat loss and increase of soil salinity, which would favour the better adapted halophytes. Microclimatic conditions are continuously recorded and monitored by the meteorological micro-station placed on the PMR and can be evaluated on a long-term basis to detect pos-sible trends in speci� c climatic parameters.

b. Germination tests have indicated that Nepeta sphaciotica seeds do not ger-minate in 10 °C (or below that) but show optimal germination at 15 °C. It is postulated that there exists an endogenous mechanism that functions as a temperature ‘switch’. This mechanism safeguards that seeds will not germi-nate immediately after dispersal, in the autumn (when relatively cool tem-peratures prevail), a scenario that would be disastrous for the seedlings as a 5-6 months-long period of snow cover follows. Seeds germinate in late spring, when mean temperature exceeds 15 °C. A possible considerable temperature rise caused by climate change might result in autumnal ger-mination of Nepeta sphaciotica seeds, a fact that would certainly in� uence dramatically the regeneration of the species. Moreover, plant species grow-ing on slightly lower altitudes may eventually start occupying niches on sites closer to the summits, a fact that will increase the competition pressure for N. sphaciotica plants. Regular collections of data regarding temperature from the data logging sensors placed in the PMR, combined with records of seed-lings and juvenile plants emerging in the permanent monitoring plots, can answer this issue on a long-term basis.

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V. References

Dimopoulos, P., Bergmeier, E., Georghiou, K. & Thanos, C.A., 2008. Final Report on Monitoring of Priority Plant Species and Habitat in the PMRs of Western Crete (in Greek). Project CRETA-PLANT, LIFE04NAT_GR_000104, National & Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens.

Greuter, W., 1995. Bupleurum kakiskalae Greuter. In Phitos, D. et al. (eds): The Red Data Book of Rare and Threatened Plants of Greece: 106-107. K. Michalas S. A.: Athens.

Lengyel, S., Govec, A.D., Latimerd, A.M., Majer, J.D. & Dunn, R.R., 2010. Convergent evolution of seed dispersal by ants, and phylogeny and biogeography in � owering plants: A global survey. Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 12: 43-55.

Thanos, C.A., Fournaraki, Ch., Georghiou, K., Dimopoulos, P. & Bergmeier, E., 2007. The Establish-ment, Monitoring and Management of a Pilot Network of Micro-Reserves in Western Crete for the Conservation of European Threatened Plants (CRETAPLANT Project, EU-LIFE). In Rockich, D., G. Moss, C. Yates, K. Dixon & J. Stevens (eds.): Proceedings, MEDECOS XI Conference, Perth, Australia: 249-250. Botanic Gardens & Parks Authority, Kings Park and Botanic Garden. Austra-lia: Perth.

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19Public Use of Plant Micro-Reserves: Public Awareness, Social Involvement and Environmental Education

Costas KADIS1, Aravella ZACHARIOU2, Chrysanthi KADJI1 and Sophia MAZARAKI1

1 Frederick University, 7, Y. Frederickou str., Pallouriotissa, 1036 Nicosia, Cyprus2 Cyprus Pedagogical Institute, 40 Macedonia Aven., Latsia, 2252 Nicosia, Cyprus

I. Introduction

Rio Declaration in 1992 clearly stated that ‘environmental issues are best han-dled with the participation of all concerned citizens, at the relevant level’ (UNEP, 2013). The Convention on Biological Diversity relies on communication, educa-tion and awareness strategies to ensure that ‘everyone understands the value of biodiversity and what steps they can take to protect it’ (SCBD, 2010). The lack of awareness about the bene� ts of biodiversity conservation and its relevance to everyday concerns, decreases the e� ectiveness of conservation e� ective-ness. Therefore, the objectives of biodiversity conservation should be assured through a transformation of entire societies towards the biosphere (IUCN, UNEP & WWF, 1980). Informing, educating and communicating with the public has a major role to play in raising awareness for nature conservation as well as making conservation practices more likely to succeed.

The role of public participation, information and environmental education must be integral in nature conservation initiatives, through activities that in-clude (IUCN, UNEP & WWF, 1980):

A. Public Participation

• Public participation in planning, decision making and management. Par-ticipation improves the public’s understanding of management objec-tives and provides planners and policy makers with additional data.

• Su� cient time and information should be given to the public in order to in� uence decisions.

B. Environmental Education Campaigns and Programs

• Education campaigns should be prepared for users of living resources (� shermen, hunters, foresters etc.) as well as for other target groups with an indirect impact on living resources in order to promote awareness.

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• Education programs should determine the target groups, have precise objectives and make use of the media and techniques that are most ef-fective. Important target groups are: legislators and administrators, de-velopment practitioners, industry and commerce, trade unions, profes-sional bodies, special interested groups, communities most a� ected by conservation projects, schoolchildren and students.

• Educational programs should be included in all resource-use projects, in order to improve local understanding and support of conservation as well as to enhance the lasting success and sustainability of the project.

• Environmental education should be included in school curricula as an in-trinsic part of them, permeating horizontally and interdisciplinary all the subjects and also being part of the out-of-school activities.

• Mass media (radio, television, newspapers and magazines, internet) should be utilized in order to provide information to the general public and groups with special interests. Advantage should be taken of national parks and of infrastructures such as botanical gardens, zoos etc. to ex-plain conservation objectives and their contribution to human survival and wellbeing.

• Education campaigns should be planned to expose issues that need greater attention by the public. Such issues include the e� ects of intro-duced species, impact of human activities on threatened species, sustain-able exploitation of species etc.

• Environmental education should be continuous and should be regarded as part of a long term, interactive process and make conservation central to human interests.

The success of conservation initiatives within protected areas and areas with high ecological value is largely related to the extent to which local communi-ties understand and support the management objectives of the protected areas (Ervin et al., 2010). Stakeholders’ involvement and local people participation can lead to wider support and acceptance of conservation actions. Public participa-tion and information in nature conservation projects enables local communi-ties, local people and authorities to become active participants, reduces poten-tial con� icts, promotes public awareness and can lead to better decisions and public support. Moreover, local people who live in areas of conservational im-portance often have substantial environmental knowledge, which could be ex-tremely valuable during the design of conservation measures. Unfortunately, lo-cal people are often ignored and are being informed only after major decisions have been made (by experts). This tactic undermines the success of conserva-tion projects because they lack local legitimacy and social acceptability (Decker et al., 2001). On the other hand, education has been acknowledged as an im-portant tool towards biodiversity conservation through the transformation of human attitudes towards nature (Ehrlich & Pringle, 2008). Therefore, education

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can substantially support people to become well-informed, critical, competent and able to act in favor of biodiversity (Dreyfus et al., 1999). Especially protected areas and areas of high ecological value, depending on the access limitations they might have, can provide opportunities for ‘education in the environment’, ‘about the environment’ and ‘for the environment’ (Flogaiti, 2012). Through for-mal education, � eld work can enhance teaching and learning and can support any initiatives and actions for environmental protection. Students can engage in monitoring and reporting activities and contribute to data collection. Teach-ing and learning processes become experiential, speci� c and meaningful. Stu-dents’ active participation in conservation actions raises their awareness (Knapp & Po� , 2001) and can become a means of informing them and the public about the uniqueness of the protected areas, the importance of the local species and the individuals’ role in the protection and conservation of local biodiversity.

II. Public Participation, Awareness and Education in PMRs

Plant Micro-Reserves can provide a platform for promoting active co-operation among scientists, national competent authorities, NGOs and local people for the conservation of plant diversity and the restoration of threatened habitats and natural ecosystems. In many cases, PMRs are situated within protected ar-eas such as national parks and/or close to local communities and they are ac-cessible to people. Due to their importance as areas of high ecological value, they can attract visitors and under certain circumstances they can be utilized for ecotourism, awareness and educational purposes. Some examples of activities relating to public participation, awareness and education in PMRs are presented below. Extensive reference is made to activities that have taken place in Cyprus, while short description is provided for the cases of PMRs in Spain, Greece and Slovenia.

PMRs in Cyprus

Taking into consideration that conservation e� orts are more likely to be sustain-able if local communities are actively involved from an initial stage in planning and decision-making processes, the PLANT-NET CY project developed a series of measures promoting the participation of local communities in the conserva-tion process and awareness among the general public about the targeted spe-cies and habitats and the biodiversity of Cyprus in general.

The participation of local communities in the project was sought through unstructured interviews with key informants in communities neighboring the PMRs, rural appraisals and local workshops at the beginning of the project (Fig. 19.1). The knowledge gained from these events was utilized in the conserva-tion process. In addition, prior to the de� nition of the exact boundaries of the

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PMRs, the opinion of local people and village authorities was sought by discuss-ing alternative scenarios for the boundaries of each PMR. The delimitation of the PMRs boundaries was determined with consensus between the scienti� c team of the project and the local stakeholders. Therefore, the establishment of the PMRs secured the required public acceptance. In certain PMRs, local people were actively involved in selected in situ conservation activities, such as litter removal and removal of � ammable biomass that could increase the risk of � re within the respective PMR (Fig. 19.2). Moreover, the local authorities of the PMRs nearby-communities, indicated the strategic locations within their com-munities, where information boards were placed, describing the PMR concept as well as the value and importance of the neighbouring PMR. They also par-ticipated in the procedure of the installation of the information boards (Fig. 19.3). Local communities of the PMRs nearby communities were continuously updated about the progress of the project through meetings with members of the scienti� c team and through their participation in the Stakeholders Board. The Board consisted of scientists, policy makers and representatives of the local communities and aimed at the enhanced participation and collaboration of all stakeholders towards the successful implementation of the project. The Stake-holders Board had an advisory role on administrational and technical matters with speci� c emphasis on the information campaign and the relations with the local people and groups of interest.

Figure 19.1 Rural appraisals and meetings with the local authorities at the communities of a. Mitsero, b. Kampos, c. Pegeia and d. Asgata (photos: PLANT-NET CY).

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The PLANT-NET CY project placed special emphasis on public awareness, aiming at enhancing biodiversity conservation by exposing the bene� ts of PMR practices and results. The project partners recognized that media such as televi-sion, video, radio, the internet and community organizations have all great po-tential to disseminate environmental knowledge and raise awareness (Kassas, 2002; Malcom, 2001). Moreover, they recognized that, in order to achieve deeper understanding and more committed stewardship of biodiversity through com-munication and awareness programs, it is necessary to � rst identify the target audience and determine their level of understanding (Novacek, 2008). In this framework, several awareness and communication activities took place, focus-ing on di� erent target groups, such as government authorities, local authorities, local people, local schools’ students, youth centers, tourists, local visitors, tour operators, the Cyprus Tourist Organization, NGOs and the media. Some indica-tive activities developed within the framework of the project included media coverage (press releases, TV and radio broadcasts, articles in the newspapers, magazines, etc), production and dissemination of information material (lea� ets, posters, newsletters) and multimedia development (website, CDs, DVDs, pages on Facebook and Twitter). In addition, a tourism workshop was organized, which provided information on the ecotourism possibilities in Cyprus and explored the prospects of developing ecotourism activities within Natura 2000 areas and speci� cally within PMRs (Fig. 19.4). The participants welcomed the idea of designing targeted ecotourism activities focusing on Natura 2000 sites and on PMRs and acknowledged the environmental, social and economic bene� ts that could result from such activities. As a follow up step to this event, ecotourism activities focusing on two PMRs, were included in an ecotourism guide, which covered a part of the Troodos range (Filagro Group, 2013).

PLANT-NET CY project also developed a series of environmental education activities with special focus on PMRs. A competition among the youth of Cy-prus took place covering all the kindergartens, elementary schools, technical

Figure 19.2 Active involvement of local people in on site conservation activities at Mitsero Plant Micro-Reserve (photo: PLANT-NET CY).

Figure 19.3 Local people from Mitsero community participating in the proce-dure of installation of information boards (photo: M. Andreou).

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schools and high schools of Cyprus. For the implementation of the competi-tion, the project partners secured the cooperation and support of the Cyprus Pedagogical Institute (Ministry of Education and Culture), which is the compe-tent authority of Cyprus for environmental education. The general theme of the competition was ‘Involving students in environmental activities relating to biodiversity’ and had � ve thematic areas, including ‘Biodiversity conservation in PMRs’ and ‘The Natura 2000 network’. Students could choose a subject under these areas and prepare a 10-photo-album (primary education) or a 3-minute-video (technical and secondary education). The competition secured large par-ticipation (44 schools - more than 590 students). The winners were awarded at a ceremony, which was combined with the event for the celebration of LIFE’s 20th anniversary (Fig. 19.5), and the awarded pictures and � lms were presented during the event, which was organized for the presentation of the Cyprus’ Bio-diversity Strategy.

Moreover, the project’s scienti� c team organized guided visits to the PMRs of students from schools and universities (Fig. 19.6-19.8). During these visits, the importance of the targeted species and habitats, as well as the practices ad-opted in the respective PMRs were presented and explained to the students. An important achievement of the project was the inclusion of educational activities relating to the PMR approach in the ‘Primary Teachers’ guide for implementing the National Curriculum for Environmental Education-Education for Sustainable Development’ (Zachariou & Georgiou, 2012). The guide was developed by the Ministry of Education and Culture of the Republic of Cyprus, within the frame-work of the newly established National Curriculum for Environmental Education / Education for Sustainable Development (MoEC, 2009). Speci� cally, the follow-ing desirable learning outcomes in relation to ‘Biodiversity’ for students of the primary school were included in the aforementioned Guide:

• Introduction to the Natura 2000 Network, as the main means for the conser-vation of biodiversity in the European Union.

• Familiarisation with in situ and ex situ biodiversity conservation approaches.

Figure 19.4 Tourism workshop, in which the utilization of PMRs for developing targeted eco-tourism activities was discussed (photo: M. Andreou).

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Figure 19.5 The Minister of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Environment, Mr. Sofoklis Aletraris, awards the winners of the Youth Competition at the celebration of LIFEs’ 20th anniversary(photo: M. Andreou).

• Cooperation and interaction of students with organisations, scientists and researchers for their familiarisation with the Plant Micro-Reserves’ approach as a study case for the conservation of important species, having in mind both environmental and socio-economic bene� ts.

Figure 19.6 Guided students visit to the PMR at Mitsero area(photo: PLANT-NET CY).

Figure 19.7 Presentation of the PMR project to the students of Mitsero community (photo: PLANT-NET CY).

Figure 19.8Presentation of the PMR

project to the students of the MSc Programme

of Frederick University in ‘Education for the Environ-

ment and Sustainable Development’ (photo:

C. Kadis).

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PMRs in Spain

In the PMRs projects that have been carried out in Spain, public participation and social awareness have been key issues. The most important element of public participation in the Spanish PMR projects has been the involvement of private landowners in the PMRs initiative. A large number of PMRs in Spain are of private ownership and their owners are strongly engaged with conservation ideas (Laguna et al., 2001). The procedure of establishing a private PMR starts by the owner of the land, but in certain cases, land owners are approached by the PMR sta� in order to consent to contribute with their land to the network, when an important population of a targeted species is found in their property. Private PMRs allow the network to incorporate valuable sites and also involve society in plant conservation (Deltoro et al., 2004). In the PMR Projects of Valencia and Minorca, educational activities and public awareness raising campaigns are re-inforced with the intervention of NGOs and the Botanical Garden of Valencia. For PMRs located in places that attract people or being objected to educational projects, explanatory boards for information of the public have been installed (Laguna, 2007). Furthermore, professional workers (i.e. gardeners, private land-owners, NGOs) relating to biodiversity conservation assisted to the develop-ment of the projects in order to get most of the positive results (Estaun, n.d.).

PMRs in Greece

The Cretan PMR project (CRETAPLANT ‘A Pilot Network of Plant Micro-Reserves in Western Crete’) has also worked towards raising public awareness and has come close to local communities and the wider public. The information campaign of this project had a special focus on promoting awareness and appreciation of nature conservation in targeted groups, such as the younger generations, lo-cal authorities, local communities, ecological clubs. Certain more specialized groups, such as eco-guides, tourist agents, teachers and shepherds, were also targeted. The information and awareness campaign of the project included an experts’ workshop, DVD production, website development, scienti� c papers, posters, lea� ets, publicity in newspapers, conferences and seminars (National Kapodistrian University of Athens [NKUA], 2008).

PMRs in Slovenia

The Slovenian PMR project (Conservation of endangered habitats and species in the future Karst Park) included information campaign in order to raise aware-ness, on the meaning and the importance of the Karst Edge region, the PMRs and the sustainable development and economic development of the region. The campaign was addressed to the general public and students from schools and universities through presentations at schools/universities and � eld visits. The campaign also included information through the internet, workshops, vid-eos, lea� ets and publication to the local press.

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III. Public Use of PMRs: the Future.

The diversity in the kind and extent of the activities that have been developed in regard to the public use of PMRs (as it has been presented above) indicates that PMRs can de� nitely serve as areas for promoting public participation in the biodiversity conservation initiatives, public awareness and environmental education on nature conservation. Certain PMRs are of course more suitable for public use than others, depending on how close they are to inhabited areas and on how easily accessible and appropriate for hosting visitors they are. It is suggested that each PMR network develops its strategy to adequately and systematically promote public use of PMRs. Such a strategy could address the following issues: (i) evaluating the activities that have taken place so far within the network, (ii) identifying the PMRs of the network that are most suitable for public use, (iii) developing a comprehensive guide for activities (e.g. environ-mental education, ecotourism, etc) for each of these PMRs and for the network as a whole, (iv) discussing the above issues with all stakeholders (e.g. local com-munities, local authorities, competent authorities, tour operators, schools, etc) to get and utilize their feedback. The PMRs public use strategies might be one of the main issues that should be addressed within the framework of a future European PMR network.

IV. References

Decker, D.J., Brown, T.L., & Siemer, W.F. (eds.), 2001. Human dimensions of wildlife management in North America. The Wildlife Society, USA: Bethesda. 464 pp.

Deltoro, V., Perez-Botella, J., Serra, Ll., Perez-Rovira, P., Olivares, A., Fos, S., Ballester, G., & Laguna, E., 2004. Plant Micro-reserves: frequently asked questions. Proceedings of the 4th Planta Europa Conference., 17-20 September 17-20, 2004., Valencia, Spain.

Dreyfus, A., Wals, A.E.J., & van Weelie, D., 1999. Biodiversity as a Postmodern theme for environ-mental education. Canadian journal of environmental education 4: 155-175.

Ehrlich, P.R., & Pringle, R.M., 2008. Where does biodiversity go from here? A grim business-as-usual forecast and a hopeful portfolio of partial solutions. The national academy of Sciences 105: 11579-11586.

Ervin, J., Butler, P., Wilkinson, L., Piper, M. and Watkins, S., 2010. Inspiring Support and Commitment for Protected Areas through Communication, Education and Public Awareness Programs: A Quick Guide for Protected Area Practitioners. Quick Guide Series. Available at: www.cbd.int/cms/ui/forums/attachment.aspx?id=91 [Accessed on 6th May 2013].

Estaun, I., Cardona, E., Torres, E., Mascaro, J., Juaneda, J. & Fraga P., n.d.. Contribution to biodiversity conservation of the LIFE Nature projects: the case of Minorca (Balearic islands, Spain). Poster. Available at: http://web2.cime.es/lifebasses/descargas/lifebasses268.pdf [Accessed on 6th May 2013].

Filagro Group, 2013. Pedoulas and Marathasa valley: Ecotourism & Educational Routes. Cyprus.

Flogaiti, E., 2012. Education for Sustainable Development (In Greek). Ellinika Grammata, Greece: Athens.

IUCN, UNEP & WWF, 1980. World Conservation Strategy: Living Resource Conservation for

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Sustainable Development. Available at: http://data.iucn.org/dbtw-wpd/edocs/WCS-004.pdf [Accessed on 2nd May 2013].

Kassas, M., 2002. Environmental education: biodiversity. The Environmentalist 22: 345-351.

Knapp, D. & Po� , R., 2001. A qualitative analysis of the immediate and short term impact of an environmental interpretive program. Environmental Education Research 7: 55-65.

Laguna, E., 2007. Micro-reserves, consolidated experiences from from the Valencian Community (Spain). ENSCONEWS 2: 12-13.

Laguna, E., Ballester, G., Franz, J.f., Fabregat, C., Olivares, A., Derra, L., Perez-Botella, J., Deltoro, V., & Perez Rovira, P., 2001. Valencian micro-reserves experience. A practical approach managing small protected, natural areas. LIFE – Nature project B4-3200/99/4167, Valencia, Spain. Available at: http://cretaplant.biol.uoa.gr/docs/Laguna2001.pdf [Accessed on 6th May 2013].

Malcom, S., 2001. Education and biodiversity. Encyclopedia of Biodiversity, Vol. 2. Academic Press.

Ministry of Education and Culture (MoEC), 2009. Curriculum for Environmental Education/Education for Sustainable Development, In Greek. MoEC, Cyprus: Nicosia.

National Kapodistrian University of Athens, 2008. A Pilot Network of Plant Micro-Reserves in Western Crete. Layman’ report, LIFE - Nature 2004 Project LIFE04NAT_GR_000104, Greece, Athens & Crete. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/life/project/Projects/index.cfm?fuseaction=home.showFile&rep=� le&� l=LIFE04_NAT_GR_000104_LAYMAN.pdf [Ac-cessed on 6th May 2013].

Novacek, M.J., 2008. Engaging the public in biodiversity issues. National Academy of Sciences, 105: 11571-11578.

Secretariat of the CBD (SCBD), 2010. Global biodiversity Outlook 3. Montreal, 94 pp. Available at: http://www.cbd.int/gbo3/ebook [Accessed on 2nd May 2013].

UNEP, 2013. Rio Declaration on Environment and Development. Available at: http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=78&ArticleID=1163 [Accessed on 2nd May 2013].

Zachariou, A. & Georgiou, D., 2012. Primary Teachers’ guide for implementing the National Curricu-lum for Environmental Education-Education for Sustainable Development, In Greek. MoEC/CDU, Cyprus: Nicosia.

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20Emilio LAGUNA1,2, Pere FRAGA3, Irene ESTAÚN3, Eva CARDONA3 & Vicente DELTORO1

1 Generalitat Valenciana, Servicio de Vida Silvestre, c/Francesc Cubells, 11. E-46011 Valencia2 Generalitat Valenciana, CIEF, Avda. Comarques País Valencià 114, E-46930 Quart de Poblet,

Valencia3 Consell Insular de Menorca. Plaça de la Biosfera, 5. E-07703 Maó, Menorca

I. Introduction

As noted in other chapters of this book, Plant Micro-Reserves (PMRs) should preferably be protected or managed sites for long-term preservation, which ac-cording to the regulations and the conservation tradition in each country will allow the participation of di� erent agents. Although the general rule would be that management of protected areas is incumbent upon the government authority responsible for environmental issues, reality is quite di� erent and is determined by two aspects:

1. The tradition of private participation and involvement in nature conserva-tion. It is especially well rooted in Anglo-Saxon culture but much less devel-oped in the Mediterranean and in Central and Eastern Europe. Outside Eu-rope, the degree of private participation is even more extreme, particularly in English-speaking countries.

2. Land ownership and the resulting rights. The capacity of public right to pre-vail over property rights, especially when dealing with immovables, such as plants, can be very di� erent across countries, depending on their legal and cultural evolution over the centuries.

Regarding management capacity, the di� erent countries would fall somewhere between the two extremes dealt with below:

1. Models in which management of the natural environment traditionally relies on a strong participation of private right entities –i.e. Great Britain– so that most protected areas are run directly by owners or NGOs, which in turn ben-e� t from a tacit recognition by the government –although not necessarily a legal recognition.

2. Models in which management of protected areas of all types is done mostly

Landowner’s Engagement Agreements and Stewardship for Micro-Reserves Conservation

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by the government, so that conservation NGOs are not considered –even by legislation– as a key element for conservation, but as an active ‘partner’ of government entities. This case is widespread in Mediterranean Europe, and in some countries resulting from the segregation of the former Soviet Union.

The � rst network of PMRs developed worldwide, that of Valencia, was not de-signed with the protection of endangered species as a priority. To achieve that goal there were more appropriate legal tools in the Spanish and Valencian legis-lation such as Nature Reserves. The ultimate goal of the Valencian PMR network was the creation of a representative set of sites that would contain populations of local endemic plant species, and generally speaking, the Spanish endemics to the eastern part of the Iberian Peninsula. The network initially drafted (Laguna, 1991) contained exclusively publicly owned sites because in the Valencia region a high proportion of natural areas are owned and managed by the regional ad-ministration (Generalitat Valenciana). It should be noted that rivers as well as the coastline are inalienable public property in Spain. Therefore, many endemic species live exclusively on land owned by the administration as, for instance, several endemic species of the genus Limonium, typical of coastal cli� s (Fig. 20.1) (Laguna, 1995, 2001a).

However, during the procedure to establish PMR (Anonymous, 1994), some landowners with conservation interest expressed their will to contribute land plots within their properties or their whole state to the network, provided that two conditions were met: 1) that owners could become managers or co-manag-ers of PMRs, so as to participate as far as possible in the designing of conserva-tion actions, and 2) that the Valencian Government limited its capacity to inter-fere by excluding PMR from the scope of the Valencian Law of natural protected areas, which provides that such areas can be expropriated at any time. The legal precept by which Valencian PMR (Anonymous, 1994) were created as well as others that have been subsequently developed have kept this owners will, and they have encouraged it by means of speci� c grant aids -see below. The � rst pri-vate PMRs were declared simultaneously by three orders (Anonymous, 2001a, b, c) passed in late 2000 and published in 2001 in the o� cial Gazette of the Valen-cian government. In other speci� c cases, such as Minorca, where, historically,

Figure 20.1 The PMR ‘Torre de la Badum’ (0,3 ha. at Peníscola, province of Castellón) holds the unique world population of Limonium perplexum Sáez & Rosselló, compound by 40-250 individu-als (photo: E. Laguna).

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most of the land is privately owned (Vidal Bendito, 1999), the starting point, modelled after the initiative of the Valencia region, has been di� erent and has required, from the onset, the establishment of partnerships between the public and private sectors.

It is important to stress that in the legislation of certain countries, such as Spain, the capacity for the management of the public domain -domanial lands- entails signi� cant governmental interference on state-owned property or land of public utility. Often reasons related to the bene� t of nature conservation for society –such as hydrological risk prevention, erosion control, oxygen produc-tion, etc.– are invoked. In these countries the concept of public management applies only to public domain. It must also be taken into account that there are sites of public ownership that may not be of public domain –i.e. those sites that belong to town municipality councils– and that are subject to private law. The town municipality councils or neighbourhood assemblies –in the case of com-munity forests– are the private owners of those natural areas and, consequently, they must ask the state for permission to carry out any activity that involves the modi� cation of the natural objects –i.e. logging, trail signage, etc. In Spain, the capacity of public domain management of the state is transferred to its 17 regions.

According to what has been mentioned above, there are 3 options for PMR management:

1. public PMRs ‘strict sense’: are those PMRs that are managed by the state, which may transfer its management capacity to regional governments, Län-der, regions, etc. These PMRs are established on state-owned public lands, or on grounds that have been declared of public domain and where the owner, has no management rights.

2. public PMRs functioning as private PMRs: are those PMRs of public owner-ship that are not of public domain –i.e. those that belong to town municipal-ity councils– and are thus subject to private law.

3. private PMRs ‘strict sense’: are those PMRs that belong to natural or legal per-sons and are subject to private law.

In the Valencian PMR network, the so-called ‘public PMRs’ are solely those meet-ing the criteria outlined in the � rst paragraph, while those that meet the criteria of the second and third paragraphs are considered, for legal reasons, subject to private management (whether actual private owners or town municipality councils).

II. Public Management of Private Micro-Reserves

Generally, the laws of the European countries do not allow government authori-ties to force private owners into carrying out actions on their land. In any case,

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the government authority may impose a limitation or a restriction on a particu-lar type of action or activity. When an economic loss is derived from these con-straints the landowner must be compensated � nancially, in accordance to the rules in each country. Likewise, private owners cannot be forced to ‘do’ some-thing (i.e. to introduce a species in their property, to carry out a demographic study of a species, etc.). Often the conservation of a species may be dependent on these actions being carried out in situ –from censuses or � oral biology stud-ies to reintroductions, reinforcements or monitoring–, and such taxa may have some or all of their range within particular PMRs. In such instances, the PMR leg-islation should provide for the possibility of public-private partnerships, which may include one or more of the following:

1. public intervention previously agreed on with the owner, in order to develop actions that he is unable to carry out or � nance.

2. that the owners –particularly when dealing with conservation NGOs or professionals in the � eld of plant conservation–, carry out the works with a � nancial support from the government –see details on the grant model developed in Valencia–.

3. as an extension of the previous section, the owners may voluntarily hand over management rights through agreements or their temporary sale to conservation NGOs. This type of management agreements are known as ter-ritorial custody or land stewardship -see below-, and they have undergone a signi� cant development in recent years in some regions such as Catalonia or Minorca (Arquimbau et al., 2001; Basora & Sabaté, 2006).

In some territories, such as the Valencian region, the legislation clearly di� er-entiates between ‘classic’ protected natural areas (e.g. nature reserves in ‘strict sense’, which may be declared against their owner’s will) and voluntary reserves (e.g. Valencian private PMRs), in which the various ways of collaboration be-come a substantial element for their management. In the Valencian region, the few sites of exceptional natural value that should incontrovertibly be preserved should be declared Nature Reserves and, in extreme cases, be purchased by the regional government. However, the vast majority of sites of high botanical or ecological interest are small in size and thus PMRs are ideally suited for their conservation (Fig. 20.2).

In addition to the above situations, in some countries there is a long tradition in the purchase of privately owned land or rights of use, especially at the level of local communities (Tassel, 2009). Additionally, as noted below, there is a grow-ing trend in the development of management agreements without transfer of property through land stewardship.

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Figure 20.2 PMR ‘Lavajo de Abajo’, the best Valencian temporary pond, is owned by the municipality of Sinarcas (Valencia, Valencian Community) (photo: E. Laguna).

III. Private Management of Private Micro-Reserves

A � ne example of management of a private –or public, but not of public do-main– PMR would be one where conservation actions would be carried out by the owner himself or by a conservation entity, with which he/she has reached an agreement. The latter situation falls within the scope of what has been termed as land stewardship, a concept developed and strengthened normatively in the 70s and the 80s in countries like Canada, the U.S. or Australia, and not restricted to the mere exercise of the management of the natural environment, but to quality certi� cation of organic products and sustainable development of the processes that take place in that environment for productive purposes. Like-wise, the concept of territorial custody is not restricted only to the environment, but it usually extends to the agricultural areas and the interface of semi-natural habitats (Endicott, 1993; Zeller, 1999). Several of the elements that make up the philosophy of territorial custody have evolved in parallel ways in di� erent coun-tries without initial contact between the di� erent initiatives. This often results in di� erent terminologies being used (Land Trusts, Land Conservation Trusts, Land custodianship, Countryside stewardship, etc.) that converge widely in purpose and content (Zeller, 1999).

Although territorial custody is widespread internationally as a philosophy, a good number of its concepts are more easily applicable on small scales. There-fore it is common to � nd abundant case studies centred on its implementation to particular territories, often written in ‘plain language’, so as to disseminate its philosophy among farmers, forest owners, etc. (e.g. GCC, 1995, Land Trust Alli-ance, 1997; VCMC / DSE, 2003; GOB Menorca, 2004; Grewal, 2012). At European level the development of stewardship actions has been fostered by Eurosite (2012), and there is a gradual implementation in countries that were initially reluctant to its development, such as the Mediterranean nations. A � ne exam-ple of implementation promoted by governments themselves is taking place in Catalonia (Spain), where pioneering work in this � eld was developed by the

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Network of Custody of the Territory (Pietx, 2010, 2012; Asensio et al., 2005; Basra & Sabate, 2006), a key element in integrating compensation schemes for private landowners for the ecosystem services they provide to society (v. Russi, 2010; Russi et al., 2011; Górriz & Proko� eva, 2011; CPF, 2012).

The possibilities of managing private land for conservation using di� erent models of voluntary private reserves are extremely varied. The diversity of such initiatives in di� erent countries and regions of Europe has been put forth by Shine (1996). Very often, private reserves are best suited for the conservation of small areas with high natural value (Laguna, 2001a). It is important to note that, contrary to what has been stated in previous paragraphs for coastal ecosystems, which are often publicly owned or at least of public domain, other ecosystems of botanical interest are usually in private hands and have been maintained for centuries by traditional management practices –i.e. ‘stony steppe’ grasslands, as exempli� ed by Jones et al. (2010) as potential PMR. The optimal combination in these cases, when the sites are not of public ownership or property of con-servation NGOs, is the convergence of an owner with a conservationist interest, an adequate land stewardship entity, and a regulatory framework to facilitate public-private cooperation. These alliances are often fostered by tax incentives (see Shine, 2005) and a diverse use of subsidies or other types of aid available. However, at least in most southern European countries and in much of Central and Eastern Europe (Ryzskowski, 1994), such incentives or subsidies have tra-ditionally been restricted to semi-natural systems (i.e. mowed grasslands, pas-tures, etc.) natural habitats subject to sustainable exploitation.

IV. Examples of Aids Applied to the PMR Management

As outlined in the previous paragraph, subsidies or other types of government aid can be a signi� cant element in the management of PMR networks for several reasons: i) they can compensate owners for the reduction in bene� ts they may incur; ii) they can act as a payment for the ecosystem services they provide; and � nally, iii) they promote the involvement of private owners in environmental conservation within their properties (Laguna, 2001b). Institutional support to private PMRs can be established by applying speci� c aids to the management of small-protected areas for wild plants, derived from more general frameworks. Since investment per unit area on small-sized sites tends to be proportionately more expensive than it is in larger areas, often this type of � nancial aid only par-tially o� sets conservation investments. In fact, to some degree, some of them can be found halfway between the classic concept of ‘compensation’ and that of incentives for payment of ecosystem services.

An example of the use of pre-existing aids to stimulate private involvement in the management of small protected areas is that of ‘Biosphere Reserve Ag-

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ricultural Contract’ –(CARB: Contracte Agrari de la Reserva de Biosfera)– that has been developed in the island of Menorca. CARB was o� ered to some of the areas to be declared as PMRs in consecutive LIFE-Nature projects focused on plant conservation and management of Mediterranean temporary ponds. The Biosphere Reserve is considered a model example of macro-territorial systems of protected areas (see Borrini-Feyerabend et al., 2004). In fact, among their key elements are such contracts (AANP, 2009), by which owners of agricultural, semi-natural or natural areas can be compensated economically or through concerted government intervention in their land for speci� c works or services that bene� t their farms (Gomila, 2007). In general, these compensation or man-agement aids target two areas:

• Maintenance or recovery of traditional agriculture, either by restoring ethno-logical elements related to low-impact farming techniques (dry stone walls, low impact drainage systems, troughs, etc.), or by encouraging farming tech-niques that support biodiversity consetvation, such as the recovery of crop rotation and the use of local varieties of cultivated plants.

• Management and maintenance of habitats that can foster biodiversity or help to preserve species of conservation concern. For example, an estate where plant species listed under Annex II of the Habitats Directive are pres-ent is entitled to a bonus or grant, or in the case of habitats, the presence of a Mediterranean temporary pond or a wetland, and existence of a cooperation agreement with the LIFE BASSES project (www.cime.es / lifebasses) entitles owners to increased bonuses (Mascaró et al., 2010).

As for public intervention, the CARB model has been developed mostly with a clear social approach by aiming to recruit people with insertion di� culties in the job market. The actions undertaken have focused on the control of speci� c threats such as invasive species or habitat degradation by uncontrolled vehicu-lar access.

Regarding speci� c aids, their objective is twofold:

• As compensation for the loss of rights of use, particularly in the case of Latvia –see speci� c section of this book on the PMRs in that country–.

• As an incentive for owners to carry out conservation work, either directly or through territorial custody, as developed in Valencia.

The Valencian government, following the approval of speci� c regulations of PMR (Anonymous, 1994), developed a scheme to encourage the involvement of private owners in plant conservation consisting of two forms of aid. These were given to owners that met the requirements between the late 1990s and 2010. Currently, as a result of the economic crisis this support has been cut down. The two forms of aid are:

1. Support to the contribution of land plots to the PMR network, through a one-o� compensation –generally speaking, the amount paid to owners is below

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the market price of the land plot provided– in exchange for the owner’s en-gagement to permanently and strictly protect the site and to respect and ensure respect of the Valencian regulations on PMRs. This type of contrac-tual compensation would � nd an equivalent in the payments for ecosystem services (Bond et al., 2009, Engel et al., 2008; Fisher et al., 2009) and would deviate itself from classical models of grants, such as those widely used in agriculture, forestry, etc..

2. Support to o� set between 75 and 100%, depending on the annual calls for subsidies, of the expenditures incurred by the owner in the development of conservation projects for plants, useful fauna (pollinators, etc.), eco-educa-tive signage, etc.. Experts or research institutions with ample knowledge of the regional � ora must write the projects. Expenses that are eligible for fund-ing are drafting of the management plan of the PMR or speci� c conservation projects.

The Valencian model is designed so as to discourage ‘subsidy hunters’ and to reward owners committed to environmental conservation. Actually, involving private owners in conservation initiatives is a goal in itself, the protection of ex-ceptional natural assets being a secondary objective. In fact Nature Reserves are far more appropriate tools to achieve the latter objective than the PMRs. In 2013, there were already 62 PMRs under private property management (of which 32 are owned by town municipality councils). This � gure accounts for slightly over 20% of all Valencian PMRs.

V. Private Management of Public Micro-Reserves

Territorial custody agreements may allow PMRs of public property to be man-aged by conservation NGOs. This is a traditional conservation practice even for the management of some large protected areas, as is the case in Italy, where the national authority responsible for natural areas has signed agreements with WWF-Italy. Some small nature reserves whose goal is the conservation of wild plants, and therefore meet the objectives of PMRs, currently follow this model, as is the case of the reserves ‘Saline di Trapani and Paceco’ –province of Trapani, Sicily– that bring together both public and private lands that shelter a large part of the world’s population to the endemic plant Calendula maritima Guss. (Troia & Pasta, 2005, 2006).

There are also examples of joint management with the involvement of pub-lic-private partnerships, such as those that have been developed in Valencia. An example would be the management of PMR ‘Estanys d’Almenara’, an area of desiccated coastal calcareous fens acquired by the town municipality council of Almenara (Castellón) (Fig. 20.3). Their acquisition meant that the site had be-come of public property –but not of public domain– for the purpose of environ-mental management and thus it was amenable to being declared as a private

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Figure 20.3 Notice board and guide support provided by volonteers of the ‘Acció Ecologista-AGRÓ’, as a part of the management of the private PMR ‘Estanys d’Almenara’ (Valencian Community) (photo: E. Laguna).

Figure 20.4 Popular plantation of endangered riverine plants, organized by ‘Acció Ecologista-AGRÓ’, the NGO managing the PMR ‘Estanys d’Almenara’ (province of Castellón, Valencian Community) (photo: E. Laguna).

PMR. The town municipality council signed a management and a territorial cus-tody agreement with the main Valencian conservationist NGO –Acció-Ecologis-ta AGRO– and requested the Valencian Government to establish a PMR of 20ha in the area (Amer et al., 2004; Perez Rocher, 2004). Management aid is requested

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by the town hall, which pays the costs of works carried out by the NGO; addition-ally, rare, endemic or threatened aquatic plant species produced in the regional government’s nurseries are o� ered for free for introduction in the PMR, declared in 2000, nowadays a wetland showing a good degree of recovery (Fig. 20.4).

VI. References

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Amer, R., Ruíz, L., Roura, I., Fabregat, C., Peña, C., Sebastián, A., Fos, S. & Pérez-Rovira, P., 2004. Reha-bilitation of lost calcareous fens in Almenara (Eastern Spain). Poster Abstract for IV European Conference on the Conservation of Wild Plants ‘Planta Europa’, Valencia, 17-20 septiembre 2004. Generalitat Valenciana & Universitat de València. Spain: Valencia. Available at: http://www.nerium.net/plantaeuropa/Download/Workshops/Workshop_5/Amer_et_al_w5.pdf [Accessed on the 15th March 2013].

Anonymous, 1994. Decreto 218/1994, de 17 de octubre, del Gobierno Valenciano, por el que se crea y regula la � gura de protección denominada Microrreserva Vegetal. Diari O� cial de la Generalitat Valenciana, núm. 2.378.

Anonymous, 2001a. Orden de 6 de noviembre de 2000, de la Conselleria de Medio Ambiente, por la que se declaran 18 microrreservas vegetales en la provincia de Alicante. Diari O� cial de la Generalitat Valenciana núm. 3928.

Anonymous, 2001b. Orden de 6 de noviembre de 2000, de la Conselleria de Medio Ambiente, por la que se declaran 23 microrreservas vegetales en la provincia de Valencia. Diari O� cial de la Generalitat Valenciana núm. 3928.

Anonymous, 2001c. Orden de 6 de noviembre de 2000, de la Conselleria de Medio Ambiente, por la que se declaran 22 microrreservas vegetales en la provincia de Castellón. Diari O� cial de la Generalitat Valenciana núm. 3930.

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Asensio, N., Collado, H., Cortina, A. & Pietx, J., 2005. 2nd ed. Opcions de custòdia del territori per a � nques privades. Una guia per a la propietat . Xarxa de Custòdia del Territori / Fundació Territori i Paisatge-Caixa Catalunya. Spain: Barcelona.

Basora, X. & Sabaté, X., 2006. Custodia del territorio en la práctica. Manual de iuntroducciób a una nueva estrategia participativa de conservación de la naturaleza y el paisaje. Xarxa de Custòdia del Territori / Fundació Territori i Paisatge-Caixa Catalunya. Spain: Barcelona.

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CPF, 2012. Legal frameworks on payment for environmental services on the Mediterranean for-ests. Centre de la Propietat Forestal (CPF). Sylvamed Project. Barcelona. www.sylvamed.eu

Endicott, E. (ed.), 1993. Land conservation through public/private partnerships. Lincoln Institute of Land Policy / Island Press. USA: Washington.

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and practice: An overview of the issues’. Ecological Economics 65 (4): 663-674.

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Fisher, B., Turner, R. K. & Morling, P., 2009. De� ning and classifying ecosystem services for decision making. Ecological Economics 68: 643 –653.

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Gomila, S., 2007. Contrato agrario de la reserva de la biosfera de Menorca: compensando al sec-tor agrario por las externalidades positivas que produce. In Fundación Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente (ed.), 2007: RUNA: Convergencia Rural y Naturaleza: 76-85. Ministerio de Agricultura, Pesca y Alimentación. Spain: Madrid. Available at: http://www.ruralnaturaleza.com/� les/CON-VERGENCIA_RUNA.pdf [Accessed on the 14th of March 2013].

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GCC, 1995. Countryside Stewardship: handbook and application form. Gloucestershire Countryside Commission (GCC). Gloucester, UK.

Grewal, A., 2012. The green acreages guide primer. Stewardship for small acreages. Land Steward-ship Centre of Canada. Canada: Edmonton, Alberta.

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Land Trust Alliance, 1997. The Standards and practices guidebook: an operating manual for land trusts . Land Trust Alliance. USA: Virginia.

Mascaró, J., Cardona, E., Estaún, I., Torres, E. & Fraga, P., 2010. Mesures de gestió i accions de restau-ració. In: Fraga, P., Estaún Clarisó, I. & Cardona, E. (eds.), 2010. Basses temporals mediterrànies. LIFE BASSES: gestió i conservació a Menorca: 429-464. Recerca, 15. Consell Insular de Menorca. Institut Menorquí d’Estudis. Maó.

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Tassel, S., 2009. The conservation program handbook: A guide for Local Government land acquisition. Island Press. USA: Washington.

Troìa, A. & Pasta, S., 2005. Calendula maritima. In Montmollin, B. de & W. Strahm (eds.): The Top 50 Mediterranean Island Plants: Wild plants at the brink of extinction and what is needed to save them: 92-93. IUCN/SSC Mediterranean Island Plant Specialist Group. IUCN. Switzerland and UK: Gland and Cambridge.

Troìa, A. & Pasta, S. 2006. Calendula maritima. In: IUCN 2012. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.2. Available at: <www.iucnredlist.org>, [Accessed on the 14th of March 2013].

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Zeller, M., 1999. Stewardship of the land. An investigation into the state of the art. The Innu Fund. USA: Denver, Colorado.

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Part 6Conclusions

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21Costas KADIS1, Costas A. THANOS2 and Emilio LAGUNA3

1 Frederick University, 7, Y. Frederickou str., Pallouriotissa, 1036 Nicosia, Cyprus2 Department of Botany, Faculty of Biology, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Panepistimiopolis, Athens 15784, Greece3 Generalitat Valenciana, Servicio de Vida Silvestre, c/Francesc Cubells, 11. E-46011 Valencia, Spain

The chapters of this book illustrate e� ciently and support competently the declaration that the Plant Micro-Reserve (PMR) approach has been proven, over the last 20 years, a successful method for the conservation of endemic, rare and threatened plants, in several European countries. The European Commission has acknowledged and in fact promoted the PMR approach as a valuable tool towards plant diversity conservation in Europe (European Commission, 2007). This adoption conforms well to the guidelines of the European Strategy of Plant Conservation (Smart et al., 2002), also endorsed by the World Conservation Con-gress held in Amman (IUCN, 2000), in order to use the PMRs as a good practice for the in situ conservation of wild plants in Europe. Recently, the PMR concept has been proposed to additionally serve as a model for the creation of ‘natu-ral Botanical Gardens’ (Thanos, 2012). EuroGard VI Conference in its resolutions (2012) urged Botanic Gardens to ‘stay involved with conservation actions like Plant Micro-reserves and other in situ or inter situ projects’.

The idea of exchanging knowledge and experiences gained from di� erent PMR projects was discussed in two international PMR Experts Workshops, which took place in Crete (2005) and Nicosia (2011).

The � rst PMR workshop was organised by the project CRETAPLANT, in No-vember 24-25, 2005, at the Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Chania (Crete, Greece). It was entitled ‘The role of micro-reserves for plant conservation in Mediterranean Europe. The case of the pilot network of micro-reserves in Crete’. Experts from 7 European countries (Greece, Cyprus, Spain, France, Italy, Slovenia, Germany) participated in the workshop (Fig. 21.1), presented PMR and plant conservation related projects in their countries and contributed considerably to an extended discussion on the establishment of the Cretan PMR network.

Within the framework of the PLANT-NET CY project, an ‘Experts Workshop on Plant Micro-Reserves’ was held in Nicosia, in April 2011 (Fig. 21.2). This work-shop aimed at establishing close cooperation between plant conservation ex-perts and other stakeholders involved in the PMR approach, towards the e� ec-tive conservation of threatened plants in Europe. One of the main objectives of

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the workshop was to provide a networking platform for all previous or concur-rent, relevant LIFE projects, with a focus on the establishment of PMRs in Europe. The workshop hosted scientists from Spain (Valencia and Menorca), Greece, Slovenia, Latvia, Bulgaria, Romania and Cyprus, who presented PMR projects or other plant conservation initiatives implemented in their respective countries. The participants shared their knowledge and experience, accumulated over the last 15 years from projects that have successfully adopted the PMR approach. Moreover, the workshop provided an opportunity for scientists from new EU member states that have not yet adopted the PMR approach, to get familiarized

Figure 21.1Snapshot from the Experts Workshop on PMRs, held in Chania, in November 2005.

Figure 21.2Snapshot from the Experts Workshop on PMRs, held in Nicosia, in April 2011.

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181CHAPTER 21 The Future of PMRs: Towards a European PMR Network

with this concept, thus promoting the establishment of similar networks in their countries.

An important section of this workshop was the discussion on the possibil-ity of creating a European PMR network for the conservation of European wild plants. The network could link all PMR initiatives, which have been developed in Europe, thus facilitating the systematic exchange of knowledge and experi-ences resulting from PMR initiatives. Setting up a network of European PMRs could involve:

a. organizing regular meetings of PMR experts (e.g. every 2-3 years),

b. publishing newsletters with important developments of PMR projects,

c. developing a common website focusing on European PMRs,

d. creating pages on social networking services – webpages,

e. creating a European PMR Committee consisting of representatives from each country/region, and

f. establishing communication channels with the European Commission and other international organisation (e.g. IUCN) on new plant diversity conservation initiatives.

Such a network could substantially contribute towards (i) exchanging know-how and best practices between the established PMR networks, (ii) facilitating the establishment of new PMR networks in other EU countries, (iii) securing the sustainability of all LIFE and other related projects on PMRs (after their comple-tion) and (iv) promoting the conservation of plant diversity in the European Union through a sound, tested and successful multidisciplinary approach.

References

EuroGard VI, 2012. Congress Conclusions. Sixth European Gardens Congress. ‘European Botanic Gardens in a Changing World’, May 28 - June 2, 2012. Chios Island, Greece.

European Commission, 2007. Plant micro-reserves: from concept to implementation. In: LIFE and endangered plants: Conserving Europe’s threatened � ora. O� ce for O� cial Publications of the European Communities, pp. 17-19. Luxembourg.

IUCN, 2000. Resolution 2.68. Conservation of plants in Europe. Resolutions of the World Conserva-tion Congress 2000, IUCN. Jordan: Amman.

http://www.iucn.org/amman/content/resolutions/res68.pdf

Smart, J., Imboden, Ch., Harper, M. & Radford, E. (eds.), 2002. Saving the Plants of Europe. European Plant Conservation Strategy. Planta Europa, Council of Europe & Plantlife International. United Kingdom: London.

Thanos, C.A., 2012. Natural Botanic Gardens – Conserving Plant Diversity In Situ. The Evolution of the Plant Micro Reserve Concept. Book of Abstracts, p. 32, EUROGARD VI – Sixth European Gardens Congress. ‘European Botanic Gardens in a Changing World’, May 28 - June 2, 2012.Chios Island, Greece.

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Ophrys kotschyi

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