Environment and Natural Resources Research; Vol. 4, No. 3; 2014 ISSN 1927-0488 E-ISSN 1927-0496

Published by Canadian Center of Science and Education

95

Urban Water Supply, Wastewater, and Stormwater Considerations in Ancient Hellas: Lessons Learned

A. Ν. Angelakis1,2, N. Mamassis3, E. G. Dialynas4 & P. Defteraios3

1 Institute of Iraklion, National Foundation for Agricultural Research, Iraklion, Greece 2 Hellenic Union of Municipal Enterprises for Water Supply and Sewage, Larissa, Greece 3 Department of Water Resources and Environmental Engineering, School of Civil, Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, Zographou, Greece 4 DIALYNAS SA Environmental Technology, Nea Alikarnasos, Crete, Greece Correspondence: N. Mamassis, Department of Water Resources and Environmental Engineering, School of Civil, Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, Heroon Polytechneiou 5, GR 15780 Zographou, Greece. E-mail: nikos@itia.ntua.gr Received: March 5, 2014 Accepted: April 15, 2014 Online Published: May xx, 2014 doi:10.5539/enrr.v4n3p95 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/enrr.v4n3p95 Abstract Urban water, wastewater and stormwater management practices in ancient Hellas, from the Minoan to the Roman times are briefly reviewed. In the Prehistoric Hellas palaces and other settlements tended to be located at dry places, at a distance from rivers or lakes. During the Bronze Age decentralized water supply and wastewater and stormwater management of small-scale systems were dominant. These systems are characterized by their salient architectural and hydraulic features and perfect adaptation to the environment. On the other hand, under tyranny, cities grew significantly and the first large-scale urban water infrastructures were developed. During the periods of democracy the Hippodameian system of city planning included the public hydraulic works. This period is also characterized by significant scientific progress in the hygienic use of water in public baths and latrines. Finally, Romans used the scientific knowledge and the experience of small scale constructions of the Hellenes, to construct large scale hydraulic works using sophisticated techniques. Keywords: urban water supply; classical and Hellenistic periods; Minoan Crete; Mycenaean civilization; prehistoric Hellas 1. Prolegomena Όμοια γάρ ως επί το πολύ τα μέλλοντα τοις γεγονόσι. Most future facts are based on those in the past. Euripides, 480 – 406 BC, Ancient Greek Tragic. In the long history of humankind the basic force that determined his action was the need to secure food and water. Most of the early settlements of the humankind were established in temperate areas near water sources that ensured sufficient water supply.. Most excavations of prehistoric human habitations had one thing in common; all were located near sources of a spring, river, lake or stream. During the Neolithic age (ca. 5700 – 3200 BC), the first water projects (such as dams and irrigation systems) were developed in Mesopotamia and Egypt, in order to control the water flow, due to the food needs (Angelakis et al., 2013). However, the first hydraulic works for water supply and wastewater management were constructed during the Neolithic Age (a) in El Kowm (or Al Kawm), located near the city of Palmyra, in Syria, and (b) in the eastern Crete, Hellas. In these locations the first domestic infrastructures for water and wastewater were built. At the end of the 4th millennium BC to the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC the early Mesopotamian cities had networks of wastewater and stormwater drainage. Also wastewater disposal facilities, such as drainage networks, were available in the Late Urak Period (ca. 3300 – 3200 BC) at Habuba Kabira. Minoan regions (e.g. Crete and other Hellenic islands) and Mohenjo-Daro (in modern day Pakistan in the Indus Valley) are early examples of settlements with water supply and sanitation. These hydraulic works were developed in an impressive way since the Bronze Age (ca. 3200 – 1100 BC). Archaeological and historical evidences, revealed a cultural explosion

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unparalleleHellas stainfrastruct(AngelakisFurther de1100 BC).aqueducts hydrologicscientific tnecessity elements, aHellenic cprivate batthe water sis presente2. PrehistoIn Minoanserve the nhydro techwater systpalace floosystems, lbathrooms

Figure 1. (b) pipes

Different mlocally anhydrogeolowastewateenvironmeThe hydralater was eThe scale palaces todrainage).

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ed in the histarting ca. 320tures for the ms & Spyridakisevelopment of . These techno

for conveyancal phenomenatheories, ideasto (a) use efand (c) improv

civilizations dethrooms and flsupply and saned. oric Hellas (ca

n Crete many wneeds of the i

hnologies devetems, aqueductors in Knossoike those foun

s with flushing

Terracotta pipof rectangular

management tend (b) transporogical conditio

er managemenent managemenaulic technologextended in thof water syste

o large scale

En

ory of other a00 BC. In th

management ofs, 2013). Minoan hydro

ologies includence and (c) wa were formu

s and philosophfficiently the nve the quality oeveloped an adlushing toilets,nitation techno

a. 3200 – 1100works for wateincreasing popeloped during tts, harvesting

os (Figure 1a) nd at Knossos

g toilets (Angel

(a) pes: (a) part of r section used f

echniques werrtation and stoons and the si

nt was on sunt practices.

gical frame of pe main land by

ems was changworks of the

nvironment and N

ancient civilizhese sites thef urban water,

o-technologiese (a) considerawater drainageulated only cahical views apnatural resourof life, both at dvanced, comf, that can be coologies develo

0 BC) er supply, sewepulation of thethe Minoan Erof rainwater sand Pyrgos M

s, Zakros and lakis et al., 200

f closed Minoafor collection o(by permissio

re applied to enorage of wateize of the sett

ustainable sma

prehistoric Hey Mycenaean ged from smal

Mycenaean

Natural Resourc

96

zations that ocey have survi, stormwater a

s was achievedable hydraulice and sewerag

a. 600 BC in ppeared. The terces, (b) protethe private an

fortable and hyompared to the

oped by the ma

erage, and draie island (De Fra, at the scale systems, and nMyrtos (Figure

Phaistos pala05; Angelakis

an water supplyof rain water inon of A. N. An

nsure the wateer. These techtlements. Alsoall-scale, wate

ellas formed vecivilization dull scale such aera that targe

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ccurred in varived remarkaband wastewate

d during the Mc constructionsge systems. Hancient Hellaechnological dect the civiliz

nd public level.ygienic way ofe modern onesajor Hellenic c

inage systems Feo et al., 201

of palace, citynetwork of terre 1b); (b) wastaces; and (c) hand Spyridaki

y system at then the Pyrgos M

ngelakis)

er supply as: (ahniques were do during Minoer safety, cost

ery early, durinuring its flourias hydraulic weted to agricu

rious Minoan ble architectu

er sewerage in

Mycenaean kins (dams, poldeHowever, the as by Ionian pdevelopments zations from . f life, as expres.. In this articlcivilizations in

were planned1; Mays et al.

y, and village, iracotta pipes ltewater and sthygienic wateris, 2013).

(b) e Knossos «palMyrtos in the s

a) use of sprindifferentiated an times the ft efficient, an

ng the Minoanish period (ca.orks for dome

ultural water u

Vol. 4, No. 3;

regions of anural and hydrn palaces and c

ngdoms (ca. 19ers and levees)scientific vie

philosophers, wwere driven bdestructive na

essed by publicle a brief revie

n the ancient H

d and construct., 2007) The minclude: (a) polocated beneattorm water sewr use systems,

lace» in Crete outh eastern C

ng and runoff waccording to focus of waternd friendly to

n/Cycladic eras 1600 – 1200

estic use at Miuse (irrigation

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900 – ), (b) w of when y the

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ted to major otable h the wage , like

and Crete

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s and BC).

inoan n and

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3. ArchaicDuring tharoutes. Somattention hpalace or tfor politicacities grewthis era arecity near A2), a tunneet al., 2008

Figure 2.

It is remarwater scarvalley) whrelatively generally m4. ClassicaDuring Clsame and water manthe Hippodto modern Also, duriquality of In additionqualities athe same tiThe PeisisHellenisticconstructeundergrouncharacteris

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c Hellas (ca. 6at period, trademe of the new

had to be paid fthe Acropolis. al and social o

w considerably e: (a) the PeisisAcropolis, (b) tel of 1036 m lo8). Its construct

(a) . A view of the

rkable that therce sites), in cohich flourishedlarge rivers inmore convenieal Hellas (ca. assical era sevthe new techn

nagement practdameian systetimes (Zarkad

ing that periodthe water may

n, the Hippoctrand health effeime, contain cstratean and Ec times. The ed more efficnd water, folstics of the Ath

En

630 – 490 BC) e became an im

w cities were esfor water adequGradually Ago

ones. Graduallythe first large-

stratean aqueduthe water suppong, that Eupaltion started in 5

e tunnel of Eup

second tu

e first Hellenicontrast to othe

d in water-abunn Greece, Helent and healthi490 – 323 BC

veral aqueductnical developmtices, mainly inm in city plan

doulas et al., 20d Alcmaeon oy influence theratic treatise: A

ects of water (Aomments on th

Eupalinean waengineering soiently and collowed by thehens water sup

nvironment and N

mportant activstablished in druacy. During thora transformey hygienic tech-scale hydrauliuct which trans

ply system of alinos (an engin530 BC and las

palinos aqueduunnel below th

c cities were eer ancient civilndant environmllenes must haier to live as th

C) ts were construments are scarn the city of A

nning influence012). of Croton (flore health of the Airs, Water, PlAirs, Water, Phe influence ofater supply tecolutions were onvey water e surface tranpply system in

Natural Resourc

97

vity and new cry places at a dhat period Ago

ed to the centrehnologies wereic works were sferred water francient Samos,neer from Megsted in ten year

uct: (a) its entrahe main tunnel

established in lizations (e.g. ments (large rivave progressivhey protect the

ucted in ancienrce (De Feo et

Athens, that floed significantly

ruit ca. 470 Bpeople” (Aëtiulaces (ca. 400 laces. 1, 7, 8, f water on the chnologies weimproved andfrom more d

nsport of watthe Classical p

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cities were estadistance for wora (market) we not only for te implemented constructed. E

from the Hyme that includes

gara) designed rs. It was in op

(b)ance and (b) th) on the right s

areas that witEgyptian, Mever valleys). A

vely assimilatepopulation fro

nt cities but tht al., 2013). H

ourished duringy the urban wa

BC) was the fus, on the opinBC) describesand 9). Other health of peop

ere further impd applied in mdistant sourcester (Voudourisperiod were th

ablished near twater resources was the core of

the commerciaon the scale o

Examples of maettus mountain,the “Eupalineaand constructe

peration until th

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th minimal raisopotameans,

Although thereed the fact thaom water-born

he hydro-technHowever, emphg that period. Tater systems, f

first "doctor" tnion of the phis thoroughly thHippoctratic t

ple. proved during

many areas; Nes. The aqueds et al., 2013

he sustainability

Vol. 4, No. 3;

the sea or the (lakes or riverthe city and no

al activities butof Agora and aajor projects du, to the centre oan digging” (Fed it (Koutsoyihe 5th century A

nnel (and at po

infall (e.g. dryand those in I are wet placeat dry climate

ne diseases.

nologies remaihasis was givThe introductiofrom this perio

that he stated ilosophers V. 3he different soutreatises, writt

g the Classicalew aqueducts ducts, that cap3). The signify and durabilit

2014

trade rs) so ot the t also as the uring of the igure annis AD.

ints

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5. HellenisFollowingthat had bplanning wworks (sucin public bsame timeforgotten. fountain wconclusiondisposed border to cosame perioIn the Helin city plan

The apurpoHippanciewhenin str[Aris

Two aquedand reused2013). TheThe first amodern sein the samaqueducts

Figure 3and (b

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stic Hellas (ca a period witheen destroyed

was adopted. Dch as aqueductbaths and lavat, the principleIn Athens, wa

was dealt withn that the operabut kept for somover the increod, private instlenistic world,nning. The folarrangement ofoses if they arodamus; but i

ent times; for n attacking. Heraight streets, stotle, Politics, ducts of the Hd during the Roey are carved

aqueduct (tunnettlement, thereme way and a

are referred as

. The two aqueb) Tunnel of th

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a. 323 – 31 BCh wars and cond were rebuilt, During that pets and cisterns)tories became s of integratedater treatment

h. The comparation of the syme other purp

eased supply otallations, like , the prevalenclowing comme

of the private dre laid out in is more suitabthat arrangem

ence, it is well but only certaVII, X, 4, Zar

Hellenistic perioman times, bby tunneling t

nel) ends in thee is the end ofare used to sus aqueducts-lik

(a) educts (tunnel

he second aque(C

nvironment and N

C) nflicts, finally p

usually at theeriod a signific), were construpossible for a

d water managchanged comp

rison of the wystem was diffeose. On the ot

of water in thewells and cist

ce of the Hippent by Aristotldwellings is tho

straight streeble for securityment is difficul

to combine thain parts and drkadoulas et aliod (from the eeing still in usthrough naturae modern villagf another similupply the villake qanats (Vou

s) in Polyrrhen

educt, with chaChristodoulako

Natural Resourc

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peace was pree same site. Incant scientific ucted, resultingall citizens thatgement, as imp

mpletely as canwaste conduits ferent. During Cther hand durine Agora diminterns, tended topodameian systle is related to ought to be mots, after the my in war if it ilt for foreign t

he advantages districts, for in. (2012)]. end of 4th to tse today in Polal marbled limge central squaar tunnel (Figuage with a coudouris et al., 2

nia city: (a) Roannel along theos & Markoul

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evailed during n most cases, th

progress wasg to water adet had access to

plemented durin be inferred fr

that belong toClassical periong Hellenistic nishing the neeo be abandonedtem resulted inthat issue: ore agreeable

modern fashionis on the contrtroops to enterof both plans,

n this way it w

the end of 1st yrrhenia city i

mestones on theare (Figure 3aure 3b). Both tontinuous flow2013).

ock-cut cisterne semicircular aki, 2011)

the Hellenistiche Hippodame

s achieved andquacy. The hy

o “luxurious” wing Classical prom the way to these two pod the overflowera larger pipe

ed for overflowd (Zarkadoulan reduced imp

and more conn, that is, the rary plan, as r and to find and not to lay

will combine se

century BC) in western Cree southern lowa). In the southtunnel, were c

w of water all

(b) n at the end of t

tower of the H

Vol. 4, No. 3;

c period. The ceian system of

d large scale pygienic use of wwater usage. Aperiod, started that the spill oeriods leads towing water waes were installw. Also durins et al., 2012).

portance of sec

venient for genone introducecites used to their way aboy out the wholeecurity with be

have been resete (Voudouris w slopes of theheastern edge oconstructed roul year long. T

the first aquedHellenistic wall

2014

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of the ughly These

uct l

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99

6. Roman Hellas (ca. 31 BC – 395 AD) Many important and monumental constructions were made during Roman period in conquered Hellas, as a part of a culture based on artistic and structural features of flourishing Hellenic ancient centuries (Angelakis et al. 2013). Aqueducts that were constructed in specific sites of the country, could be classified in a separate category of the monuments of this period, being in many cases successful feats of ancient engineering (De Feo et al., 2010; De Feo et al., 2013). Romans constructed the works to supply water to each Roman town, usually channeling the required quantities from the nearest sources, which abstained up to tens of kilometers from. The construction of the water line was different along the axis, depending on the terrain. As a basic rule, the aqueduct had to maintain a gentle inclination (0.1% or 0.2%), so that water can be transported all the way by gravity. Thus, the conduit was a shallow trench in the more parts, but wherever there were valleys or river beds, that it was constructed upon water bridges. Finally the water crossed hills, passing through tunnels. The construction methods of surface and subterranean works were depended on soil quality of each area. In rocky soils (limestone) channels were carved above or below the surface. On the other hand, surface channels, underground channels with supported roof, or channels at shallow depths that used to be covered by stone slabs, were built wherever the soil was loose. Also, the ceramic elements were necessary structural material, and the use of mortar was required. At the construction of a water bridge, stone or ceramic briquettes were used. The bridges were consisted of columns that need to support the conduit, at distance of about 5 m, forming arches. In many cases, Roman aqueducts supplied more water than the amount necessary for their daily needs, because the water was also used for hygienic reasons. The bath for instance was a daily habit for Romans. Thus, many Roman public baths have been discovered in the central districts, such as the hypocaust in the basement of the Russian Church in Athens or in regional agglomerations (Rafina), even in rural areas or islands such as the town of Sami in Kefalonia. In any case, the water was available at the place of use through distribution systems, including piping and tanks at the end or along the route of the aqueduct. Furthermore, in some cases there was tank near the springs in order to control the pressure. In Hellenic land, there are several Roman aqueducts and the most important are those of Corinth, Nicopolis, Mytilene, Patras, Thessaloniki, Eleusis and Athens. In addition, the aqueducts of Kavala and Halkida, which repaired during the Ottoman occupation, were constructed during the Roman period. It is worth to examine with more detail the famous Hadrianean aqueduct of Athens. Its construction started by Hadrian, but the project completed by Antoninus (140 AD), aiming to supply water to the Roman district of Athens. This aqueduct differs totally from all other of the Roman period, because it was constructed subterranean all along its route. The Hadrianean is a project based on technology of earlier times aqueducts of Hymettus, Megara and Aegina (Chiotis & Marinos, 2012). The water flowed from Parnitha springs into the tunnel, but the aqueduct also collected underground water along its route. For this reason, it was dug under the level of the water table and the amount of collected water increased along the path. Additionally, the discharge was complemented from assistant aqueducts that carried water from other regions. So we can conclude that the Hadrianean was an eclectic aqueduct which was enriched by underground waters and spring water (Chiotis & Chioti, 2011). The main underground axis was about 20 km long (or 25 km taking into account the secondary branches). Two surface channels carried the water of Parnitha at Dimogli (Olympic Village today), where an inclined gallery had to direct the total quantity into the tunnel, at a depth of 30 m. The tunnel was constructed by wells opened at a fixed distance of about 35 m between. Some impressive construction details of the carved underground tunnel (coated or uncoated) highlight the magnificent task, such as collecting water from the walls, the mounting of the roof, and the flow rate control through local level depression or small shaft incurvation. Some of the tunnel technical characteristics are depicted in Figure 4. The water was distributed through a piping system, starting from the main tank at Kolonaki, which was filled by the supply line. Hadrianean surpassed all aqueducts of the Roman time in terms of operation and construction. This is confirmed by the fact that the aqueduct was in use until 1930, for Athens water supply. However, its operation was not continuous over the centuries, as it was repaired and expanded before being restarted, after the end of Ottoman rule (early 20th century). It is still in use until today, watering the public land areas that the tunnel runs through.

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Figure 4. Twalls a

7. EpiloguFrom the basic techtechnologistagnancy technologithe future During Artrade and nUnder tyraThe next pmeasures, progress idimensionevolution owater adeqThe scale hydraulic wfollowing water andsmall-scalesustainablesafety andin mind whHellenic hwastewateAlexanderthe south. developedlarge city a

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ted cross section with masonryaios)

urban hydraulperiod have

management of rogress in the Dark Ages. Pr

who cross themnization occurat dry places,

ban water infrasmall-scale wod marks the cperiods, urbanlemented a d

water and wasteoulas et al., 20antiquity and parison is not nsidered: (a) ca major consiep towards sustten even in peuding turbulentms. y enlargementHellenistic p

a from Hellas le in this area,all to large and

on (b) Cross sey walls and unc

lic works, exisbeen the co

f the centuries Archaic Hell

robably ‘bridgem (Angelakis &rred. As cities at a distance fastructures we

orks and the usconsideration on city planninifferent designewater projects12). that is reflect

possible, we city planning hderation, (b) tstainability anderiods of watert and war perio

t of the scale oeriod (that foto India to the inherited thesd applying the

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(c) ection with mascoated roof (by

sted in Hellas.ornerstones ofthat followed

las. Hellenic hes’ from the pa

& Spyridakis, 2were depende

from rivers or ere developed.se of non-strucof the institutng acquired a n philosophy. s, which result

ted to the scacan assume thahas to include uthe cooperatiod resilience, (cr adequacy, anods, should be

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e rapid technohnologies wered water problee is strongly reus processes, the population

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e three- aisleds) and (b) the H0s (by permiss

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ment practices. nd sustainabilit In the develems have ariseties to reconsearch that bassolutions witht many of the

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d vaulted cisterHadrian in Athsion of P. Defte

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ty of the waterloping world, en such as thesider the old psed on archaeoh present ones e technologicawever, the devear, often char

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nt town Apterarebuilt after th

ievements. An, a great numband droughts decentralizatio

ems are intenson water resouto reinvestigatrical, and technced level of welated to hydrwater sciencediscontinuities

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r Sci.

Crete,

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