ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΟ ΑΝΟΙΚΤΟ ΠΑΝΕΠΙΣΤΗΜΙΟ

ΣΧΟΛΗ ΑΝΘΡΩΠΙΣΤΙΚΩΝ ΣΠΟΥΔΩΝ

ΜΕΤΑΠΤΥΧΙΑΚΗ ΕΙΔΙΚΕΥΣΗ ΚΑΘΗΓΗΤΩΝ ΑΓΓΛΙΚΗΣ ΓΛΩΣΣΑΣ

ΜΕΤΑΠΤΥΧΙΑΚΗ ΔΙΠΛΩΜΑΤΙΚΗ ΕΡΓΑΣΙΑ

The Computer-based Self-Access Centre

in the Greek Gymnasium:

A Framework

Mαριάννα Βιβίτσου

ΠΑΤΡΑ

Σεπτέμβριος 2004

Contents

PageAbstract 7Περίληψη 9I. Introduction

1. Educational Issues: General Considerations 112. The Need for Transcending the Borders of the Conventional

Classroom13

3. Purpose of the Dissertation 144. The Proposed Framework 155. The Need for the Establishment of Self-Access Centres 176. Definition of Terms 187. Assumptions for Teacher Training 208. Dissertation Outline 20

II. Literature Review1. Theoretical Principles Underlying the Proposed Self-access

Scheme22

1.1. The Issue of Autonomy in Language Learning 221.1.1. The Need for Innovation in Education 221.1.2. The Socio-political Aspect 231.1.3. The Technical Aspect 251.1.4. The Constructivist View 25

1.2. The Cognitive Aspect of Managing Self-access Learning 271.2.1. Learner Awareness 271.2.2. Cognition and Metacognition 28

1.3. The Motivational Factor 291.4. Mediating between Learners and Materials 31

2. Principles Underlying Computer-based Self-access Learning 332.1. Developments in Computer Assisted Language Learning 332.2. The Motivational Impact of the Computer 352.3. The Exploitation of Computer-based Resources in Self-ac-

cess36

2.3.1. The Development of Receptive Skills in Self-access 362.3.2. Productive Skills Development 372.3.3. Language Awareness and Practice 382.3.4. Project-based Work 392.3.5. Interaction Skills 39

3. Conclusion 40III. Computer-based Self-access Learning in the Greek Gym-

nasium1. Theoretical Implications in the Particular Context 42

2

1.1. Autonomy as a Universal Principle 431.2. Autonomy in Modern Greek Pedagogy 441.3. Principles Underlying the Revised Unified Curriculum 46

1.3.1. General Considerations 461.3.2. Implications for Self-access 471.3.3. Points to Consider 48

2. Organising Self-access Learning in the Particular Context 492.1. Current Trends in Materials Design 492.2. State Policy and Self-access 502.3. The Content of Computer-based Self-access Learning 512.4. Levels of Proficiency 53

IV. Computer-based Self-access Materials1. Self-access Centre (SAC) Organisational Format 56

1.1 Contextual Implications for Self-access Materials Development

56

1.2. Factors Determining the Organisational Plan 571.3. Greek SAC Users in Context 58

1.3.1. The Application of Innovative Flexible Plans in the Gymnasium

58

1.3.2. Effectiveness of In-curricular Projects 591.4. Principles Underlying the Organisation of Self-access Re-

sources61

1.4.1. Considerations on the development of self-access materials

61

1.4.2. Criteria for the Organization of Resources 621.4.3. SAC Materials Categorisation 63

2. Computer-based Self-access Resources 652.1. Orientation Resources 65

2.1.1. Introducing Learners to Computer-based Materials 652.1.2. Self-access Network System 662.1.3. Intranet Site Orientation 67

2.1.3.1. SAC Overall Content 672.1.3.2. Suggestions for Orientation 68

2.2. Personal Information Resources 702.2.1. Introducing SAC Users to Self-awareness Materials 702.2.2. Tools for Self-awareness 702.2.3. SAC Users’ Self-assessment 72

3. SAC Learning Resources 723.1. Accessing Learning Materials 72

3.1.1. Open Retrieval System 723.1.2. Classification coding 733.1.3. ‘Pathways’ to Self-access Learning 74

3

3.2. The Rationale Underlying Learning Materials Design 743.2.1. Closed-ended Tasks 74

3.2.1.1. Materials for Reading Practice 743.2.1.2. Listening Practice Materials 76

3.2.2. Criteria for Task Design 773.2.3. Task-related Assessment 773.2.4. Open-ended Tasks 78

3.2.4.1. The Current Situation 783.2.4.2. Writing and Speaking Materials 793.2.4.3. Exploratory Self-access Learning 80

V. Epilogue1. Overview of the Proposal 822. Further Suggestions for Implementation 833. Concluding Remarks 84

References 86AppendicesAppendix I: CEF specifications and adaptations as applied to the

Greek context95

Appendix II: Orientation Resources 96Appendix III: SAC Counsellor’s Data 101Appendix IV: Personal Information Resources 102Appendix V: Topics and Tasks 110Appendix VI: Closed-ended Tasks 111Appendix VII: Task Evaluation and Self-assessment 120Appendix VIII: Open-ended Tasks 122Appendix IX: Project Work 130Appendix X : Learn more about… 131Appendix XI: Useful Links for Students 132List of TablesTable 1 : Levels of Proficiency applying to the Greek

Gymnasium as adapted from the CEF53

List of FiguresFigure 1 : Sample representation of a Self-Access Centre: ELI

Learning Centre Map16

Figure 2 : A theoretical model for the proposed self-access scheme 41Figure 3 : An organizational model for self-access learning 54Figure 4 : A model for an autonomy-oriented SAC 82

4

Dedication

To all the victims violently murderedin the recent massacre in a Russian school

in Beslan

For Awarenessgives birth to Knowledge;

Knowledge brings Culture;Culture is anti-war potion and

Antidote to brutality

5

Acknowledgements

I would like to express my sincere thanks to:

Dr A. Taglides; ‘supervisor’ is not comprehensive enough to describe his role in the process of writing this dissertation; I would rather choose ‘δάσκαλος’ that Greek people use to describe or address the educator whose encouragement, support, em-pathy and guidance free the mind and turn learning into life experience.

My friend, colleague and fellow student Androniki Kouvdou for her invaluable sup-port and proofreading that improved the quality of the dissertation.

Eftychia, Nickie and Dionysis for their patience, compassion and constant encourage-ment for the completion of the dissertation against all odds.

6

Abstract

The aim of this dissertation is to propose the establishment of a computer-based self-

access centre in the Greek Gymnasium and to provide a detailed framework for its im-

plementation. In the proposed self access centre (SAC) Gymnasium students will have

the opportunity to access a multiplicity of electronically catalogued and indexed ma-

terials and tasks aiming to enable learners to develop both cognitively and linguistic-

ally.

The analysis of organization and of principles underlying existing SACs, as described

in the relevant literature, reveals that there can be drawn two major distinctions:

between centres that are computer-based and those that are conventional or ‘paper-

based’. Another important distinction concerns the age groups that existing SACs are

aimed for. The former are mainly designed for adult learners and university students

and the latter for adolescent learners. Nevertheless, the fact that more or less tradi-

tional media of application are used does not exclude the existence of a unifying prin-

ciple on which the aforementioned schemes are constructed. Indeed, a learner-centred

approach is fostered in SACs and the overall goal is explicitly articulated as being in-

creased learner awareness, leading to greater autonomy in language learning.

As the proposed SAC adopts similar principles, this dissertation reviews the relevant

literature, identifies the elements in existing systems that promote learner-centredness

and autonomy in learning, adapts and enriches them in order to provide a complete,

flexible and applicable organisational and methodological framework.

The proposal constitutes an innovation for the particular educational context and,

therefore, an analysis of the specifications of the ‘Revised Unified Greek Curriculum

2003’ (FEK 303), issued by the Ministry of Education, is critical so as to provide

evidence of the compatibility of aims, methods and means. The analysis also aims to

provide evidence to the reader that the establishment of an electronically-based SAC

can cater for the needs and competences of the Greek learner, for the requirements of

the whole educational system as well as for the demands generated within a rapidly

changing social setting.

7

The implementation of the proposed computer-based self-access centre necessitates a

whole-institution involvement to ensure successful student outcomes. Moreover, the

principles of an alternative mode of learning, i.e. of self-access, adapted to the Greek

standards, can cater for the totality of Gymnasium school subjects. Nevertheless, be-

fore a radical large-scale change is attempted, an experimental ‘try-and-test’ piloting

of the proposed system is essential for its ‘in-action’ evaluation.

8

Περίληψη Η πρόταση για τη δημιουργία ενός κέντρου αυτο-εκπαίδευσης (ΚΑΕ) στο Ελληνικό

Γυμνάσιο και η λεπτομερής περιγραφή και ανάλυση ενός πλαισίου εφαρμογής

αποτελούν τους κύριους στόχους αυτής της διπλωματικής εργασίας. Στο ΚΑΕ οι

μαθήτριες και οι μαθητές του Γυμνασίου, έχοντας τη δυνατότητα πρόσβασης σε ένα

μεγάλο αριθμό ηλεκτρονικά καταγραμμένων και ταξινομημένων μαθησιακών υλικών,

θα μπορούν να επιλέξουν και να εμπλακούν σε δραστηριότητες που στοχεύουν στην

ανάπτυξη των νοητικών και γλωσσικών ικανοτήτων τους.

Η μελέτη και ανάλυση της οργάνωσης και των αρχών που διέπουν υπάρχοντα κέντρα,

όπως αυτά περιγράφονται στη σχετική βιβλιογραφία, παραπέμπει στις εξής

κατηγοριοποιήσεις: ΚΑΕ που η λειτουργία τους βασίζεται σε υπολογιστικά

συστήματα και συμβατικά, καθώς και κέντρα που απευθύνονται σε ενήλικες (κυρίως

πανεπιστημιακούς φοιτητές) και σε εφήβους. Παρά τις διαφορές που αφορούν στην

οργανωτική δομή και τις ομάδες-στόχους, η υιοθέτηση της μαθητοκεντρικής

προσέγγισης και της αρχής της αυτονομίας φαίνεται πως αποτελούν σημεία

σύγκλισης όσον αφορά την ιδεολογική θεμελίωση των ΚΑΕ.

Καθώς υιοθετούνται παρόμοιες αρχές στο προτεινόμενο σύστημα, η βιβλιογραφική

έρευνα που απαιτείται για την επίτευξη των προαναφερθέντων στόχων εντοπίζει τα

στοιχεία στην οργάνωση και λειτουργία των ΚΑΕ που προωθούν τις θεμελιώδεις

αρχές τους. Στη συνέχεια, τα στοιχεία αυτά αναλύονται, προσαρμόζονται και

εμπλουτίζονται έτσι ώστε να ανταποκρίνονται στις ανάγκες του συγκεκριμένου

μαθησιακού περιβάλλοντος.

Ο καινοτόμος χαρακτήρας της πρότασης δημιουργεί την ανάγκη θεμελίωσης

συμβατότητας με τα στοιχεία που χαρακτηρίζουν το Ελληνικό εκπαιδευτικό σύστημα.

Η εκτεταμένη αναφορά και συζήτηση των σχετικών με το δεύτερο κύκλο της

υποχρεωτικής εκπαίδευσης προδιαγραφών του ‘Διαθεματικού Ενιαίου Πλαισίου

Προγραμμάτων Σπουδών’ (2003) αναδεικνύει τη συνάφεια αρχών, μεθόδων και

μέσων και, επομένως, αποδεικνύει την εφαρμοσιμότητα του σχεδίου.

9

Η δημιουργία κέντρου αυτο-εκπαίδευσης στο Γυμνάσιο επιφέρει ριζικές αλλαγές

στην εκπαιδευτική μονάδα, αφού η επιτυχία του θεσμού βασίζεται στην ενεργητική

συμμετοχή και συνεργασία όλων των ‘μετόχων’ της, δηλαδή μαθητών,

εκπαιδευτικών, συμβούλων αυτο-εκπαίδευσης και διοίκησης. Το ‘κλίμα’

συνεργατικότητας που δημιουργείται μέσα από αυτή τη διαδικασία προωθεί την

ανάπτυξη του Σχολείου, την εξέλιξή του και τη βελτίωση της αποδοτικότητάς του.

Όμως θα ήταν λάθος να θεωρηθεί ότι το σύστημα αυτο-εκπαίδευσης αφορά

αποκλειστικά τον τομέα εκμάθησης άλλων γλωσσών. Παρ’ όλ’ αυτά, η πειραματική

εφαρμογή και η αξιολόγηση του προτεινόμενου συστήματος ‘στην πράξη’ κρίνεται

απαραίτητο να προηγηθεί μιας εκπαιδευτικής αλλαγής σε μεγάλη κλίμακα.

10

CHAPTER I - INTRODUCTION

The concept of the establishment of a computer-based self-access centre in the

Greek Gymnasium results from the consideration of issues relating to political

developments as well as to technological advancement, which incubate educa-

tional and social changes. In order to fulfil the overall aim of defining a frame-

work for the proposed scheme, the introductory part of this dissertation presents

the reader with the rationale underlying the proposal. To do this effectively, the

writer views the educational issue focusing on both the European and the Greek

contexts, as these are interrelated due to political decisions.

1. Educational Issues: General Considerations

Expressing the European educational policy, the Council of Europe promotes the

ideals of learner autonomy through the ECML1, which, by means of the dissem-

ination events it organises, aims to sustain the creation of Language Resource

Centres along with the evolution of already existing ones. For the accomplish-

ment of the autonomy goal, Language Resource Centres aim to cater for “self-ac-

cess opportunities to language learners [as well as] access to innovative practice

and new technologies including didactic support with using ICT2” (http://

www.ecml.at/documents/reports/wsrep117E2003_6.pdf , Central workshop report

6/2003: 2). The adoption of these principles in a wider context has an impact on

the respective status quo of our country and legitimises the requirement for cur-

ricular reorientation that the findings of recent surveys (Lakatsas 2002) conduc-

ted by international organizations (i.e. OECD3) confirm. According to these, a di-

1 European Centre for Modern Languages2 Information and Communication Technologies3 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

11

minution in educational standards is observed and is manifested by high percent-

ages of school leaving, failure and low learner motivation.

As Chryshochoos (2004: 12) argues, the institutionalisation of the State Certific-

ate for Language Proficiency Examination (Law 2740/99 and Government Gaz-

ette 821/24.06.2003), which is based on the principles defined by the Common

European Framework of Reference, not only ‘brings us into line with European

policy’ but also ‘it is the back door way to reform compulsory education’ . At a

political level, official documents (ΥΠΕΠΘ 2001; ΦΕΚ 303: 2003) issued by the

Ministry of Education sustain the need for a shift of attention on the values of

education by advocating the upgrading of the quality of the system. Thus, by fos-

tering new educational practices and exploiting information technologies and

multimedia as well as a variety of learning resources, the ‘reformed’ educational

system will play a crucial role in the shaping of individuals with increased

awareness and a critical attitude towards new information. At the same time, ac-

cording to the Law concerned with compulsory education (ΦΕΚ 303, 2003:

3733-4, 3736), to serve the needs that socio-political changes dictate, the up-

graded system should nurture individuals who are in the process of developing

the ability to assume responsibilities and to take the necessary initiative in order

to cater for the requirements of life-long learning. Nevertheless, the Law does

not make explicit specifications as to whether these aims are realized within the

traditional learning environment.

2. The Need for Transcending the Borders of the Conventional Classroom

12

In addition to political developments, technological advancement reinforces the

call for alternative perspectives in education. An overview of researches in pub-

lished literature and online discussion sustain this view through a multiplicity of

well-founded arguments. Warschauer (1996: 4-6) underpins the significance of

incorporating computer-based lessons in the teaching syllabus due to the poten-

tial of the medium, provided that the appropriate methodology is applied, to em-

power the learners, to offer them choice and control over learning as well as op-

portunities for the development of cognitive abilities. Frizler (1995: 4), Hanson-

Smith (1997: 2) and Healey (2002: 3) point out that educators should not ignore

the indisputable fact that the computer already constitutes an existing schema in

the learner’s mind. More particularly, Frizler (1995: 4) and Hanson-Smith (1997:

2) draw parallelisms between the impact of technology on everyday life and that

of the Industrial Revolution and of the Printing Press. Hanson-Smith (1997: 2)

goes on to argue for ‘a paradigm shift on all facets of life’ and Frizler (1995)

conducts a research on the exploitation of the Internet as a tool for writing in-

struction with encouraging results.

In addition to these more or less theoretical approaches to the issue, navigation in

the cyberspace traces its practical viewpoint. Surfing it then discloses several

websites that enable the user to explore different aspects of existing SACs

(http://lc.ust.hk/~sac/index.html , [accessed] 30.08.2004), that promote the prin-

ciples of online learning (http://www.ruthvilmi.net/hut/index.html , [accessed]

30.8.2004), that provide links to materials aiming to practise skills, pronunciation

and other linguistic areas (http://www.lclark.edu/~krauss/toppicks/reading.html,

http://esl.about.com/cs/listening/, http://www.esl-lab.com/ [accessed] 30.8.2004), that

13

provide detailed information about software available in the market (http://oregon-

state.edu/dept/eli/softlist/ [accessed] 30.08.2004). Certainly, careful inspection of

the principles underlying the design of the above mentioned sites and an invest-

igation of the compatibility between theory and practice would substantiate the

educational value of these tools. Yet, reflection upon the possibilities created

through them cannot but challenge in the reader’s mind the leading role of the

conventional classroom as the unique environment of institutional learning. This

dispute is detected in Young’s (1997 in Garrison et al 2003: 2) aphorism, which

expresses the need for educational reorientation through a comparison: ‘When

some people look at a room full of desks facing a central podium, they see a di -

nosaur’. Nevertheless, it falls far beyond the scope of this dissertation to unjustly

disregard the benefits of formal teaching, especially when it is based on learner-

centred approaches and methods. On the contrary, its overall goal is to suggest

alternatives in order to fit together the pieces of the puzzle of a holistic institu-

tionalised educational model.

3. Purpose of the Dissertation

Taking the above into consideration, the writer aims to provide a working frame-

work for the establishment of a computer-based resource centre in the Greek

Gymnasium. In this centre the learners are offered appropriate guidance and sup-

port as well as the necessary incentive in order to personalise their own learning

and customise it to their own needs by assuming responsibility and developing

autonomy as learners. Certainly, successful task performance presupposes that

learners have acquired a certain degree of self-awareness that allows them to for-

14

mulate objectives, to evaluate learning, to identify problems, and to monitor their

progress.

Considering the Gymnasium students’ age and the drawbacks that traditional

teaching entails, the reader may be led to the premature conclusion that the

aforementioned is a rather unattainable goal. Nevertheless, defending her case,

the writer is to present arguments substantiated through reference to the prin-

ciples of modern pedagogy and educational technology (Dickinson 1987, Sheerin

1997, Sturtridge 1997, Tudor 1996, Warschauer 2000). According to these, man-

ageable and engaging learner training and learning tasks, the ongoing process of

self-assessment and evaluation of the effectiveness of the scheme as well as the

exploitation of the intrinsic motivation of the medium create the conditions for

the realization of the untapped potential of education: the acquisition and devel-

opment of self-study ‘habits’. To attain this goal, the proposed scheme does not

seek to abolish the traditional learning environment. On the contrary, it seeks to

run in close cooperation and coordination with it.

4. The proposed framework

The use of the term ‘habits’ may seem untimely to the reader in the era of con-

structivist and critical theories which will be discussed further in the dissertation.

Rather than adopting behaviouristic principles, the writer views the formation of

self-study habits as the result of the motivational impact that self-instruction and

self-direction bear on the learner and of increased awareness that independent

learning can generate in the student. Awareness improves learner confidence; im-

proved self-confidence, in turn, interacts with the motivational factor. In accord-

15

ance with this argument, Littlewood (1997: 82) considers ‘motivation’ and ‘con-

fidence’ as the driving forces that lead to autonomy.

More particularly, the proposed SAC is envisaged as an organic entity within the

premises of the educational institution, accommodated in a separate part of the

building or in the extension of the school library (figure 1). The design and dec-

oration of the centre should sustain a positive learner attitude and ensure active

participation. Certainly, an appealing learning environment constitutes a neces-

sary stimulus for young adolescents, as, to an extent, it counterbalances learner

resistance stemming from established conceptions of what learning involves

(Akerlind and Trevitt n.d, Healey 2002). Therefore, the proposed centre chal-

lenges existing schemata and uses the computer workstation as its organizing

unit in order to serve the needs of individual, pairs and groups of learners. This

arrangement reveals the writer’s aim to incorporate collaborative work in the

self-access learning framework, which is in compliance with Dickinson’s (1987:

13) affirmation that the road to ‘autonomy does not imply isolation’.

16

Fig. 1: Sample representation of a Self-Access Centre: ELI Learning Centre Map

The English Language Institute, Oregon State University [Online].Available: http://oregonstate.edu/dept/eli/lcmap.html

Therefore, as it is shown in figure 1, the centre is divided into separate sections,

namely a Reading, a Computer, a Video/Speaking and a Control Room, and, in

this way, the necessary conditions for the provision of facilities for ‘ the whole

range of language learning activity’ (Dickinson 1987: 108) are created. More

particularly, the proposed Gymnasium flexible learning centre is equipped with

15 personal computers, both stand-alone and with an Internet connection, with an

extensive collection of software programmes installed. Other hardware equip-

ment include 5 printers, 5 scanners, a projection panel for whole-class, group or

individual viewing and floppy disks for learners to save their work.

Yet, while taking initiative on the part of the learner is fundamental for self-ac-

cess, existing centres described in published literature (Dickinson 1987: 58-67;

Sheerin 1991: 145-150) and online (e.g. http://lc.ust.hk/~sac/index.html ) base

their effectiveness on technological armour as well as on human resources. The

policy of secondary and tertiary educational institutions that promotes self- in-

struction and self-direction through non-authoritarian guidance and consultation

draws upon the Self-Access Language Learning (SALL) literature (Barnett 1993:

300, Dickinson 1987: 2, 37, Sheerin 1991: 140-141, 151) and reflects the view of

autonomy as the end-point of the teacher dependence – freedom from teacher

control continuum (Geddes and Sturtridge 1982: 2).

5. The Need for the Establishment of Self-Access Centres

Borrowing the term from Community Language Learning (Sheerin 1991: 144),

henceforward the writer uses the item ‘Counsellor’ to denote the individual

whose role is to facilitate self-access learning. To this end, the Counsellor keeps

17

records of the students’ profiles signifying each learner’s needs and preferences.

Based on these data, the SAC Counsellor provides direction as to the formulation

of learning objectives and ensures that learner diaries for self-monitoring pur-

poses and evaluation sheets for the future development of the centre are com-

pleted. Consequently, this form of exploitation of human resources in the pro-

posed scheme serves the purposes of individualised learning, which, according to

Geddes and Sturtridge (1982: 1), means that ‘…effort has been made to meet the

needs and preferences of an individual learner’. Moreover, in this way, the limit-

ation of the traditional classroom to deal with ‘the heterogeneity of learning pro-

cesses’ (the term is used by Gremmo 1998 in Gates 2000: 17) is superseded.

Through the consideration of the above analysis it can be concluded that the

writer views self-access in the Greek Gymnasium as a complementary mode of

learning that incorporates autonomy, self-direction and individualisation as its

fundamental principles. Thus, she is in agreement with Sheerin’s (1989: 196)

claim that the optimal learning environment should be a combination of ‘expert

help’, ‘group-directed learning’ and ‘self-access facilities which students can

use to work on their individual problems’.

6. Definition of Terms

Autonomy: The end-goal of self-access learning in the proposed framrwork. It

presupposes the development of learner social-, self- and language-awareness.

Increased awareness enables learners to set objectives, to reconsider them, to

evaluate and to monitor their progress, and ultimately to become more autonom-

18

ous and take control over learning. In this sense, autonomy also relates to em-

powerment.

Self-instruction: The term refers to a type of learner activity. In the self-instruc-

tional mode of learning, students work without the direct control of the teacher.

Self-direction: The term denotes an attitude characterising learners who under-

take the management of their learning without necessarily implementing a course

of action independently.

Computer-based Self-access (or Flexible) Learning Centre: A resource centre

where students select from a wide range of language learning materials in order

to develop their linguistic and cognitive competences. To do this effectively,

each learner devises a tailor-made self-study syllabus. The tasks and activities

that implement the syllabus are based on software programmes and educational

tools accessed on the computer.

Counsellor: A trained educator who assists learners in structuring their learning

and in compiling their self-study syllabus. In addition, this individual is respons-

ible for the maintenance of the SAC.

Greek Gymnasium: The second 3-year phase of compulsory education in

Greece takes place in the Gymnasium. In it learning is dissected into separate

school subjects, such as History, Mathematics, Foreign Languages etc. Student

19

communities in this institution consist of learners whose ages range from 12 to

15 years.

7. Assumptions for Teacher Training

The implications emerging from the extensive use of hardware and software

equipment are numerous. Evidently, as hardware is constantly advancing, the

need for systematic upgrading and maintenance of the system is essential.

Moreover, changes in software packages and frequently updated websites also

necessitate a hands-on evaluation of newly released products and an evaluation

of online materials. Therefore, the appointment of specially trained individuals

assigned with the tasks of running the SAC and offering guidance and support to

learners is essential. Yet, the design and implementation of such training pro-

grammes is beyond the scope of this dissertation. Therefore, it is assumed that

the Greek Ministry of Education undertakes the organisation of technical support

centres and the implementation of appropriately structured seminars aiming to

provide the educators who are willing to assume responsibility of self-access

centres with the opportunity to develop their knowledge and skills.

8. Dissertation Outline

Following the introductory part, which reviews the broader and the narrower

context and provides the rationale for the establishment of autonomy-oriented,

computer-based SACs, the writer organizes the dissertation as follows:

In Chapter II, the review of current constructivist and critical theories aims to es-

tablish the need for the promotion of autonomy in the pedagogical orientation of

20

the educational system. Tightly related to the principle of autonomy is the notion

of self-awareness and, therefore, the paths leading to it, namely awareness of

cognitive styles and learning strategies, and the motivational factor are dis-

cussed. As the proposal concerns a technologically equipped SAC, the use of the

computer as Tutor, as Tool and as Stimulus is analysed.

In Chapter III, a discussion of the principles underlying the proposed scheme in

relation to those defining the ‘Revised Unified Curriculum 2003’ aims to sub-

stantiate the applicability of the system to the Greek educational context. In or-

der to serve practical purposes, such as activity design and task selection, a

definition of levels of proficiency with reference to the Common European

Framework of Reference follows in the final section of the chapter.

Chapter IV discusses and analyses the rationale underlying the organizational

format of the centre and its resources. To facilitate self-instructional and self-dir -

ected learning, SAC resources mainly aim to enable users to orient themselves in

the school intranet, to develop self-awareness, to assess themselves and to be-

come involved in closed- and open-ended tasks aiming to promote general and

linguistic competences as well as exploratory learning.

Chapter V concludes the dissertation with an overview of the proposal, with fur-

ther suggestions for implementation and with a global consideration of the im-

pact of the proposed scheme on institutional education.

21

CHAPTER II – LITERATURE REVIEW

1. Theoretical Principles Underlying the Proposed Self-access Scheme

Following the general review of the educational issue within a wider and a

more focused, localised context as well as the rationale underlying the estab-

lishment of a self-access centre in the Gymnasium, this chapter aims to dis-

cuss the conditions that allow for autonomy-oriented self-instructional learn-

ing. To provide a solid theoretical background, the writer draws upon the rel-

evant literature and discusses the types of awareness that the learning experi -

ence should entail in relation to the socio-political, the technical and the cog-

nitive factor. The particular orientation reflects the writer’s view of the devel -

opment of awareness as a cluster of these attributes, which is validated by her

readings as well as her teaching experience.

1.1. The Issue of Autonomy in Language Learning

1.1.1. The Need for Innovation in Education

Despite the scarcity of research data, there is some evidence in the literature

confirming the argument that one possible cause of the educational problem

in the Greek context is that teaching practices do very little to improve the ef-

fectiveness of institutionalized learning. Considering the findings of her in-

vestigation that explores Greek Gymnasium teachers’ attitudes, Karavas

(1993) concludes that educators resist methodological innovations, which are

unable to permeate the established schema of the teacher as a transmitter of

knowledge. Papagueli-Vouliouris (1999) and Saiti & Prokopiadou (n.d.) draw

similar conclusions and point out that only through changes and interventions

22

can Greek state education survive international competitiveness as well as re-

spond to current technological developments.

Apparently, the problem supersedes the Greek borders. In his critical review

of the local system, Reinfried (2000) asserts that foreign language teaching in

German schools is ‘on the whole, too instructivist’ and goes on to argue that

in it learners are not treated as individuals amenable to change, but as ‘react-

ive beings, either accepting or not accepting the material offered by the

teacher’.

The findings of the OECD research discussed in chapter I (pp. 11-12) present

a more global dimension of the educational problem as they concern schools

from different European countries and substantiate the widely accepted in the

relevant literature (Benson 1997, Dickinson 1987, Nunan 1988, Pennycook

1997, Tudor 1996) need for educational re-orientation. The new approach ad-

vocates a teaching/learning paradigm that emancipates the student and allows

for active participation in the decision-making process. Therefore, in order to

play an essentially innovative role, the proposed SAC should provide Greek

Gymnasium students the opportunity to develop a ‘pro-active’ attitude (the

term is used by Holec 1981 and is found in Sheerin 1991: 144), to assume re-

sponsibility of their own learning and, thus, to become more autonomous.

1.1.2. The Socio-political Aspect

Institutional education is a manifestation of ‘heteronomy’, as Papakon-

stantinou (Παπακωνσταντίνου 1996: 123) defines the situation in which indi-

23

viduals are controlled by others. Seemingly, its essence contradicts the strong

view of autonomy, which draws upon the field of political theory and asso-

ciates the concept with ‘freedom from external constraint’ (the definition is

found in Benson and Voller 1997: 5). Nevertheless, considering Dickinson’s

(1987), Nunan’s (1997) and Sheerin’s (1997) arguments, the writer discards

the ‘absolutistic’ approach to the issue. Instead, she supports the view that the

development of an autonomous attitude is a process that interacts with the

types of awareness institutional learning aims for. As such, it largely depends

upon the ideology underlying institutional policy, as Benson (1997), Little-

john (1997) and Nunan (1988) rightly maintain.

Reflecting upon Benson’s (2002) stance towards the development of

autonomy as a life-long process and upon the pragmatic need for life-long

learning, the writer traces in the relevant literature the factors attributed to

the superordinate term of learner awareness in order to delineate the theoret-

ical background of the framework. Benson (1997), Pennycook (1997) and

Breen and Mann (1997) express a socio-political view and argue that learners

need to enhance their awareness of the broader as well as of the narrower so-

cial context in which learning takes place. Moreover, Benson and Voller

(1997: 12-17), through a review of its historical background, acknowledge

the potential of self-access to satisfy the particular need. Therefore, consider-

ing the issues prevalent in the Greek society, the writer proposes that SAC

materials aim to sensitise users to concepts, such as multi-culturalism, envir-

onmental problems etc in order to enable them to formulate an informed,

flexible attitude towards cultural diversities, towards citizenship and, eventu-

24

ally, towards life itself. To this end, learners put their thinking skills at work,

gradually grow ‘more critically aware of the social context of their learning

and the constraints it implies’ (Benson 1997: 24) and, according to Penny-

cook (1997: 48-49), eventually develop their own ‘voices’ in the target lan-

guage.

1.1.3. The Technical Aspect

Although socio-cognitive development, as Pennycook (1997: 48-49) wisely

maintains, involves more than the internalisation of linguistic structures, it

presupposes that learners manage to process the input they are exposed to.

Therefore, in order to cater for the ‘technical version’ of autonomy (the term

is found in Benson 1997: 20) the proposed system should offer SAC users the

choice to select appropriate to their level materials aiming to develop their

awareness of the linguistic medium as well. As Aston (1993), Barnett (1993),

Sheerin (1997, 1991) and Sturtridge (1997) suggest, self-access materials

should incorporate sets of open- and closed-ended tasks. Through a variety of

activities, the tasks should provide users with meaningful and purposeful op-

portunities to practise receptive and productive skills and to develop aware-

ness of the language and of its use.

1.1.4. The Constructivist View

Not only does socio-cognitive development depend upon linguistic develop-

ment but the two types of awareness are in interactive relation with each

other as well. As learners develop their ability to comprehend input, they get

involved in meaningful experiences and formulate new schemata that add to

25

existing ideas about a particular issue. As von Glasserfeld (cited in Reinfried

2000: 6) puts it, learners reconstruct and reorganise their knowledge through

the on-going process of checking against and adapting to new linguistic and

cognitive experiences. Evidently, this view reflects the theory of constructiv-

ism, which considers learning as the outcome of the interaction between

thought and experience (Andrews et al 2000 (1): 7). Moreover, it also reflects

Vygotsky’s theory, which, expanding the constructivist model, emphasises

the key role of cultural influence, social interaction and communication to the

development of reasoning and learning. (Andrews et al 2000 (1): 13). There-

fore, in order to cater for the two types of awareness, SAC materials should

enable users to develop both cognitively and linguistically. Moreover, the or-

ganisational format of the system should provide an arrangement according to

topic and to task and, thus, facilitate the learning process of users who adopt

a top-down approach as well as of those with a bottom-up approach; the

former choose materials in order to accommodate their conceptually-driven

(the term is found in Carrell and Eisterhold 1988: 76-77) orientation and

through them develop linguistically as well, and, reversely, the latter also be-

nefit cognitively, although they tend to favour a data-driven (the term is

found in Carrell and Eisterhold 1988: 76-77) orientation.

Nonetheless, active and sustained involvement in self-access is not simply a

matter of setting principles that define the type of learning experience. It also

necessitates the development of particular user attitudes, such as self-direc-

tedness and self-instruction. According to Dickinson (1987: 12), in a self-in-

structional learning environment, ‘self-direction is a requirement for suc-

26

cess’. Therefore, it is essential that we reflect upon the parameters that are

tightly related to the issue of assuming responsibility for learning, which, as

Garrison and Anderson argue (2003: 15), consist in its technical and cognit-

ive management. While the type of organization and retrieval system of the

proposed scheme are discussed in subsequent chapters, the following section

focuses on the factors that enable learners to develop and sustain a self-dir-

ective attitude.

1.2. The Cognitive Aspect of Managing Self-access Learning

1.2.1. Learner Awareness

According to Garrison and Anderson (2003: 15), the success of the cognitive

management of self-directed learning lies in the learner’s ability to monitor

‘tasks and intellectual demands’ in a cognitive and metacognitive fashion. In-

deed, a review in the relevant literature (Tudor 1996, Williams and Burden

1997, Wenden 1991) sustains the above-mentioned assertion and confirms the

writer’s thesis that the development of learner awareness is indispensable for

the attainment of learner autonomy. Her view also draws upon the field of

psychology, which, as Benson (1997: 24) maintains, associates autonomy

with the responsibility the individual undertakes and focuses on behaviour,

attitude and personality. Tudor (1996: 35) uses the term ‘ learner training’ to

refer to the awareness development and preparation process through which

learners ‘discover the learning strategies that suit them best’ in order to as-

sume the self-directive role.

27

Williams and Burden (1997: 145) define learning strategies as a series of

skills that are used ‘with a particular purpose in mind’ and that involve ‘an

ability to monitor the learning situation and respond accordingly’. In addi-

tion, Williams and Burden (1997: 146) underpin the contribution of the issue

of strategy training to effective learning by referring to studies that have

shown that successful learners are those who are able to employ appropriate

strategies, to adapt them accordingly and to monitor their progress.

Moreover, being advocates of the socio-constructivist approach, these theor-

ists attribute a cognitive and a social nature to strategies and go on to argue

that they can be conscious or unconscious (Williams and Burden 1997: 149).

1.2.2. Cognition and Metacognition

The previously mentioned assertions raise implications for the management

of self-directed learning. In their light, SAC users are not only required to de-

velop the ability to process linguistic and socio-linguistic content, they also

need to be able to plan, monitor and evaluate the process of the learning ex-

perience. According to Wenden (1991: 25), this is effectuated through the use

of ‘self-management skills’ or ‘metacognitive strategies’. More importantly

though, as these operations do not always function at the conscious level, the

learners who have opted for a self-instructional mode should enhance their

awareness of themselves as language learners, of the particular task they are

involved in as well as of the strategies they employ. Consequently, for the at -

tainment of these goals, the proposed SAC should involve tasks aiming to de-

velop the kind of knowledge termed by Wenden (1991: 35-48) as ‘metacog-

nitive awareness’, which activates an ‘internal change’ in the learners’ con-

28

sciousness (Wenden 1991: 49). This approach mirrors a reflective attitude to-

wards self-directed learning and is in harmony with current trends in the rel -

evant literature concerned with the issue of autonomy (Wenden 1991, Schon

1983) and of educational technology (Garrison and Anderson 2003).

1.3. The Motivational Factor

A review in the relevant literature (Williams and Burden 1997, Dickinson

1987, Wenden 1991) reveals a convergence as to the significance of motiva-

tion, being an issue determined by such factors as the task, the learners’ be-

liefs about themselves as well as other people’s beliefs about learners. Ac-

cording to the findings of a study investigating the reactions of people who

were engaged in various activities, the subjects exhibited total involvement

during performance (Williams and Burden 1997: 126). The choice of tasks

had been made upon the criteria of interest, challenge and attainability.

Therefore, with regard to Williams and Burden’s (1997: 120) definition of

motivation, sustaining the learners’ ‘intellectual effort’ for the attainment of

their learning goals is not simply a matter of initial interest arousal. It largely

depends on whether SAC materials fulfil the criteria of personal relevance to

the learner and of appropriate level of complexity, which affects the learner’s

sense of competence.

Consequently, it is essential to consider the implications the above bear on

the proposed system in relation to the principles set in previous sections.

Self-directed learning is by nature motivating, as it generates the sense of

personal responsibility and control over learning, or, in Williams and Bur-

29

den’s (1987: 128) terms, the sense of ‘causality’ and of ‘control’. Dickinson

(1987: 32) is also in alignment with the view supporting the motivational im-

pact of the self-instructional mode. As the system itself allows for the initial

boost in motivation, it is important that we explore whether the rationale un-

derlying self-access materials design reflects the previously stated criteria.

The attainment of one of the main aims of the proposed SAC, i.e. to empower

learners through the development of their socio-political awareness, requires

tasks that thematically draw upon concepts of a direct influence on the

learners’ lives, thus authenticating the issue of personal relevance. This also

applies to materials aiming for language awareness, as the self-instructional

framework enables learners to select tasks and activities that are relevant to

their own level of proficiency. Furthermore, materials that aim for an im-

proved self-awareness eventually enable self-access users to personalise and

customise learning to their own styles and preferences.

In this way, through their immersion into the self-access mode, adolescent

learners, who are already capable of evaluating the usefulness of schooling

(Williams and Burden 1997: 125), gradually come to realise that learning

does not necessarily imply uniformity in approaching it; that it is normal that

they learn differently from other learners; that they can learn in the way that

suits them best. Thus, they come to accept themselves and improve their self-

esteem. When learners feel their ego is not threatened, behaviour exhibiting

such characteristics as that of ‘learned helplessness’, i.e. of deterioration in

cognitive processes due to perceived lack of ability (Wenden 1991: 57), is

30

avoided. Moreover, as the learners’ self-confidence is reinforced in the pro-

posed framework, the potential is generated for them to question established

perceptions imposed by others. One such ‘significant other’ is the traditional

educational system itself, which, being unable to cater for individual needs,

affects the learners’ image of themselves.

1.4. Mediating between Learners and Materials

As it was argued in the first chapter of the dissertation, no matter how well-

founded on sound theoretical principles the proposed scheme may be, its ef-

fectiveness largely depends upon human resources as well, along with its

equipment and materials. As a consequence, the learners’ need for guidance

was discussed in relation to the significant role the SAC Counsellor can play

in assisting self-access users to develop self-instructional habits. In accord-

ance with this view, Tudor (1996: 35) argues that awareness training can cre-

ate a ‘forum’ where learners exchange insights and perceptions about their

learning, thus leaving room for consultation to take place.

A review of existing SACs provides evidence of the appreciation held for

counselling in tertiary and secondary institutions. Thus, the University of

Hong Kong (http://lc.ust.hk/~sac/index.html ) provides the students/users of

its computer-based self-access centre with the opportunity to consult an Ad-

visor as to the progress of their learning. Moreover, Dickinson (1987: 66)

makes reference to the Private Study Model, a conventional self-access

centre. In it attention has been given as to the creation of an atmosphere that

favours collaboration and exchange between the teachers and the adolescent

31

students concerning the latter’s learning experiences. Furthermore, another

form of consultation is traced in educationally-oriented websites (e.g. http://

www.eslgo.com , http://sl-lists.net ), which aim to promote the interaction

among EFL/ESL learners from all over the world through the creation of dis-

cussion forums. To this end, experienced educators offer participants guid-

ance and advice aiming to facilitate communication and to sustain involve-

ment in online communities.

To provide a framework for effective counselling in the proposed SAC, the

writer adopts the principle of mediation, which was introduced by Feuerstein

(cited in Williams and Burden 1997: 67-68). Effective mediation lies in the

creation and maintenance of an interactive relation between the Counsellor,

or, according to Feuerstein (Williams and Burden 1997: 68), ‘mediator’, and

the user. Through their interaction the Counsellor and the learner negotiate

her/his own syllabus and reach an agreement on how the latter should pursue

her/his self-instructional learning. In addition, as Voller (1997: 109) and Ri-

ley (1997: 121) maintain, the mediating role also involves negotiation as to

content of the SAC and facilitation of the learning process through appropri-

ate guidance and support. In this way, increased awareness of what the re-

source centre involves and of how to best exploit it sustains the learner’s ini -

tial decision to pursue self-instruction.

Having established the principles that provide the ideological background of

the proposed computer-based SAC, it is now essential that we discuss pos-

sible versions of the exploitation of the technological medium.

32

2. Principles Underlying Computer-based Self-access Learning

2.1. Developments in Computer Assisted Language Learning

Recent technological advancement in the field of Computer Assisted Lan-

guage Learning (CALL) has allowed for the production of software pro-

grammes and tools that facilitate the design of tasks and activities aiming to

sustain the learner-to-computer and learner-to-learner interactivity. As Kern

and Warschauer’s (2000) and Warschauer’s (1996a) reviews of the historical

background of CALL reveal, the principle of interactivity represents the cur-

rent trend in educational technology, which is characterised by a shift from a

structural, to a cognitive and to a socio-cognitive phase. According to Gar-

rison and Anderson (2003), the socio-cognitive perspective satisfies the need

for compatibility with principles underlying developments in the conven-

tional teaching/learning paradigm.

Software and tools produced during the evolutionary phases of CALL serve

overlapping pedagogical purposes and, according to Warschauer (1996a),

represent the following three different types of use of the technological me-

dium as:

Computer-as-Tutor: In this type of use the machine is the ‘knower-of-

the-answer’ and provides direct feedback in a form that, as Motteram

(1998) argues, simulates the objective test reality. This model of use

reflects a structural approach and is appropriate for less proficient stu-

33

dents as it provides language practice within a controlled learning en-

vironment.

Computer-as-Tool: This model reflects the principles of the cognitive

approach and allows for learner choice, control and interaction in the

process of finding the right answer.

Computer-as-Stimulus: Resulting from the cognitive and the socio-

cognitive view of learning, this model provides the opportunity for

peer collaboration, for reflection on language and its use and for

knowledge acquisition through interaction within authentic learning

environments.

Therefore, existing electronically-based materials offer opportunities for con-

trolled practice as well as authentic communication and allow for a structured

approach to learning through sets of properly-designed, open- and closed-

ended tasks. Moreover, a carefully-organised retrieval and classification sys-

tem facilitates access and exploitation of computer-based resources in the

proposed autonomy-oriented SAC.

Evidently, along with the autonomy goal systematic exploitation of CALL

materials in institutional education serves the pragmatic need for the develop-

ment of students’ electronic literacies as well. In order to enable teachers to

respond to this need effectively, the Greek Ministry of Education implements

training seminars aiming to improve the computer skills of primary and sec-

ondary educators within the framework of the operational programme ‘Soci-

ety of Information’. Within a different context, the State of California im-

poses the use of Information Technologies and passes an act, according to

34

which certified computer literacy is a necessary qualification for the employ-

ment of state school teachers (Frizler 1995).

2.2. The Motivational Impact of the Computer

The fact that official state policies create the conditions for or legalise the in-

corporation of CALL in teaching curricula reinforces the writer’s belief that

autonomy-oriented computer-based self-access learning has the potential to

develop into the state-of-the-art in state education. Nevertheless, as the writer

definitely agrees with Warschauer’s (2000) assertion that ‘freedom begins not

in legislative bodies, corporate boards, or educational administrations, but in

the human spirit’, she also believes that it is also important to investigate into

how computer-based learning affects learner behaviour.

The findings of researches concerned with learner motivation (Warschauer

1996b, 2000) reveal a convergence with the issues analysed in section II.1.3.

More particularly, Warschauer (1996b) discusses a study concerning univer-

sity students who used the computer for writing and communication. Through

the analysis of the findings it became evident that, on the whole, the students

showed a positive attitude towards the use of technology for learning pur-

poses. The interpretation of their attitude showed that the students attributed

personal relevance to the computer-based tasks and that they developed a

sense of competence emerging from successful task performance. Further-

more, the findings of a ten-year study conducted in five American schools

(Warschauer 2000) show that significant others’ beliefs about computer-

based learning influenced the learners’ attitude towards CALL. Thus, stu-

dents whose teachers favoured a flexible, learner-centred approach benefited

35

more from the use of technology in their lessons than those whose teachers

displayed a more traditional orientation.

2.3. The Exploitation of Computer-based Resources in Self-access

Constructive mediation promotes the effective use of self-instructional re-

sources in the proposed SAC and creates the necessary favourable environ-

ment towards computer-based learning as the analyses of studies investigat-

ing the psychological factor underpin. Guidance and support sustain the ini-

tial motivation arousal that the computer medium generates and, therefore,

encourage a regular and systematic approach to self-access learning. In order

to provide a comprehensive and coherent framework that adopts the

autonomy ideal, the content of the SAC should cater for meaningful and pur-

poseful learning opportunities through well-designed tasks aiming to develop

the learners’ linguistic, cognitive and socio-cognitive awareness through a

task-based and a project-based approach. To this end, the exploitation of soft-

ware programmes and tools should aim to serve pedagogical purposes, such

as the development of skills and abilities, the enhancement of the awareness

of language and its use and the expansion of the knowledge of the world.

2.3.1. The Development of Receptive Skills in Self-access

Authoring programmes are available on the market and online (e.g. www.hot -

potatoes.net ) and allow for tailoring reading and listening texts and tasks to

the preferences and needs of the learners they are aimed for. The repertoire of

activities they include (e.g. matching exercises, gap-fill texts etc) offers more

and less proficient SAC users the opportunity for receptive skills practice. To

cater for the needs of the former, authentic texts, as Little maintains (1997:

36

226), provide input that encourages authentic learner responses and prepares

the transition into the communicative use of language. In order to cater for

the latter’s need for smoother transition, authentic-in-nature texts offer a

more controlled learning opportunity while retaining the features of genuine

written and oral discourse (Burgess 1994, Williams and Moran 1989).

Authoring programmes are based on the hypermedia technology, which, ac-

cording to Warschauer (2000, 1996a), creates a motivating, integrative learn-

ing environment through the combination of sound, text, animation, graphics

and video. Moreover, the software facility, allowing for the inclusion of addi-

tional information in the form of study tips, hints etc, not only enables

learners to manipulate the task; it also encourages them to explore the materi-

als attending to areas of language form and/or of content they choose to focus

on and skipping others, by pointing and clicking a mouse. In this way, au-

thoring programmes can serve the purposes of the proposed system as, by of-

fering choice, allow users to take control of learning and develop into more

autonomous learners within a framework that caters for individual needs and

that does not exclude collaborative work.

2.3.2. Productive Skills Development

Pennington (1987) and Piper (1996) strongly recommend the use of the word

processor for pedagogical purposes due to its potential to benefit the learning

process. Using the word processor software as a tool for writing, learners can

work individually or collaboratively in order to brainstorm ideas, to produce

a fist draft and to improve their written work through revision, editing and

37

proofreading. In order to redraft, learners reflect on and restructure their

work, which improves the quality of the written work and redefines the writ -

ing process as well.

Although the word processor provides an invaluable tool for the improvement

of writing in self-access, technological advancement does not provide suffi-

cient means for speaking practice yet but for the enhancement of pronunci-

ation skills through the use of CD-ROMs and ‘Listen and repeat’ techniques,

which represents a very narrow sense of speaking. Nevertheless, appropri-

ately-structured computer-based materials encouraging peer cooperation can

define speaking task environments through instructions that consider the

communicative value of the activities they describe. To this end, as Nation

(1989) argues, the tasks should allocate roles and maximise interest and in-

volvement by breaking the activity into steps that ensure successful out-

comes.

2.3.3. Language Awareness and Practice

Milton (1997) recommends the use of concordancers in self-instructional

autonomy-oriented environments. As Warschauer (2000) argues, searching

through huge files of texts, or corpora, enables learners to reflect on the use

of particular words or collocations and, thus, to enhance their language

awareness. For language practice, surfing the Web discloses several sites

(e.g. http://www.manythings.org/cs/ , http://www.pacificnet.net/ ~sperling /

quiz/ , http://www.illustratedvocabulary.ip-providence.net/) aiming to enable

38

learners/users to choose among a multiplicity of materials in order to practise

vocabulary or grammar.

2.3.4. Project-based Work

The Internet does not only provide the means for controlled language prac-

tice. Warschauer (2001) strongly recommends the use of carefully selected

websites with an informational and/or pedagogically-oriented content as they

offer data that can promote the development of reading and writing skills and

peer cooperation within a project-based framework. Thus, in order to access

and select data thematically-linked to the topic assigned to them, learners/

users put their ‘research’ skills at work. Moreover, in order to process the

plethora of information that Web navigation can reveal, to evaluate it effect -

ively and to discard those pieces irrelevant to their goals, learners get in-

volved cognitively in the decision-making process and eventually develop

into more fluent readers. As they can publish on the Web the outcomes of in-

dividual as well as of collaborative work, learners also put their ‘construc-

tion’ skills at work and develop into more skilful writers.

2.3.5. Interaction Skills

As Warschauer (2001, 2000) maintains, the Internet has also the potential to

enable learners/users to develop their ‘communication’ skills through the ex-

ploitation of Computer-mediated-Communication (CMC) technologies. To

this end, students become members of online communities in specially-de-

signed sites (e.g. http://www.eslcafe.com/ ) and interact through e-mail ex-

changes in an asynchronous mode, or of virtual learning environments, such

as the MOOs (Multiple-user-domains Object Oriented), that promote interac-

39

tion through role play and simulation in a synchronous mode. Kern and

Warschauer (2000) recommend the use of CMC technologies in language

education as they can serve pedagogical purposes.

In order to communicate effectively, learners/participants reflect on the lan-

guage used, which is reinforced by the fact that the organisation of some dis-

cussion forums (e.g. http://sl-lists.net ) allows for downloading participants’

exchanges and, thus, enables learners to keep records for evaluation and self-

monitoring purposes. Although there is little research in the area, there is

some evidence of the beneficial effect of CMC on the learning process. Ac-

cording to the findings of a quantitative research discussed in Kern and

Warschauer (2000) learners/participants in online discussion use more com-

plex linguistic features than those they use when involved in face-to-face

communication. Moreover, immersion into authentic discourse international

communities enables learners to improve socio-cognitively through the devel-

opment of intercultural awareness and, thus, to discover what Pennycook

(1997: 47) terms as ‘cultural alternatives’, i.e. alternative ways of thinking

and being in the world.

3. Conclusion

In this chapter, the theoretical principles underlying the proposed self-access

scheme have been reviewed. As it is shown in figure 2, the attainment

40

of the ultimate goal of the scheme, i.e. to enable users to develop self-instruc-

tional habits and gradually evolve into more autonomous learners, is tightly

associated with and interacts with the development of the learners’ social-,

linguistic- and self- awareness. To this end, with the aid of reciprocal medi-

ation, computer-based self-access materials and tasks should sustain motiva-

tion by confirming the value of the activity in the learners’ mind and build up

a sense of competence in them. For the fulfilment of these aims, a task- and

project- based approach to learning should be adopted. Through this process,

the writer believes that the road to autonomy is gradually opened up for self-

access users. According to Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs (in Williams

and Burden 1997: 34-35), satisfying the learner’s need for ‘ interpersonal

closeness’ and for ‘self-esteem’ encourages her/ him to develop cognitively

and aesthetically and, thus, reaching the end-point of the pyramid, to attain

‘self-actualisation’.

41

Social Awareness Language Awareness Self-Awareness

Political View Technical View Psychological View

TASK-BASED LEARNING PROJECT-BASED LEARNING

Fig. 2. A theoretical model for the proposed self-access scheme

CHAPTER III - COMPUTER-BASED SELF-ACCESSLEARNING IN THE GREEK GYMNASIUM

1. Theoretical Implications in the Particular Context

Having analysed the principles underlying the proposed scheme, we shall now

investigate whether the issue of autonomy in learning as well as the subsequent

issues discussed in the previous chapter are compatible with the Greek educa-

tional system or not. Moreover, as language awareness and self-awareness un-

dergo an on-going exploration in the field of teaching other people’s lan-

guages, it is the socio-political aspect that needs to be validated as an indis-

pensable component of the declared orientation of the self-access scheme, i.e.

of the gradual actualisation of learner autonomy.

This proposition for validation may puzzle the reader who considers the issue

self-evident. Indeed, the Greek origin of the term (‘αυτονομία’), denoting the

individuals’ right of governing themselves, can add to this consideration. Yet,

Riley’s (1988 cited in Sheerin 1991: 12) and Pennycook’s (1997) convergent

theses that awareness and consideration of the value system that frames the

learners’ world is a sine qua non for the development of an appropriate peda-

gogy confirm the writer’s proposition for investigation in the particular con-

text. In addition, the fact that the self-access learning mode has only recently

been introduced to the Greek educational system by the University of Athens,

which, to the writer’s knowledge, is in the process of organizing a computer-

based SAC, reinforces the need for a well-founded theoretical framework.

42

1.1. Autonomy as a Universal Principle

Benson and Voller (1997: 4) maintain that the construct formulated in our

minds when reflecting upon autonomy is associated with western ideals. While

there is truth in their claim, the writer believes that Benson and Voller actually

refer to the notion being articulated as ‘autonomy’ from the 18 th century on-

wards. Naturally, it cannot be ignored that it is aspects of the same notion that

are expressed through Socrates’ words in the Platonic Dialogues (Πλάτων

(Plato), Θεαίτητος ή περί επιστήμης: 150d) although they date back to the 5th

century BC. In Plato’s work, Socrates, the founder of the deductive method, at-

tributes the discovery of knowledge as well as the generation of ideas to the

learners themselves, thus stripping the teacher off the role of a transmitter of

knowledge while allocating that of a guide towards it. Fragos (Φράγκος 1983:

444) also discusses the Socratic model of teaching and points out the fact that

it promotes the anti-authoritarian role of the teacher as counsellor, supporter

and facilitator of learning.

Later, in the 12th century AD, Chinese scholars expressed similar thoughts in

their writings, as Morall (1998) argues in his dissertation investigating the Uni-

versity of Hong Kong students’ disposition towards autonomous learning. In

addition, within a different cultural context, Tolstoy (Weiner 1967: ix) intro-

duces a revolutionary for Russia of his time approach to learning, which views

education as a process ‘of freeing the individual for creative improvisation

through understanding’. In the spring of the 20th century in the same country

Lenin prompts the individuals to ‘Learn, learn, learn’ through active participa-

tion in the learning process (quoted in Παπάς (Papas) n.d.).

43

It becomes evident then that the notion of autonomy is neither a western nor an

eastern ideal. On the contrary, the above discussion reinforces the writer’s be-

lief that the notion constitutes a universal principle, which is inherent in the

different people’s cultures and which emerges when socio-political fermenta-

tion calls for it. Although it comprises different aspects, as it happens with the

face and its different parts, according to the metaphor Socrates (in Πλάτων,

Πρωταγόρας ή Σοφισταί) uses in his discussion on the concept of ‘virtue’, the

notion, whether worded as autonomy or not, is a unified whole as well as a ba-

sic element of life, and, therefore, of education. On the other end of the scale,

Jones (1995), the founder of a self-access centre at Phnom Penh University in

Cambodia, holds the view that the notion is absent from the traditions and cul-

ture of many countries, such as those lying between Morocco and Japan. Nev-

ertheless, the Phnom Penh University SAC aims to enable users to develop

self-instruction and self-direction taking into consideration the Cambodian stu-

dents’ educational background, which eventually promotes the global view of

the autonomy ideal.

1.2. Autonomy in Modern Greek Pedagogy

A review in the Greek literature (Παπακωνσταντίνου (Papakonstantinou) 1996,

Παπάς (Papas) n.d., Φράγκος (Fragos) 1993, Χαραλαμπόπουλος (Charal-

abopoulos) 1973) reveals that autonomy is not always explicitly discussed in

the work of educational theorists and researchers. Nonetheless, as it was ar-

gued in III.1.1, this lack by no means implies that the consideration of aspects

of the notion are absent. Actually, the main focus of analyses is the need for re-

form, being a by-product of the traditional, authoritarian educational paradigm.

44

More particularly, Fragos (1993: 64-65) maintains that a pertinent solution to

the educational problem should not involve a discussion on methods and proce-

dures solely. It should also be viewed under the perspective of dialectic corre-

lations, such as the one between what constitutes social surroundings and what

is surrounded. Charalabopoulos (1973: 288-300) also argues that the educa-

tional model should consider the interaction between social surroundings and

the learner.

Furthermore, in Papas’ (n.d.) work the impact of the socio-cultural context

upon the individual is widely discussed and the multi-dimensional role of the

teacher in modern education is analysed. In the light of these views, Papas

(n.d.: 255-292) considers the ex kathedra approach to teaching as obsolete and

suggests that a teacher should also act as a guide, a collaborator and a counsel-

lor, principles that are in accordance with that of mediation, which is adopted

in the proposed scheme.

Similar approaches are fostered by Papakonstantinou (1996: 130-131), who as-

serts that educators should discard the authoritarian persona, collaborate and

interact with learners so as to enable them to develop into autonomous individ-

uals. Fragos (2001: 53) also supports the view advocating the development of

an anti-authoritarian institutional culture. For the attainment of the ultimate

goal of autonomy, which, as Papakonstantinou (1996: 127) maintains, is inher-

ent in the individual’s self-actualisation process, an interaction between learn-

ers and the socio-political context should be established. Through the analysis

of Greek theorists’ views then is confirmed the need for refocusing on educa-

45

tional values. In this way, by reconstructing the educational system so as to

nurture critically thinking and autonomous learners and, thus, citizens the re-

quirements generated within a rapidly changing social, economical and polit-

ical system can be catered for, as Grollios/ Γρόλλιος (1999) convincingly ar-

gues.

Having reviewed the relevant Greek literature and having provided evidence

that autonomy claims its own merit in our context as well through the voices of

ardent advocates, it is essential now that we investigate the official educational

policy. To this end, the specifications of the Revised Unified Curriculum, as

they are manifested in the Government Gazette (ΦΕΚ 303 & 304/ 2003), are to

be discussed in the following section.

1.3. Principles Underlying the Revised Unified Curriculum

1.3.1. General Considerations

In the statement of broad educational goals in the official document (ΦΕΚ

303/2003: 3733-3736), policy makers specify that the necessary conditions

should be created within institutional education so that learners be enabled to

meet the requirements of life-long learning, generated in the constantly evolv-

ing society ‘of information’ and ‘of knowledge’. To this effect, learners should

enhance their self-awareness and develop an awareness of citizenship at both

national and European levels.

More particularly, for the fulfillment of the previously stated aims in the Greek

Gymnasium, learners should be offered the opportunity to develop their cogni-

46

tive, social and communication skills, as well as to immerse into collaborative

work so as to gradually assume responsibility of their own actions. As the fea-

sibility of the curricular aims presupposes learner exposure to and exploitation

of various information resources, in the document is stressed the significance

of enabling learners to improve their ability of accessing and using new tech-

nologies. Moreover, the cross-curricular approach to teaching is introduced. As

the policy makers maintain (ΦΕΚ 303/2003: 3737-3743), through this ap-

proach learners are allowed to formulate their own construct of reality, and ul-

timately become independent thinkers. To this end, activities with a cross-cur-

ricular content in the form of project-based tasks should be employed.

1.3.2. Implications for Self-access

Clearly, the principles underlying the Revised Unified Curriculum are congru-

ent with those of constructivist and critical theories and, therefore, with the

theoretical framework of the proposed scheme. Thus, the reader can plausibly

draw the conclusion that self-access learning is favoured within the learning

environment that the document aims to establish. The review of the section of

the Curriculum (ΦΕΚ 304/2003) specifying the principles that underlie the

teaching of English as a Foreign Language in state schools confirms this con-

clusion. More particularly, for effective learning the document proposes the

exploitation of a plethora of information of published as well as of online re-

sources and of software along with the use of computers. According to the Cur-

riculum, the machines should be accommodated in laboratories specially de-

signed for the above mentioned purposes. In this way, learners gain unlimited

exposure to the foreign language on an on-going, daily basis (ΦΕΚ 304/2003:

47

380-381). Indeed, the fact that the majority of schools are equipped with com-

puter laboratories with Internet access sustains the feasibility and applicability

of the whole plan.

1.3.3. Points to Consider

Nevertheless, although the Curriculum adopts the principles of learner-cen-

tered pedagogy overall and accredits recent technological developments, the

writer believes that certain issues existing in or absent from it reflect what Lit-

tlejohn (1997: 181) terms as ‘implicit ideology’, thus contradicting its basic

tenets. On the one hand, the suggested acquisition of assimilation and accom-

modation of newly acquired knowledge (ΦΕΚ 303/2003: 3742) generates our

scepticism, as Papas (n.d. 96-97) also points out. This scepticism draws upon

the extent to which learners should abide by existing schemata, an issue not

elaborated on in the document. On the other hand, the declared intention in the

document (ΦΕΚ 303/2003: 3733) of minimizing the social inequalities gener-

ated in the constantly evolving society, a discrepancy thoroughly discussed in

Grollios/ Γρόλλιος (1999: 76-78), is understated in the Curriculum. In other

words, the issue of individualized learning, a need that learner multi-level abil-

ity ensues, is totally neglected. It is this latter gap, which, according to the

writer’s belief, contributes to the accumulation of inequalities in the educa-

tional system, that self-access is called upon to fill in. This is effectuated by of-

fering its users the opportunity for more effective, tailored-to-their-needs

learning.

48

Having analysed the principles underlying the proposed scheme in relation to

the Greek educational context in a broader and a narrower sense, the writer is

to discuss the plan in terms of materials and levels of proficiency in the light of

the previous analysis. This is done in view of Kitao’s (1995) approach to indi-

vidualised learning and of the declared need in the relevant literature (Nunan

1997, Sheerin 1991: 150, Sturtridge 1997: 72) for self-access materials that re-

flect the principles on which their design is based.

2. Organising Self-access Learning in the Particular Context

2.1. Current Trends in Materials Design

Despite the fact that individualized instruction is understated in the official

documentation, the need to meet the learners’ individual needs is implicitly ac-

knowledged in the specifications concerning the development of new learning

materials. The guidelines for the production of coursebooks, of supplementary

printed materials and of software packages addressing state school students are

part of a major project undertaken by the Ministry of Education and imple-

mented by the Pedagogical Institute.

According to the guidelines of the Pedagogical Institute (Παιδαγωγικό

Ινστιτούτο 2003: 1-20), coursebook writers are required to design tasks of

graded difficulty that aim to cater for the needs of more and of less advanced

learners. Therefore, the issue of differentiation in pedagogy is raised. The prin-

ciple of differentiation, evident in the specifications of the Common European

Framework of Reference (CEF) (2001: 21-42), necessitates that the infrastruc-

ture of the educational institution caters for the division into different levels of

49

proficiency. Although this policy has long been common practice in the Greek

Gymnasium, its association with the CEF, offered by the Pedagogical Institute,

provides the plateau for the accommodation of the theoretical background that

this division has always lacked. In addition, further guidelines instruct materi-

als developers to design tasks that draw upon a multiplicity of topics, as these

are recommended in the Unified Curriculum (ΦΕΚ 304/2003: 366-382).

Through these topics it is aimed that learners are motivated to engage in tasks

whose content is relevant to their needs and interests and which aim to enable

students to build upon and to extend their competences.

2.2. State Policy and Self-access

Despite the scepticism that the considerations in III.1.3.3 generate as to the un-

derlying curriculum ideology, the writer cannot ignore the potential created

through official documentation for the proposed scheme. Thus, the fact that a

wide range of software materials is being prepared signifies the policy makers’

intention for integration of CALL into institutionalized teaching and learning.

Furthermore, the fact that the previously discussed documents (ΦΕΚ 303 &

304/ 2003, Παιδαγωγικό Ινστιτούτο 2003) are in accordance with and make

reference to the specifications of the CEF (2001) as to the content of learning

materials (CEF 2001: 101-130) and to the differentiation in learning (CEF

2001: 21-42) create a favourable condition for the proposed framework. As it

was argued in I.1.1, the Common European Framework of Reference is based

upon the specifications of the Council of Europe, which aims, among others, to

promote the ideal of learner autonomy. Moreover, due to its nature, the CEF is

to serve as a reference tool in the following section for the delineation of the

50

content of self-instructional materials as well as for the division into levels of

proficiency in self-access.

2.3. The Content of Computer-based Self-access Learning

Content specification in the proposed scheme is based upon the consideration

of the social-, language- and self-awareness that Gymnasium students/users

need to develop in order to gradually transform into more autonomous learners.

To this effect, the writer proposes that self-access materials draw thematically

upon a wide range of notions and concepts. The fact that the topics offered in

the Revised Curriculum (ΦΕΚ 304/2003: 366-382) meet our criterion of con-

tent coverage validates the writer’s decision to use them as a resource for input

selection. This brings forward in our minds the construct that two birds and

one stone create as the benefit to the organization of self-instructional learning

is twofold. On the one hand, the aim of self-access running parallel with con-

ventional learning is met. On the other hand, in the proposed SAC learners

gain access to materials aiming to exploit and to extend, according to the terms

found in the CEF (2001: 101), their ‘general’ and ‘linguistic competences’,

which will be discussed in the following section.

More particularly, the aim of developing the learners’ socio-political aware-

ness can be fulfilled through self-access materials with topics that elaborate on

issues such as school life, education, the environmental problem, citizenship,

technology, human relations etc. In this way, the learners’ knowledge of the

world, their socio-cultural knowledge and their intercultural awareness can be

both exploited and expanded.

51

The next type of learner awareness, namely that of self-awareness, is associ-

ated with what is termed in the CEF (2001: 105) as ‘existential competence’.

For the development of this competence in self-access, it is critical that learn-

ers be immersed into tasks that elaborate on issues such as people’s attitudes,

values, beliefs, motivation, cognitive styles, personality factors etc. This can be

done in the form of independent learner training materials or in an integrated-

into-learning-task form.

As to the development of the last, but by no means least, type of language

awareness, it is necessary that self-access materials cater for the whole range

of the learners’ communicative competences. In other words, the tasks should

aim to develop the learners’ linguistic competences, such as the lexical, the

grammatical and the semantic one. Moreover, as language is a social act, mate-

rials should aim to improve the learners’ sociolinguistic competence. Still,

comprehending input also involves an understanding of the organization of dis-

course as well as of the way language is used in order to perform communica-

tive functions. Therefore, it is essential that the design of materials in the pro-

posed framework consider the development of the learners’ pragmatic compe-

tences as well.

2.4. Levels of Proficiency

In order to create a basis for the elaboration of syllabuses, curriculum specifi-

cations, examinations etc across Europe, the Common European Framework

(CEF 2001: 1) defines six levels of proficiency, thus allowing for ‘learners’

progress to be measured at each stage of learning and on a life-long basis’.

52

For practical reasons, the CEF also proposes a broader division into three lev-

els, namely A, B and C. These reflect the competences of Basic, Independent

and Proficient Users respectively, and are further subdivided into ‘criterion’

(e.g. A1, B2 etc) and ‘plus’ levels (e.g. A2+, B2+ etc) (CEF 2001: 32).

In order to serve the purpose of the dissertation, the writer adapts the Pedagog-

ical Institute’s (Παιδαγωγικό Ινστιτούτο 2003) version of the scheme proposed

in the CEF, which is illustrated in table 1.

Levels of Proficiency as proposed by the Pedagogical Institute

Self-access Levels

Grade Criterion levels Plus (+)/ minus (-) criterion levels

A A1A2

Α1-Α1+

B B1B2

Α2-Α2+

Γ Γ1Γ2

Β1-Β1+

As it is shown in the table, the model proposed by the Pedagogical Institute of-

fers a subdivision into criterion levels corresponding to Gymnasium grades.

Thus, criterion level A1 indicates weak performance while A2 indicates strong

performance of students in Grade A etc. In our model a distinction is made be-

tween plus and minus levels, indicating a strong and a weak learner perfor-

mance respectively. Plus and minus levels apply to A1, A2 and B1 levels of

proficiency, as proposed by the CEF (2001: 23). The fact that a correspondence

between levels and grades is lacking reinforces the flexibility of our scheme.

53

Table 1: Levels of Proficiency applying to the Greek Gymnasium as adapted from the CEF

An attempt to discuss levels and subdivisions in detail would prove detrimental

to the dissertation, as this would entail a shift in its focus. Nevertheless, the

writer adapts the relevant section of the CEF in appendix I (p. 95) in order to

enable the reader to formulate a correlation between the levels proposed and

their correspondence to the Greek context.

The writer’s attempt to provide the reader with a more concrete image of the

proposed framework results in an organizational model for self-access, as it is

shown in figure 3.

Topi

cs /

Mat

eria

ls

Socio-political awareness

General competence Knowledge of the

world Socio-cultural

knowledge Intercultural

awareness

Levels

A1-, A1+

A2-, A2+

B1-, B1+

Self-awareness

Existentialcompetence

Language awareness

Communicativelanguage competence

Linguistic Socioliguistic Pragmatic

In the figure are included parameters that relate to learning tools, as represented by

the ‘topics and materials’ column in the table, as well as to the infrastructure of the

educational institution, which the ‘level’ column represents. Between them, the

more ‘abstract’ aspects of the plan, namely the types of awareness aimed at in it,

are in interactive relation with learner competences, as illustrated by the two-

54

Fig. 3. An organizational model for self-access learning

edged arrows. In addition, dotted lines show that there is interrelation within the

types of awareness and within those of competence, as the development of one or

more than one type does not exclude the development of the others.

55

CHAPTER IV – COMPUTER-BASED SELF-ACCESS MATERIALS

1. Self-access Centre (SAC) Organisational Format

1.1. Contextual Implications for Self-access Materials Development

The innovative nature of self-access for the Greek educational standards ex-

plains the absence of relevant learning resources from our context. Lack of

prior experience in the area and of research on the Greek learners’ perceptions

renders the task of developing self-instructional materials a rather intriguing is-

sue. The reference to McCafferty’s observation that “before you have any

learners you have no real evidence as to what a particular individual or group

will find useful” or its reflection in the Self-access Language Learning litera-

ture (SALL) (Aston 1993, Dickinson 1987, Gates 2000, O’Dell 1992, Stur-

tridge 1997) reinforces the writer’s scepticism. To this adds the knowledge that

such an implied precautious attitude as to the content, the quality and the quan-

tity of self-access materials has been formulated within educational environ-

ments that have long favoured the practice of self-access learning (e.g. Ancona

University, Eurocentre in Cambridge).

As for computer-based materials, Hanson-Smith (1997), Healey (2002), Stur-

tridge (1997) and Warschauer (1996) admit that multimedia available in the

market cannot always allow for the development of the learners’ communica-

tive competences. Technological limitations then discourage an exclusive use

of prescribed methods. Moreover, the view reflected in the relevant literature

(Gates 2000, Jones 1995, Nunan 1997, Sheerin 1989, Sturtridge 1997) that

planning self-access resources is an institutional matter that needs to be dealt

56

with locally may orient the reader towards a better appreciation of the implica-

tions observed in our context.

Yet, the reader also realizes the significance of refocusing on the values that

ensue institutionalized learning (chapter I), of restoring the ideological dimen-

sion in education (chapter II) and of incorporating individualized learning in

the Greek state educational policy (chapter I, III). The review of the contextual

background displays the necessary readiness of the system to endorse such a

shift in the teaching/learning paradigm (chapter III). Actually, it is the aware-

ness of the pragmatic need for a pertinent solution to the educational problem

that urges the writer to reflect further upon the issue and to attempt to outline a

framework for the organization of self-access resources. In addition, she aims

to provide practical suggestions as to the design of self-instructional materials.

The aspect of the proposed framework concerned with the implementation of

the flexible learning centre results from the knowledge the writer has gained

through relevant readings blending with an understanding of our context that

derives from the eight-year-long commitment to teaching EFL in Greek State

Gymnasia.

1.2. Factors Determining the Organisational Plan

The discussion on the development of self-instructional resources focuses on

the key elements that are attributed to the organization of a learning pro-

gramme and that pertain to the principles underlying the proposal. According

to Nunan (1988: 4, 44-46, 53), an educational policy that proclaims passing

control over learning to students should make decisions on ‘content gradation’

57

and ‘methodology’ informed by learner ‘data collection’. In terms of applica-

tion, information of personal relevance to its students (i.e. concerned with indi-

vidual preferences, learning styles etc) needs to be gathered in the institution

for course planning purposes. Therefore, the sequencing of the content of

learning and the selection and design of appropriate tasks and activities is ad-

justed to the particular learners’ needs. Despite its learner-centred orientation,

this approach bears implications on self-access resources planning. Therefore,

it remains to us to explore whether its practices restrict the Gymnasium stu-

dents’ self-directedness and, thus, contradict the essence of an autonomy-ori-

ented flexible learning centre. To this end, the writer attempts to sketch the

end-users’ profile in view of their age and educational background.

1.3. Greek SAC Users in Context

1.3.1. The Application of Innovative Flexible Plans in the Gymnasium

Students in Greece normally continue their primary school studies in lower

secondary education at the age of 12, attend the second grade when they are 13

and conclude the compulsory cycle of institutional learning at the age of 14.

According to the Piagetian theory (Δανασσής-Αφεντάκης 1985: 109), in the

period starting approximately at the 12th year adolescents are at the ‘formal op-

erations stage’, during which the ideas formulated supersede the concrete level.

Therefore, our students’ competences are extended along with the development

of critical thinking as well. In addition, Vygotsky’s (Wood 1988: 25) theory in-

forms us that the development of reasoning and learning is influenced by the

enhancement of the learners’ linguistic, social and cultural awareness.

58

The appreciation of pedagogical principles concerned with the individual’s so-

cio-cognitive processes is reflected in the curricular specifications (ΦΕΚ 2003:

3739-3740) as to the introduction and application of the ‘Flexible zone’ plan in

primary and secondary education. According to the Pedagogical Institute

(ΥΠΕΠΘ 2002), ‘Flexible zone’ is an innovative scheme, which adopts a

cross-curricular and, thus, holistic approach to learning; it is embedded in the

school’s daily routine and aims to promote the Greek students’ active particip-

ation in course planning as well. To this end, learners are called upon to select

from a bank of proposed topics, are grouped accordingly and, with the

teacher’s help, set objectives, collaborate with their peers and perform theme-

related, project-based, goal-oriented activities.

1.3.2. Effectiveness of In-curricular Projects

As the majority of primary institutions have incorporated the ‘Flexible zone’

scheme into their timetables nowadays, it is assumed that a large number of

students continue their studies in the second cycle of compulsory education

having already developed a self-directive attitude to an extent. Moreover, as

the number of schools that schedule cross-curricular activities, according to the

Pedagogical Institute (Παιδαγωγικό Ινστιτούτο 2002), rapidly increases (4 Pri-

mary in the Prefecture of East Attica in 2000-2001, 176 Primary, 11 Nursery

and 54 Gymnasia all over the country in 2001-2002), it is anticipated that the

students’ self-directedness not only augments but deepens as well. To this ad-

vocates the promotion through official documents of other projects with a

learner-centred orientation as well, such as environmental and European (e.g.

59

the Comenius Plan) ones, which aim to improve the primary and secondary

students’ socio-cultural and intercultural awareness.

Indeed, professionals sharing experiences and displaying students’ work pro-

duced within the cross-curricular framework in meetings, in specialized con-

ventions and in publications (Αλεξάκη 2004, Βυθούλκας κ.ά. 2004, Κουκούλη

2004, Λυμπέρης κ.ά. 2004, Μαρτίνου 2004, Τσεμπερλίδου 2004) eloquently

substantiate both teachers’ and students’ enthusiasm and the boost in the lat-

ter’s motivation and creativity. Unfortunately, objective reality shows that our

expectations of institutional autonomy-geared learning are only based on expe-

riential evidence and logico-deductive correlations. Admittedly, research con-

ducted so far does not provide qualitative or quantitative data as to the impact

of flexible plans on the quality of school learning (Γαλανοπούλου 2001 α/β,

Μπαγάκης 2000, Παιδαγωγικό Ινστιτούτο 2002, Σολομών 2000). In fact, what

is actually provided is the hidden rationale for the otherwise widely disputed in

educators’ circles ‘unification’ of primary and secondary education in official

documents (ΦΕΚ 303/ 304, 2003).

Under the circumstances the writer concludes that the Greek Gymnasium stu-

dents’ schema of institutional learning is mainly constructed within a tradi-

tional educational paradigm. Hence, the students’ observed excitement that the

new schooling experience brings about in the first grade, the deterioration in

learner motivation and in commitment to school subjects in the second grade

and the explicitly disputed effectiveness of school learning in the third grade

are justified. Drawing upon the Piagetian theory, Fragos (Φράγκος 2001: 219-

60

221) attributes the adolescents’ ‘revolting’ attitude to the ‘formal operations

stage’ they are in. As they are at the stage of developing the ability to reflect

on essential issues, adolescent Gymnasium students are not willing to compro-

mise their ideals. On the contrary, they are driven by the impulse to become

actively involved in the school community in order to reformulate the world

around them. Yet, the observed modification of learner attitude when method-

ologies providing opportunities for relevant and meaningful learning experi-

ences are applied cannot be ignored.

1.4. Principles Underlying the Organisation of Self-access Resources

1.4.1. Considerations on the development of self-access materials

The introduction of the ‘Flexible zone’ plan in compulsory education reflects

the state’s intention to reform the system. Nevertheless, the disparity between

theory and practice provokes reactions among educators who point out the su-

perficial planning of the implementation. Therefore, the whole situation estab-

lishes the need for organized and systematized transfer of control over learning

to Gymnasium students. Under the circumstances and in view of the organiza-

tion of self-access materials, the writer concludes first that Nunan’s (1997:

194) argumentation that learners have not yet formulated a clear idea of what is

best for their learning at their initial steps in self-access applies to the particu-

lar context, and second that, as Sturtridge (1997: 77) maintains, the organiza-

tion of the SAC should enable users to expand their knowledge of self-instruc-

tional materials. Through the exploitation of initial motivation and the devel-

opment of awareness, the learners’ confidence in using the materials is rein-

forced as well as their belief in the effectiveness of self-access itself as a com-

61

plementary mode of learning. Thus, SAC users gradually become aware of

their own goals and are encouraged to set objectives, to evaluate own perfor-

mance as well as to monitor their progress.

1.4.2. Criteria for the Organization of Resources

The attainment of learner empowerment is viewed as an on-going process of

defining, achieving and redefining goals in the dissertation and is influenced

by Nunan’s (1997: 193) and Sheerin’s (1997: 57) argumentation on the com-

plexity of the issue. As such, it is affected by a number of factors. Self-instruc-

tional materials abiding by the principle of autonomy and aiming to enable

SAC users to extend general and communicative language competences is one

of the factors. With them, the puzzle of the autonomy complex is gradually re-

assembled, as the presence of its necessary components, namely of ‘motiva-

tion’, of ‘confidence’, of ‘knowledge’ and of ‘skills’, as defined by Littlewood

(1997: 82-83), is ensured. For effective learning, Sheerin (1989: 34, 1997: 59)

and Sturtridge (1997: 71-72) propose that self-access materials should perform

two main operations: to train the users as to how the system functions and to

enable them to gradually develop autonomy in learning. In a similar train of

thought, Dickinson (1987: 121-122) argues for materials that cater for the

users’ ‘practical’, or ‘methodological’, and ‘psychological’ preparation. The

former aims to enable learners to develop the abilities and skills that allow

them to pursue self-instruction. The latter, based on Holec’s (1980, quoted in

Dickinson 1987: 122) idea of ‘deconditioning process’, aims to free learners

from established beliefs and prejudices that hinder the establishment of a self-

directive attitude.

62

Despite the fact that Dickinson’s distinctions may not prove clear-cut in prac-

tice, as the aims of methodological and psychological preparation can be over-

lapping, they provide evidence of a deep understanding of another factor af-

fecting the autonomy puzzle: the learners themselves. More particularly, psy-

chological preparation brings forward the issue of disposition, which is deter-

mined by such variables as the learners’ established beliefs, cognitive styles

and individual needs (Sheerin 1997: 57-59). Having conducted relevant inves-

tigations, Wenden (1987) and Horwitz (1987) conclude that foreign language

learners’ prefabricated ideas about the nature of the process influence the

choice of strategies. Wenden (1987: 111) distinguishes three main categories

of beliefs that prescribe the learners’ approach to the task: beliefs that relate to

the use of the language and are observed in learners who are fluency-oriented;

ones that concern learning about language and are witnessed in accuracy-ori-

ented learners; and those that attribute an affective element to learning as they

relate to idiosyncrasy traits, such as motivation and confidence. In addition to

Wenden’s research, Porte’s (1988) investigation demonstrates that adolescent

EFL underachieving learners employ similar, although not as refined, strate-

gies to those used by ‘good language learners’ when dealing with new vocabu-

lary.

1.4.3. SAC Materials Categorisation

In the light of results deriving from their investigations, Wenden (1987: 113)

and Horwitz (1987: 119) argue that an awareness of learner disposition should

inform course planning. Concerning our framework, which favours individual-

ised learning, syllabus planning takes place in the form of negotiation. More

63

particularly, in the Gymnasium SAC the Counsellor mediates between the user

and the materials and provides consultation, aiming for the achievement of

learning that balances accuracy and fluency (Skehan 1996: 22, Willis 1996: 56-

57). To this end, data concerned with the SAC users’ attitudes and learning

styles inform counselling sessions and facilitate the process of setting learning

objectives and the selection of appropriate tasks. Therefore, accuracy-oriented

learners engage themselves in fluency activities and vice versa. Moreover, in a

similar way, materials exploring attitudes enable the learners to reflect upon

their ‘theories-in-action’, as Wenden (1987: 112) defines implicit ideas, to

modify them, if necessary, and, ultimately, to regulate their learning. Within

this framework, as the deconditioning process progresses, the adolescent Gym-

nasium students feel free from the need to defy the system and eventually de-

velop a positive attitude towards institutionalized learning. Thus, self-access

both benefits and complements conventional learning, as classroom teachers,

with the learners’ consent, can gain easy access to information about the lat-

ter’s desires, expectations etc, or, as defined in Nunan (1988: 44), ‘subjective

needs’, without having to ‘sacrifice’ valuable classroom learning time.

The significance of exploration of individual preferences for diagnostic pur-

poses and for the development of learner self-awareness is also pointed out in

the relevant literature. Abraham and Vann (1987), Ellis and Sinclair (1989),

Oxford (1990) and West (1999) argue that learners should become knowledge-

able about the existence of different learning styles and of their own. Further-

more, as the process of needs identification requires, the learners should also

be encouraged to assess themselves. Dickinson (1987: 145) considers self-as-

64

sessment as a source of information for teachers and as a means of self-moni-

toring for learners. To this end, Dickinson (1987: 149) and Chamot (1987: 81)

suggest that learners keep track of their progress in diaries, which they can

bring to counselling sessions for troubleshooting purposes. Tudor (1996: 162-

167) also highly appreciates the contribution of self-assessment to the develop-

ment of the learner’s reflective attitude towards language study. To substanti-

ate the capacity for self-assessment, Tudor (1996: 164) discusses the results of

studies providing evidence that learners ‘are able to make valid and reliable

statements about their L2 abilities’.

Therefore, taking into consideration the principles set in the previous sections,

the writer proposes that the SAC resources fall into three main categories: ‘ori-

entation resources’, aiming to provide the users with information as to the ra-

tionale underlying the existence of the centre, to the way it functions and to the

facilities offered in it; ‘personal information resources’, aiming to enable

each individual learner to compile her/his own profile; and ‘learning re-

sources’, aiming to enable users to develop their competences within the self-

instructional framework.

2. Computer-based Self-access Resources

2.1. Orientation Resources

2.1.1. Introducing Learners to Computer-based Materials

Aston (1993: 220) argues that potential self-access users need not only become

aware of the facilities offered in the centre but also be shown the potential cre-

ated for language learning through them. Moreover, Dickinson (1987: 115)

65

suggests that whole classes of learners be taken to the centre and, therefore, the

induction process to self-access is carried out on a scheduled basis within an

environment favouring collaboration. In alignment with Dickinson, Sheerin

(1997: 55) supports learners’ cooperative work in small group settings. Taking

into consideration the size of classes in Greek state schools, which can range

from 20 to 30 students at maximum, the writer acknowledges the feasibility of

such a collective inductive attempt. Thus, working with computers and explor-

ing self-access resources in groups of two or three, Gymnasium students are

initiated to self-instruction without necessarily associating the new schema

with isolation. Moreover, the presence of the class teacher, who facilitates the

Counsellor’s task to support and guide new users, reinforces the schema of col-

laborative work. In addition, it authenticates the self-access construct in the

learners’ conscience, as they are encouraged to associate their teacher’s pres-

ence with the overall institutional policy.

2.1.2. Self-access Network System

In their guided tour in self-access materials, new users are introduced to the in-

stitution’s computer system, or Local Access Network (LAN), as Teeler and

Gray (2000: 104) define the network available to a particular, in our case a

Gymnasium, community. Naturally, within local Gymnasium networks the

main aims of the scheme should be served with computer-based materials that

display appropriate and user-friendly information, graphic and instruction de-

sign. In this way, learners are presented with sets of diverse elements (e.g.

texts, pictures, sound, motion, worksheets etc) structured in an aesthetic, func-

tional and organized way so that the process of constructing and developing

66

knowledge is facilitated. To this end, self-access school networks should be

equipped with software, such as a Web browser, allowing the presentation of

information in a HyperText Markup Language (HTML) format. According to

Windeatt et al (2000: 101), HTML coding enables users to view text and image

on their screens and to link with other parts of the site by pointing and clicking

on underlined words, phrases or pictures.

The establishment of a school LAN, or intranet (the term is found in Windeatt

et al 2000: 101), offers an applicable and practical solution for self-access as it

caters for the needs of users as well as those that the management of the centre

generates. This is due to the fact that the proposed system is easy for Gymna-

sium students to handle. Navigating the Internet, whose design is based on the

HTML code technology, constitutes already acquired knowledge for the major-

ity of learners nowadays as it forms part of Computer Science classes or of

leisure-time explorations using a private computer. Thus, prior experience en-

sures prompt processing of the technical aspects of the scheme and at the same

time alleviates the learners’ task to comprehend the content of the site by

avoiding overloading the learners. Moreover, the browsable intranet system fa-

cilitates the process of enriching and of keeping the self-access database in-

formed by uploading new collections of data whenever this need arises.

2.1.3. Intranet Site Orientation

2.1.3.1. SAC Overall Content

By clicking on the relevant icon on the computer desktop, users find them-

selves in front of the main menu of the site (Appendix II: 96). Its layout and

67

organization condense the scope of the whole system, as with titles, captions,

pictures and links they encapsulate information about:

the identity of the centre (i.e. self-access)

who it is aimed for (i.e. Gymnasium students)

what the broad goals are and how they are to be achieved (i.e. language

learning through the use of computers)

the content of the SAC.

In a group-work arrangement, such that the previously mentioned attempt for

induction requires, small groups of learners cooperate and surf the various

links in order to develop their knowledge of the resources of the centre. Fol-

lowing this, as suggested by Sheerin (1989), Teeler and Gray (2000), and

Windeatt et al (2000), learners can complete relevant worksheets with tasks

that aim to systematise knowledge gained through network navigation. Cer-

tainly, a similar path can be followed when induction is carried out on an indi-

vidual basis by encouraging learners to make or fill in lists using relevant jar-

gon, to answer multiple-choice or open-ended questions etc.

2.1.3.2. Suggestions for Orientation

Bearing the particular context in mind, the writer considers it would be more

effective for Greek adolescent learners if the design of an orientation session

worksheet aimed at the extraction of information progressing from a global to a

more focused understanding of the SAC content. In essence, one of the main

aims of the session is to arouse the students’ interest and, therefore, activities

such as the ones mentioned above, being possibly associated with homework

assigned during classroom learning, could provoke an unnecessary deteriora-

68

tion in learner motivation. Thus, after a short-period (of approximately five

minutes), free navigation, users focus on the exploration of the ‘Welcome to

the Self-access Centre (SAC)’ link and its sublinks in order to process input

and perform tasks concerned with:

the principal aims of the SAC, i.e. the expansion of existential, general and

communicative language competences (see appendix II: 97)

the linguistic areas that the SAC materials aim to cover (see appendix II:

98)

the suggested self-instructional procedure (see appendix II: 99)

the operational functioning of the SAC, i.e. opening hours, map and the de-

scription of the centre as a physical entity (see appendix II: 100), and

the Counsellor’s personal data, availability and her/ his role in self-instruc-

tional learning (see appendix III: 101).

Due to the complexity of the system and its innovative nature, the orientation

session can by no means be considered as a once-and-for-all attempt to train

potential users as to the content of self-access and to how materials can be best

exploited. Indeed, the assumption that learners would immediately assimilate

the information concerned with computer-based resources and would fully in-

ternalize the concepts of self-direction and of self-instruction would be prema-

ture. On the contrary, the introductory session is viewed as the first step taken

in the process of formulating the self-instructional schema. This newly ac-

quired knowledge needs to be enriched with additional data and, thus, recon-

structed as well as reinforced through regular exposure to self-access facilities.

69

2.2. Personal Information Resources

2.2.1. Introducing SAC Users to Self-awareness Materials

The second category of materials aims for a smooth transition from lockstep to

self-directed learning through the expansion of new users’ knowledge of their

selfhood and of the process of learning. To this end, the ‘My profile’ page (see

appendix IV: 102) underpins the importance of questionnaire completion and

of learning diary organisation as well as offers detailed guidance as to a se-

quenced computer-based immersion to self-awareness. The suggested proce-

dure provides a structured approach to the development of self-awareness and,

thus, facilitates the achievement of particular objectives. Therefore, following

network suggestions and/or prompted by consultation, Gymnasium students

open relevant files, create their personal intranet space and do activities that

aim to enable users to:

reflect upon prefabricated ideas about learning,

reconsider beliefs,

gain a better insight of themselves as learners,

set priorities and

customize learning according to their own needs.

2.2.2. Tools for Self-awareness

The SAC personal data resources are in Word format and, therefore, users need

to exit the intranet and click on the relevant icon on the computer desktop in

order to access the content of ‘My Profile’, which can be subdivided into two

groups of materials. The first group aims to explore and cross-examine differ-

70

ent aspects of learner attitudes and appears on the screen in the form of two

questionnaires:

‘About learning’ (see appendix IV: 103): The first part of this questionnaire

aims to detect the users’ preferences concerned with pair/ group collabora-

tion (items 1 and 2) as well as their disposition to taking risks in learning

(item 9). It also aims to explore whether users feel their learning process is

restricted by the classroom syllabus or not (items 3-6), or, as Dickinson

(1987: 22-23) defines, whether they are ‘syllabus-free’ or ‘syllabus-bound’

learners. The second part mainly aims to enable users to reflect on already

formulated ideas about learning through a comparison of their responses

with other people’s views as expressed in the relevant intranet page (some

indicative alternative views underpinning the approach to learning adopted

in the SAC are presented in appendix IV: 104). For the establishment of re-

liability of learner responses, items from both parts of the same question-

naire (e.g. 5 and g) have similar content, which reinforces the validity of

the tools as well.

‘Learner Profile’ (see appendix IV: 105): This questionnaire (adapted from

Ellis and Sinclair 1989: 6-9) aims to raise the SAC users’ awareness of dif-

ferent learning styles and to enable them to identify their own in order to

enable them to plan their self-study in such a way that ensures balanced

learning. Thus, following the suggestions in the interpretation of results

(appendix IV: 106-107), accuracy-oriented learners can opt for fluency-

based activities and vice versa, and less proficient students are encouraged

to take their first steps in self-access focusing on how to develop a better

insight of themselves as learners.

71

2.2.3. SAC Users’ Self-assessment

The second group of learner training materials (adapted from Sheerin 1989:

47-48, see appendix IV: 108) aims to enable users to assess their progress, to

define learning priorities and eventually to construct their individual learning

syllabus. To this end, the writer promotes a global form of assessment of skills

and of language areas, considering the lack of users’ prior experience and Tu-

dor’s (1996: 167) expressed reservations as to the reliability of learner re-

sponses. In order to provide a coherent model, the needs analysis form is con-

sistent with the design of the SAC learning resources. In addition, it coheres

with the self-study plan sheet (appendix IV: 109), which, according to Dickin-

son’s (1987: 98-99) argumentation, aims to structure self-instructional learning

in the form of a contract. Moreover, the contract aims to develop the SAC

users’ sense of commitment to self-access as well as their self-directedness

through an on-going, periodical consideration of learning outcomes and redefi-

nition of learning objectives.

3. SAC Learning Resources

3.1. Accessing Learning Materials

3.1.1. Open Retrieval System

Having constructed an individual learning syllabus, SAC users are on the verge

of initiating the actual self-instructional process. To this end, they point and

click on the ‘SAC Learning Resources’ link on the main menu of the Gymna-

sium intranet. A similar menu-driven system, as Miller et al (1993: 229) main-

tain, serves the needs of students who attend General English classes at the

CRAPEL University by offering users, who have predefined their objectives,

72

the opportunity to select among carefully classified materials. However, as

Sheerin (1991: 148) argues, the particular system, being a closed one, eventu-

ally limits the students’ self-directedness. To avoid such a negative effect, our

self-access system enables its users to browse the contents of the LAN, which

is a practice in alignment with Sheerin’s (1997: 62) view challenging the as-

sumed effectiveness of the correspondence between level and materials. There-

fore, in order to cater for a variety of needs, the SAC retrieval system allows

syllabus-free users to opt for theme-related project work from the list of ‘top-

ics’ and syllabus-bound learners to choose practice in a skill or linguistic area

from the list of tasks (appendix V: 110).

3.1.2. Classification coding

As it became evident through the discussion on personal data resources, the

proposed scheme mainly operates on the HTML code technology, which pro-

duces the accordingly formatted LAN browsable pages, and on Word formatted

documents. For practical reasons, both types use a common classification code

with different font colour, which aims to enable users to distinguish between

them. Therefore, users who choose the underlined ‘Env_R_RC1_TF1’ in blue

font identify it as an intranet link, while those who select the same index in

black font exit the LAN and open the respective Word document. To facilitate

the learner’s task to process the indexing system and for usability purposes,

computer-based materials have a similar coding, according to topic, skill, ac-

tivity type, language area and level. Thus, in order to be able to match learning

objectives with the metalanguage of the system and to develop their awareness

of the learning process through this ‘technical’ knowledge as well, users need

73

to familiarise themselves with abbreviations (e.g. Env= Environment, Fam=

Family) and initials (e.g. L= listening, LA= language awareness etc), found in

both HTML-coded and Word-formatted materials.

3.1.3. ‘Pathways’ to Self-access Learning

Through open retrieval and classification coding the self-access system aims to

provide users with ‘pathways’ (the term is found in Sheerin 1991: 152) to self-

instruction. Despite the expressed reservations in the work of theorists and re-

searchers (Aston 1993: 220, Sheerin 1991: 152), who attribute a prescriptive

nature to them, the pre-fabricated routes are suitable for the needs of our ado-

lescent learners, as they provide necessary orientation at the initial stages of

self-instructional learning. To this end, the introductory to the SAC learning

materials page (appendix V: 110) enables users to link to a variety of tasks and

activities, which aim to develop skills and abilities at varying levels of learner

proficiency.

3.2. The Rationale Underlying Learning Materials Design

3.2.1. Closed-ended Tasks

3.2.1.1. Materials for Reading Practice

SAC users who choose to practise reading skills access the opening page (ap-

pendix VI: 111) corresponding to a particular task and presenting the complete

set of related steps by providing information about:

text, worksheet and feedback retrieval,

task evaluation and self-assessment,

supplementary materials and

74

project work.

The reading task (appendix VI: 112) addresses the needs of Basic Users who,

exhibiting a strong performance (A1+), are able to handle short texts on famil-

iar topics and to locate simple, predictable information (CEF 2001: 26, 33-34).

More particularly, the task aims to enable learners to understand details of

short authentic texts about environmental issues by engaging them in intensive

reading, in guessing from context and in inferencing meaning in order to do a

true/false activity. The type of activity, being a closed-ended one, requires dir-

ect feedback (appendix VI: 113) and, thus, allots the learner with a ‘respond’

role (the term is used by Littlejohn 1997: 186) to the task. Simplicity of activ-

ity design sustains successful performance, as it counterbalances the load that

higher-order mental operations impose on learners while trying to comprehend

the input. In addition, it facilitates a reflective approach to the task, underlying

the required justification of true/false responses.

In order to cater for difficulties at this level, the opening page ‘steps’ suggest

the following supplementary materials:

a word attack activity that aims to enable learners to comprehend key vo-

cabulary (appendix VI: 114), and

a language awareness activity(appendix VI: 115) aiming to enable learners

to reflect upon how language is structured. It does so, by introducing collo-

cational uses (item ‘b’), a technique exploited in concordancers. Aston

(1997) strongly recommends the particular software for self-access, which,

as he maintains (Aston 1997: 213), enables users to develop critical ability.

75

3.2.1.2. Listening Practice Materials

Similarly, the listening opening page (appendix VI: 116) presents users with

the relevant ‘steps.’ The listening task (appendix VI: 117) aims to enable less

proficient Basic Users (A1-), who are able to recognize familiar words and ba-

sic phrases in simply structured oral discourse (CEF 2001: 26), to transfer in-

formation related to descriptions of family members into a table. Topic famil-

iarity and discourse simplicity ensure that the task is cognitively and linguisti-

cally appropriate for the learners it addresses. Nevertheless, anticipated diffi-

culties at this level indicate the learner’s need for more controlled practice in

lower-order language skills.

To this end, a vocabulary activity with relevant to the listening monologue

content and a pronunciation activity are recommended. For the performance of

the gap-fill activity, the system uses the ‘Hot Potatoes’ software (appendix VI:

118), which maintains an interactive relation between the computer and the

user as well as offers support through answer checks and hints. Successful per-

formance requires a limited number of correct responses and a one-to-one cor-

respondence between gap and response. This facilitates the user’s task to

process the meaning of the gapped text and make intelligent guesses, as s/he

draws upon a narrow repertoire of linguistic resources. For similar reasons, the

pronunciation activity (appendix VI: 119) aims to offer very controlled prac-

tice in the mechanics of the language system by involving the less proficient

learner in listening to an audio CD-ROM and repeating topic-related lexis so as

to practise the production of individual sounds.

76

3.2.2. Criteria for Task Design

The above described and analysed materials aim to enable Gymnasium SAC

users to expand their knowledge of the world and to practise receptive skills in

order to extend their communicative language competences. In order to provide

meaningful and purposeful learning opportunities within a motivating task en-

vironment, materials design echoes the principles of the task-based approach,

which is ardently advocated in the work of theorists and researchers (Slaouti

1997: 371, Willis 1996, Willis and Willis 1996). The principles are encapsu-

lated in the following criteria:

topic familiarity and relevance

exposure to authentic texts and to semi-structured, authentic-like texts

that aim to sustain the learners’ intellectual involvement

engagement in authentic-to-purpose tasks aiming to facilitate the learn-

ing process

task-dependency, which facilitates a coherent and structured approach

to learning.

3.2.3. Task-related Assessment

Within this mainly practice-oriented framework, it is expected that SAC users

develop into more aware and confident learners in order to pursue a less-de-

pendent-on-guidance self-instructional learning. Following task completion,

evaluation and self-assessment records (appendix VII: 120-121) also serve the

autonomy goal by enabling users to reflect upon the learning process in order

to:

77

evaluate the motivational impact of the task in terms of relevance, com-

plexity and interest,

develop meta-awareness,

assess the effectiveness of the task and develop self-monitoring skills,

become active participants in the planning of self-access learning.

The application of a reflective approach to learning allows SAC users to gradu-

ally acquire skills that, as Dickinson (1987: 122) puts it, are teacher-like and,

therefore, constitutes the essence of a learner-centred approach. In addition,

learner engagement in the production of SAC materials is highly recommended

in the relevant literature (Aston 1993, Nunan 1997, Sheerin: 1991, Sheerin

1989, Sturtridge 1997) due to the positive results it brings about. More particu-

larly, Aston’s (1993: 223-224) account of a project allotting a materials devel-

oper’s role to students at Ancona University is more than convincing of the

beneficial effect on learner motivation and on the development of language

abilities.

3.2.4. Open-ended Tasks

3.2.4.1. The Current Situation

The scarcity of information concerning the design of writing and speaking ma-

terials in the SALL literature attributes an experiential character to relevant

task design in our situation. A review in the literature reveals a rather confus-

ing discussion on the issue, as, on the one hand, writing and speaking are con-

sidered grey zones for self-access (Littlejohn 1997: 88), and, as such, are even-

tually neglected in some centres (e.g. in the Circle Model described by Dickin-

son 1987: 61). On the other hand, the need for tasks that enable learners to cre-

78

atively use the language is pointed out (Aston 1993: 220, Littlejohn 1997: 186-

188, Sturtridge 1997: 72-73) mainly on a theoretical, argumentative basis.

Adopting a view that calls for a complete and integrative model for autonomy-

geared self-access learning, our SAC system offers its users writing and speak-

ing materials with a congruent organizational format.

3.2.4.2. Writing and Speaking Materials

The introductory intranet page (appendix VIII: 122) presents the writing task,

cross-references supplementary-to-the-task, theme-related activities and offers

suggestions concerned with the recursive nature of the writing process. Al-

though it constitutes a guided letter-writing activity based on a model text (ap-

pendix VIII: 123), the explicitly defined purpose and intended audience ensure

task authenticity. The self-assessment form (appendix VIII: 124) aims to en-

able learners to reflect upon the writing process through the consideration of

contextual factors, of the content and of the organization of the output. In order

to cater for the needs of more advanced users, the ‘presentation’ task (appendix

VIII: 125-127) promotes creative writing, as it encourages learners to express

own beliefs about the educational system.

Following a similar approach, the relevant pages introduce the guided informa-

tion-gap speaking activity in the form of a role play (appendix VIII: 128) and

the more demanding opinion-gap activity in the form of a pyramid discussion

(appendix VIII: 129). For feedback purposes, the instructions encourage pairs

and groups of learners to tape record their performance.

79

3.2.4.3. Exploratory Self-access Learning

The promotion of writing and speaking materials in our scheme reflects the

widely held view in the SALL literature (Aston 1993, Dickinson 1987, Sheerin

1989, Sheerin 1991, Sturtridge 1997) that the development of autonomy re-

quires a wide repertoire of tasks that encourage less controlled learning oppor-

tunities. As SAC users compromise with less directive feedback, or, as Sheerin

(1997: 61) maintains, accept a ‘degree of uncertainty’, they become more flex-

ible learners, question the traditional teaching paradigm, appreciate peer col-

laboration and develop self-directedness within the self-instructional environ-

ment. Moreover, increased confidence, inherent in self-directedness, enables

learners to assume greater responsibility and, as Sturtridge (1997: 72) rightly

argues, to ‘develop from being practisers to being explorers’. The SAC in-

tranet system promotes the exploratory view by offering its users:

the opportunity to undertake project work (appendix IX: 130), which al-

lows for discovery learning through research, and

information and guidance as to the use of the Internet (appendix X: 131)

for pedagogical purposes.

To promote Gymnasium SAC users’ interaction with other language learners

within an authentic, multicultural, online environment with minimum control,

the ‘Useful links>Sites for students’ intranet page (appendix XI: 132) provides

a list of URLs (i.e. Uniform Resource Locators or Web addresses) that can be

arranged into two main categories:

sites created by educators (e.g. www.eslcafe.com , www.eslgo.com ,

www.sl-lists.net ) offering cyberspace for the exchange among learners

80

from different countries of messages on a variety of topics in an asyn-

chronous mode, and

the Multi User Domain Object Oriented (MOO) virtual environment,

which, according to the findings of Yankelevsky’s (1999) research, is

favoured by most of its users for the sense of community it establishes

and the cultural awareness it enhances in a synchronous mode of com-

munication.

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CHAPTER V – EPILOGUE

1. Overview of the Proposal

The discussed and analysed organizational format of the proposed system pro-

vides a concrete and coherent model for the management of self-access learn-

ing in the Greek Gymnasium. The open retrieval, menu-driven classification

system facilitates easy access to and regular upkeeping of computer-based re-

sources and, thus, caters for usability, practicality and flexibility. As Sturtridge

(1997: 69-74) maintains, the presence of the three qualities creates the poten-

tial for a viable self-access system. Nevertheless, it is the content of the SAC

that determines the feasibility of attainment of the autonomy goal in language

learning, depending on whether it encourages or hinders the establishment of

an interactive relation between the system’s regulating factors: the materials

and the learner/user.

As it is shown in figure 4, a bank of electronically-stored informational, train-

ing and developmental resources aims to enable the learner/user to develop an

awareness of the world, of selfhood and of language through a structured pro-

gression in self-instruction and self-direction within a motivating, purposeful

and meaningful learning environment.

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SAC SystemOrganization

Open Retrieval LAN

Content

Learner/User

AWARENESS

- of the world - of selfhood - of language

ROLES

practiserinitiatorexplorerproducer

TRAININGUser Personal Data

beliefslearning preferences

INFORMATIONALOrientation Resources

scope of the SACsystem operation

DEVELOPMENTAL Learning Materialsclosed-ended tasksopen- ended tasks

Evaluation, Self-assessment

Fig. 4. A model for an autonomy-oriented SAC

To this effect, orientation materials delineate the self-access schema in terms

of background ideology through a definition of the scope of the SAC and of

physical manifestation through a description of its functional operation; per-

sonal data resources explore Greek Gymnasium students’ disposition to learn-

ing, their perceived needs and learning preferences; learning resources aim to

enable users to extend competences in a more and a less dependent-on-guid-

ance fashion through familiar topics and properly-designed tasks as well as to

improve their ability to pursue self-instruction through SAC evaluation and

self-assessment.

Clearly then, the proposed framework offers the Greek Gymnasium student the

opportunity to undertake the role of a practiser (i.e. when dealing with closed-

ended tasks), of an initiator ( i.e. when involved in open-ended tasks) and of an

explorer (i.e. through project work and networking) and to become an active

participant in the management of learning (i.e. by offering suggestions as to the

effectiveness of the SAC) and of the centre (e.g. by producing self-access

learning materials). Through this approach the necessary reciprocality between

the user and the system is generated and the system’s proclaimed intention for

flexible and, thus, more autonomous learning is authenticated.

2. Further Suggestions for Implementation

The analysis of the proposed scheme reveals the critical and multi-dimensional

role of the Counsellor in the successful implementation of self-access learning.

In order to promote self-instruction in the SAC, the Counsellor acts as a media-

tor between users and the computer-based system, offers guidance as to its suc-

83

cessful exploitation and provides information that aims to improve learners’

electronic literacies. In order to promote self-direction, the SAC Counsellor

acts as an advisor and facilitator and provides consultation as to the orientation

of learning, the selection and the effective use of electronically-stored re-

sources. Keeping the system informed and up-to-date also necessitates that the

Counsellor assumes the role of a materials developer.

To alleviate the mediation task, the writer proposes the establishment of net-

works aiming to facilitate interactive communication among state schools be-

longing to large geographical areas, or Prefectures. Through electronic net-

working and face-to-face sessions, Counsellors of SACs within the same Pre-

fecture exchange views and collaborate in order to select and produce materials

relevant to the needs of users attending local Gymnasia. This practice, which

promotes team spirit and coordination between peers, also caters for the need

for life-long learning shared by educators as well and is highly recommended

in the literature of educational management (Aalst 2003, Chapman 2003) due

to the promotion of cooperation and the increased creativity it ensues.

3. Concluding Remarks

The discussion and analysis of underlying principles and of issues concerning

the implementation of self-access in the Greek Gymnasium reveals that the

proposed framework constitutes a manageable and applicable plan that pro-

motes an alternative approach to learning. The fact that state schools are al-

ready equipped with hardware and software facilities renders the proposal a

cost-effective solution as well. Moreover, as it offers the opportunity for indi-

84

vidualized learning, computer-based self-access caters for the pragmatic need

to deal with inequalities that the diversity of the learning process generates and

that the existing educational paradigm fails to cater for. Moreover, it becomes

obvious through the lines of this dissertation that successful self-access imple-

mentation requires active participation and close cooperation of all the human

factors involved in the institution, namely of learners, teachers, counsellors and

administration. Within this framework, as Mavroyiorgos (Μαυρογιώργος 1999:

147) argues, a ‘culture of cooperation’ is favoured and, thus, a whole institu-

tional development is promoted.

85

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Appendices

94

Appendix I: CEF specifications and adaptations as applied to the Greek context

CEF Specifications Levels of Proficiency as proposed by the

Pedagogical Institute

Self-access Levels

Illustrative Descriptors Levels Grade Criterion levels

Plus (+)/ minus (-) criterion levels

Basic User

Can understand and use familiar everyday expressions and very basic phrases aimed at the satisfaction of needs of a concrete type. Can introduce him/herself and others and can ask and answer questions about personal details such as where he/she lives, people he/she knows and things he/she has. Can interact in a simple way provided the other person talks slowly and clearly and is prepared to help.

A1 A A1A2

Α1-Α1+

Can understand sentences and frequently used expressions re-lated to areas of most immediate relevance (e.g. very basic per-sonal and family information, shopping, local geography, em-ployment). Can communicate in simple and routine tasks requiring a simple and direct exchange of information on familiar and routine mat-ters. Can describe in simple terms aspects of his/her background, im-mediate environment and matters in areas of immediate need.

A2 B B1B2

Α2-Α2+

Independent User

Can understand the main points of clear standard input on famil-iar matters regularly encountered in work, school, leisure, etc. Can deal with most situations likely to arise whilst travelling in an area where the language is spoken.Can produce simple connected text on topics which are familiar or of personal interest. Can describe experiences and events, dreams, hopes and ambitions and briefly give reasons and explanations for opinions and plans.

B1 Γ Γ1Γ2

Β1-Β1+

Appendix II : Orientation Resources97

98

99

100

101

Appendix III: SAC Counsellor’s Data

102

Appendix IV: Personal Information Resources103

What kind of learning do you prefer? How do you prefer working in order to improve your abilities and skills in learn-ing modern languages?

Tick the statement(s) that best describe your preferences.I prefer…

1. Learning on my own ……2. Cooperating with friends/fellow students ……3. Working on topics that interest me …….4. Practicing functions, structures, lexis etc that I was taught in class ……5. Working with materials that are not used in class ……6. Using materials relevant to the classroom coursebook, the activity books

etc ……7. Asking for help when some words are unknown to me ……8. Using a dictionary to solve problems with unknown words ……9. Interacting with other students who do not speak my mother language ….

What are your ideas about the learning process? What do other people believe about it?

Tick the statements that you agree with. Then go to About Learning: other views and find out about other people’s ideas. Compare your thoughts with theirs.

a. Learning can only take place in the classroom through textbooks and teacher lecturing. ……

b. Only the teacher can correct my mistakes. ……c. Mistakes should always be corrected. ……d. Computers are learning tools too. ……e. Tests are the only ways of assessing my progress. ……f. Memorization is very important for effective learning. ……g. Using resources (e.g. newspapers, magazines, dictionaries, the Internet etc)

also leads to effective learning. ……h. All people learn in the same way. ……i. Only my teacher knows what is best for me in order to improve as a learner.

……j. Learning vocabulary and grammar guarantees effective language learning.

……k. Learning the mother language is a totally different process from learning

other languages. ……

Note: You may want to come back to this form at a later stage of your self-study and see if and how your beliefs about learning have changed.

Self-access Cen-tre

WHAT SORT OF LANGUAGE LEARNER ARE YOU ?

Name ……........................... Date : ……………… Class ……….Try the following quiz. Tick your answers to the questions.

Usually Sometimes (Almost) never

Don’t know

1. Do you get good results in grammar tests ?

2. Do you have a good memory for new words ?

3. Do you worry about making mistakes ?

4. In class, do you get irritated if mistakes are not corrected ?

5. Do you wish you had more time to think before speaking ?

6. Do you enjoy being in a class ?

7. Do you find it difficult to pick up more than two or three words of a new language when you are on holiday abroad ?

8. Do you like to learn new gram-mar rules, words, etc by heart ?

How to calculate your score : Score : 3 points for each Usually 2 points for each Sometimes 1 point for each Almost never or never 0 points for each Don’t know

Total score :

Now read the comments on the next page.

INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS

Self-access Centre

SCORE DESCRIPTION SUGGESTIONS

Score : 20-24 pointsAnalytic ?

You may feel it is important to be as accurate as possible all the time. You probably prefer the sort of language learning where you need to think carefully : for ex-ample, when you are doing grammar exercises, working out the meanings of words, practising pronunciation, etc. this is very often the sort of language learning you do in class or when you are studying alone.

You may be able to im-prove your language learn-ing. Look at the sugges-tions.

You could improve your fluency by :- trying to speak moreFor example, try talking to English-speaking friends, tourists, etc as often as pos-sible.- not worrying too much

about your mistakes Although making mistakes is an important part of the learning process, don’t al-ways try to correct yourself immediately. Remember that the people you speak to won’t be listening for your mistakes, but for what you are trying to say. After you have finished speaking, you can usually remember the mistakes you want to work on ; this is a good time to do something about them.- depending on yourselfOutside the classroom you don’t always have a diction-ary or teacher to help you, so don’t be afraid to depend on yourself ; you probably know more than you think.

Score : 11-19 pointsA mixture ?

You may find that you do not fall exactly into either of the categories marked Analytic ? or Relaxed ?. Many people are a mixture and learn in different ways at different times.

Look at the descriptions for Analytic ? and Relaxed ?. You may find that you are more similar to one than the other and this could help you think about what areas of your learning you might improve.

Score : 6-10 pointsRelaxed ?

You seem to ‘pick up’ lan-guages without really mak-ing too much effort and you usually enjoy communicat-ing with people. You may sometimes feel, however, that you should be learning more grammar rules, but

- try finding more time to learn

you may need to spend more time thinking about and practising things like grammar, pronunciation, etc. - try being more self-crit-

you probably don’t enjoy this and quickly lose in-terest. You may be able to improve your language learning. Look at the sug-gestions.

icalyou probably need to cor-rect yourself more. You may not worry or even no-tice when you make mis-takes, but if you try to be-come more aware of the mistakes you make regu-larly, you may find it easier to do something about them.

Score : 0-5 pointsNot sure ?

Your score does not mean that you are not a good lan-guage learner. Perhaps this is the first time you have thought about the way you learn. To know more about this can be very useful in helping you to become a more effective language learner.

You can find some general information about learning languages by looking at the descriptions marked Ana-lytic ? and Relaxed ?. Dur-ing your self-study, try to become more aware of the ways you learn. This can help you decide which areas of your learning you might improve.

Note : You may like to try this quiz again after you have done some more learning in order to compare the results.

(Adapted from Ellis & Sinclair 1989 : 6-9)

Self-access Centre

Consider your needs in each skill and language area. Put the number (1, 2 or 3) you think that represents your level in the appropriate box. 1= I do very well in this skill/area; I have reached my goal. 2= I do quite well but I need to work harder to reach my goal.3= I need to improve a lot in this skill/area; I am far from my goal.

Skills / Areas NeedsReading

Writing

Listening

Speaking

Interaction

Grammar

Vocabulary

Consider your learning needs above and your learning style outlined in the ‘Learner Profile’ questionnaire. Then number each skill/area according to how much priority (importance) you want to give them during your self-study (1= highest priority, 2= lowest priority).

Skills / Areas Priority Rating Reading

Writing

Listening

Speaking

Interaction

Grammar

Vocabulary

(Adapted from Sheerin 1989: 45-46)

Self-access Centre

Now that you have considered your needs and priorities it’s time to plan your self-study schedule.

Date ………………..

Name …………………………… Class/Level ………...

I will spend ……………… hours a week on self-study.

This plan covers ………............. weeks of study in the SAC.

In the SAC I will work on the fol-lowing skills/areas (Tick where ap-propriate):

Reading ………………………..Writing ………………………...Listening ……………………….Speaking ……………………….Interaction ……………………..Grammar ………………………Vocabulary …………………….

Within the areas I ticked above I need to work particularly on:

Reading: …………………………………………………………………Writing …………………………………………………………………..Listening …………………………………………………………..……..Speaking ………………………………………………………………....Interaction ...……………………………………………………………...Grammar ………………………………………………………………...Vocabulary ………………………………………………………..……..

I will do ……… activities a week in each of the skills/areas I have ticked.I will arrange to meet the SAC Counsellor ………….. times a week in order to discuss my progress. Signed …………………………………….

Counsellor’s comments …………………………………..

(Adapted from Sheerin 1989: 47-48)

Appendix V: Topics and Tasks

Appendix VI: Closed-ended Tasks

Env_R_RC1_TF1

Classification Env_R_RC1_TF1Level A1+Topic Environment/ Environmental problems and

solutionsActivity Type Comprehension: True/ False statementsAim To reflect on the issue of ‘Environ-

mental problems’ To understand details of a text and to

check comprehension

Reading Comprehension True-False Statements

6 Simple Things You Can Do To Help

Self-study TipCopy this Tasksheet in your Personal File and then do the Reading activity. You can print the completed Tasksheet and make feedback notes on the print-out. Keep it in your learning diary so that you can keep track of your progress in reading.

InstructionsRead the text carefully and decide if the following statements are True or False. Then mark them with T (True) or F (False) accordingly. Remember:

Find the words in the text that justify the ‘True’ statements Correct the ‘False’ ones Make notes justifying or correcting the statements in the space provided.

1. Recycling is a way of making litter less. ………………………………………………………………………………………………2. ‘Does yours?’ is a real question. …………..……………………………………………………………………………………3. You shouldn’t turn on the lights on a bright day. ………………………………………………………………………………………………4. Without trees the soil is slowly getting destroyed. ………………………………………………………………………………………………5. If you don’t have a garden, you can’t have any plants. ………………………………………………………………………………………………6. In a Litter Clean-Up Day at school only pupils can participate. ………….……………………………………………………………………………………7. Riding a bike has a positive effect on your health only. ………………………………………………………………………………………………8. Stop brushing your teeth; it is harmful for the environment. ……….……………………………………………………………………………………

Self-access Centre

Self-access Centre En_R_RC1_TF1_AK

Classification Env_R_RC1_TF1Level A1+Topic Environment/ Environmental problems and

solutionsActivity Type Comprehension: True/ False statementsAim To reflect on the issue of ‘Environ-

mental problems’ To understand details of a text and to

check comprehension

Answer Key

1. T. ‘This reduces the amount of ….’2. F. The full question is ‘Does your community recycle?’. The text writer does

not really expect an answer; s/he actually aims to enable you to reflect on the importance of recycling in your community too.

3. T. As there are no words that explicitly justify the statement, its meaning is inferred through the whole short text (Save electricity).

4. T. ‘Trees also ………. from eroding away.’5. F. ‘Try growing …………. on your windowsill’. 6. F. Same as 3 for the ‘Keep the Earth Beautiful’. 7. F. ‘You’ll help save …… and fit, too.’8. F. Just ‘turn the faucet off’ while brushing your teeth and not using water.

Env_R_RC1_WA1

Self-access Centre

Classification Env_R_RC1_WA1 (Word Attack) Level A1+Topic Environmental problems and solutionsActivity Type Guessing from contextAim To revise/ introduce topic-related lexis

Word AttackFind words/ phrases in the text with a similar meaning to the following:

a. Make less (Recycle, Ride your bike): ………………………………………….

b. Waste items, rubbish (Recycle): ………………………………………………..

c. Huge amounts of trash is thrown away there (Recycle): ……………………d. People living in ………………………. have a common background, nation-

ality etc (Recycle) e. Getting destroyed (Plant a tree): ………………………………………………f. You turn this off when you finish brushing your teeth, tap: (Save water).

………………………………………………………………………………….

Env_R_RC1_WA1_AK

Classification Env_R_RC1_WA1 (Word Attack) Level A1+Topic Environmental problems and solutionsActivity Type Guessing from contextAim To revise/ introduce topic-related lexis

Answer Key

a. reduce, lessenb. trace c. landfilld. communitiese. eroding awayf. faucet

Env_R_RC1_LA1

Self-access Centre

Language Awareness

Classification Env_R_RC1_LA1 (Language Awareness) Level A1+Topic Environmental problems and solutionsActivity Type Categorisation according to form Aim To enable the learners to develop their

awareness of the uses of the V+ing form found in the text

Instructionsa. Find all the V+ing words in the text and make a list of them.

b. Complete your list and write down the word(s) (1-3) that come before the V+ing forms. e.g. …….. you’re not using ……….

c. The common uses of the V+ing form are: They are part of the progressive tenses (e.g. They are listening to

the radio now) They follow prepositions (e.g. with, by etc) They follow some verbs, such as like, try, continue etc (e.g. Con-

tinue doing your homework now).Which of the above categories do the examples in your list match with?

d. Use other resources (e.g. books, coursebooks, dictionaries etc) and write two more examples for each category …………………………………………………………………………………

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Listening SkillsFam_L_LC1_IT1

Classification Fam_L_LC1_IT1Level A1-Topic Family life/ Physical description of family

membersActivity Type Information transferAim To listen for specific information

To revise topic-related vocabulary

Family Life: Physical Description of family members

Self-study TipCopy this Tasksheet in your Personal File and then do the Listening activity. You can print the completed Tasksheet and make feedback notes on the print-out. Keep it in your learning diary so that you can keep track of your progress in listening.

InstructionsYou are going to listen to Mark talking about his family. Listen once first in or-der to get some of the details and locate the missing information. Listen again and complete the table. You can stop the listening and go back when some of the information is not clear. You can also check the transcript of the monologue too.

Age Hair colour Hair style Eye colourMother

Father

Matthew

Mark

Kate

Self-access Centre

Fam_S_Pron1_IS1

Classification Fam_S_Pron1_IS1 (Individual sounds)Level A1-Topic Family lifeActivity Type Listen and repeatAim To raise the learners’ awareness of the

‘schwa’ sound To enable Ls to practise the pronunci-

ation of topic-related words ending in the –er suffix

Pronunciation/ Individual Sounds

Step 1 The ‘schwa’ /ə/ sound is sometimes problematic for Greek learners of English, as it does not exist in the Greek phonetic system. It is a very common vowel sound in the English language, so it deserves practicing it. In this way, you will be able to recognize it in spoken interaction and to produce it yourself too. To practise the sound, find the Macmillan Dictionary CD-ROM.

Step 2In British English, the –er suffix is pronounced /ə/ when a consonant sound fol-lows. Make a list of family related words (e.g. mother) and check their spelling in the dictionary.

Step 3Listen to how each of the ‘family’ words in your list is pronounced. Repeat after the speaker and practise pronouncing the items.

Appendix VII: Task Evaluation and Self-assessment

Assess/Env_R_RC1_TF1_ev Evaluation Self-study TipCopy this form and paste it on a separate document in your Personal File. The information in the evaluation form is very important as it:

helps you monitor your learning enables the Counsellor to understand you and your needs better and ad-

vise you appropriately contributes to the improvement of self-access materials.

Therefore, it is important that you complete the evaluation forms after finishing self-study tasks and activities. It is also important that you keep a copy in your learning diary.

A. Tick the statements that best describe your situation.

MotivationI found the reading text:

RelevantInterestingEasyIrrelevantBoring Too easy Too difficult

Learning strategiesTo do the reading task I…:

related the topic to knowledge I already have; it helped me comprehend the short texts easier.read all the short texts first to comprehend them. read the statements first in order to focus my search.tried to understand every single word in the short texts.tried to guess the meaning of unknown words from context.ignored some unknown words; they did not affect my overall understanding.looked up the meaning of important words in the dic-tionary.asked the Counsellor to help me when I had. difficul-ties.

B. Think about how the self-study experience helped you improve your learning and complete the table. Give some examples in the space provided.

Self-access Centre

The reading text and the task helped me improve my:

For example:

understanding of the topic vocabulary dictionary skills awareness of how similar texts are organized awareness of how language is used to express particular meaning awareness of grammar

C. What difficulties did you have? What are you planning to do?

I had difficulties in…. I am going to….

D. How can we make self-access materials better? Write down your ideas in the space provided.

…………………………………………………………………………………………

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Appendix VIII: Open-ended Tasks

Fam_W_LW1.doc Letter WritingYour new penfriend has sent you a letter. Read it carefully first.

Dear friend,I was very happy to receive your letter the other day. It’s great to have a new penfriend from Greece. I hope one day you can come to Australia and meet me and my family.This is a picture of my family. On the left you can see my parents. My father’s name is Tom and my mother’s name is Catherine. My little sister, Alice, is on the right between me and my older sister Jane. Alice is 11. She goes to primary school in Sydney and her fa-vourite school subject is Computer Science. Jane is 18. She is a bal-let dancer at the School of Performing Arts in Sydney.What about your family? Send me a photograph if you can.Write back soon.Love,Miranda Now write a reply letter to your penfriend in the space provided

…………………………………………………………………………………………

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Assess/Fam_W_LW1_Ch.doc

Self-access Centre

Classification Fam_W_LW1.docLevel A2-Topic Family life/ Personal informationActivity Type Writing a friendly letter Aim To enable Ls to compose a friendly let-

ter using a model text To enable Ls to revise, edit and proof-

read written work

A. Use the checklist in order to revise the context, the content and the or-ganization of the letter. Tick the areas that are evident in your work.

ContextWhile I was writing the letter I had in my mind:

who I was writing to why I was writing

what I was writing aboutContent

In my letter I…:

included information about:

people’s ages

people’s physical description:

hair stylehair coloureye colouroccupations, hobbies etc

created a reason for my friend to write back

OrganizationIn my letter I:

included: a greetingan opening paragrapha main paragrapha closing paragraphmy first name to sign the letter

used: descriptive language (i.e. appropri-ate tenses, structures etc)relevant lexisappropriate punctuation (i.e. com-mas, full stops etc)

B. Use your notes in the checklist and redraft your work, if necessary.

Classification Edu_W_Pres1

Level A2+/B1-Topic Education/ The Greek Educational SystemActivity Type Writing a short presentation Aim To enable Ls to reflect upon the issue

of ‘education’ To enable Ls to compose a short pre-

sentation by making use of an input text, transferring information and ex-pressing own beliefs

To enable Ls to reflect on and improve their written work by revising, editing and proofreading it

Edu_W_Pres1.docThe Greek Educational System

Self-study Tip If you have difficulties in understanding the text you may want to do a

reading activity (Edu_R_RC2_TF2.doc), a Vocabulary activity (Edu_R_RC2_Voc.doc) and/ or a Language Awareness activity (Edu_R_RC2_LA1.doc). All of them are based on the same text.

Step 1Go to this URL: http://www.woodlands-junior.kent.sch.uk/customs/questions/education.html .Read the text about ‘Education in England’ and think:

Who is the text for? Why was it written? What language is used in order to express the writer’s purpose? How is the text organized?

Self-access Centre

Step 2Think about our educational system and complete the table below.

The Greek Educational SystemTypes of school

Schooling starts at:

Duration of primary and lower secondary education Duration of senior high education

Duration of school year

School terms

Examinations

Post-secondary education

Step 3When you have finished writing factual information, add your personal opinion and give reasons.

Step 4To make your work more attractive, go to www.google.com . Search for and download relevant pictures. Put materials and ideas together and compile your presentation.

Appendix IX: Project Work

Appendix X : Learn more about…

Appendix XI: Useful Links for Students