Specimen of Trajan typeface, based

on the letter forms of capitalis

monumentalis or Roman square

capitals, as used for the inscription at

the base of Trajan's Column from

which the typeface takes its name

TypographyFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Typography (from the Greek words τύπος typos "form" and γράφεινgraphein "to write") is the art and technique of arranging type in order tomake the language it forms most appealing to transparent learning andrecognition. The arrangement of type involves the selection of typefaces,point size, line length, leading (line spacing), adjusting the spaces betweengroups of letters (tracking) and adjusting the space between pairs of

letters (kerning[2]). Type design is a closely related craft, which someconsider distinct and others a part of typography; most typographers donot design typefaces, and some type designers do not consider

themselves typographers.[3][4] In modern times, typography has been putinto motion—in film, television and online broadcasts—to add emotion to

mass communication.[5]

Typography is performed by typesetters, compositors, typographers,graphic designers, art directors, manga artists, comic book artists, graffitiartists, clerical workers, and anyone else who arranges type for aproduct. Until the Digital Age, typography was a specialized occupation.Digitization opened up typography to new generations of visual designersand lay users, and David Jury, Head of Graphic Design at ColchesterInstitute in England, states that "typography is now something everybody

does."[6]

Contents

1 History

2 Scope

3 Text typography

3.1 Color

4 Readability and legibility

4.1 Evolution of typography

4.2 Experimental typography

5 Display typography

5.1 Advertising

5.2 Inscriptional and architectural lettering

6 See also

6.1 Supporting organizations

7 Notes

Printing press, 16th century in

Germany

8 References

9 External links

History

Typography traces its origins to the first punches and dies used to makeseals and currency in ancient times. The uneven spacing of theimpressions on brick stamps found in the Mesopotamian cities of Urukand Larsa, dating from the 2nd millennium BC, may have been evidenceof type where the reuse of identical characters were applied to create

cuneiform text.[7] Babylonian cylinder seals were used to create an

impression on a surface by rolling the seal on wet clay.[8] Typographywas also realized in the Phaistos Disc, an enigmatic Minoan print item

from Crete, Greece, which dates between 1850 and 1600 BC.[9][10][11]

It has been proposed that Roman lead pipe inscriptions were created by

movable type printing,[12][13][14] but German typographer Herbert Brekle

recently dismissed this view.[15]

The essential criterion of type identity was met by medieval print artifacts such as the Latin Pruefening Abbey

inscription of 1119 that was created by the same technique as the Phaistos disc.[16][17][18][19] The silver altarpieceof patriarch Pellegrinus II (1195−1204) in the cathedral of Cividale was printed with individual letter

punches.[20][21][22] The same printing technique can apparently be found in 10th to 12th century Byzantine

reliquaries.[23][21] Individual letter tiles where the words are formed by assembling single letter tiles in the desired

order were reasonably widespread in medieval Northern Europe.[24][25]

Typography with movable type was invented in 11th-century China by Bi Sheng (990–1051) during the Song

Dynasty.[26] His movable type system was manufactured from ceramic materials, and clay type printing continuedto be practiced in China until the Qing Dynasty. Wang Zhen was one of the pioneers of wooden movable type.Although the wooden type was more durable under the mechanical rigors of handling, repeated printing wore the

character faces down, and the types could only be replaced by carving new pieces.[27] Metal type was firstinvented in Korea during the Goryeo Dynasty around 1230. Hua Sui introduced bronze type printing to China in1490 AD. However, the diffusion of both movable-type systems was limited and the technology did not spread

beyond East Asia.[28]

Modern movable type, along with the mechanical printing press, is most often attributed to the goldsmith Johannes

Gutenberg, who independently invented the technology in mid-15th century Germany.[29][30][31][32] His type pieces

from a lead-based alloy suited printing purposes so well that the alloy is still used today.[33] Gutenberg developedspecialized techniques for casting and combining cheap copies of letterpunches in the vast quantities required to

print multiple copies of texts.[34] This technical breakthrough was instrumental in starting the Printing Revolution andprinting the world's first book (with movable type) the Gutenberg Bible.

Computer technology revolutionized typography in the 20th century. Personal computers in the 1980s like theMacintosh allowed type designers to create types digitally using commercial graphic design software. Digitaltechnology also enabled designers to create more experimental typefaces, alongside the practical fonts of traditionaltypography. Designs for typefaces could be created faster with the new technology, and for more specific

functions.[8] The cost for developing typefaces was drastically lowered, becoming widely available to the masses.The change has been called the "democratization of type" and has given new designers more opportunities to enter

the field.[35]

Scope

In contemporary use, the practice and study of typography is very broad, covering all aspects of letter design andapplication, both mechanical (typesetting and type design) and manual (handwriting and calligraphy). Typographycan appear in a wide variety of situations, including:

Documents

Presentations

Display typography (described below)

Clothing

Maps[36] and labels

Vehicle instrument panels

As a component of industrial design—type on household appliances, pens and wristwatches, for example

As a component in modern poetry (see, for example, the poetry of E. E. Cummings)

Since digitization, typography has spread to a wider ranger of applications, appearing on web pages, LCD mobilephone screens, and hand-held video games.

Traditional typography follows four principles: repetition, contrast, proximity, and alignment.

Text typography

In traditional typography, text is composed to create a readable, coherent, and visually satisfying whole that worksinvisibly, without the awareness of the reader. Even distribution of typeset material, with a minimum of distractionsand anomalies, is aimed at producing clarity and transparency.

Choice of typeface(s) is the primary aspect of text typography—prose fiction, non-fiction, editorial, educational,religious, scientific, spiritual and commercial writing all have differing characteristics and requirements of appropriatetypefaces and fonts. For historic material established text typefaces are frequently chosen according to a scheme ofhistorical genre acquired by a long process of accretion, with considerable overlap between historical periods.

Contemporary books are more likely to be set with state-of-the-art seriffed "text romans" or "book romans" withdesign values echoing present-day design arts, which are closely based on traditional models such as those ofNicolas Jenson, Francesco Griffo (a punchcutter who created the model for Aldine typefaces), and ClaudeGaramond. With their more specialized requirements, newspapers and magazines rely on compact, tightly fittedseriffed text fonts specially designed for the task, which offer maximum flexibility, readability and efficient use of

Caslon, William, Roman typefaces

(specimen).

page space. Sans serif text fonts are often used for introductory paragraphs, incidental text and whole short articles.A current fashion is to pair sans-serif type for headings with a high-performance seriffed font of matching style forthe text of an article.

Typography is modulated by orthography and linguistics, word structures, word frequencies, morphology, phoneticconstructs and linguistic syntax. Typography is also subject to specific cultural conventions. For example, in Frenchit is customary to insert a non-breaking space before a colon (:) or semicolon (;) in a sentence, while in English it isnot.

Color

In typography, color is the overall density of the ink on the page, determined mainly by the typeface, but also by the

word spacing, leading and depth of the margins.[37] Text layout, tone or color of the set text, and the interplay oftext with the white space of the page in combination with other graphicelements impart a "feel" or "resonance" to the subject matter. Withprinted media typographers are also concerned with binding margins,paper selection and printing methods when determining the correct colorof the page.

Readability and legibility

Legibility is primarily the concern of the typeface designer, to ensure thateach individual character or glyph is unambiguous and distinguishablefrom all other characters in the font. Legibility is also in part the concernof the typographer to select a typeface with appropriate clarity of designfor the intended use at the intended size. An example of a well-knowndesign, Brush Script, contains a number of illegible letters, since many ofthe characters can be easily misread especially if seen out of textualcontext.

Readability is primarily the concern of the typographer or informationdesigner. It is the intended result of the complete process of presentationof textual material in order to communicate meaning as unambiguously as

possible. A reader should be assisted in navigating around the information with ease, by optimal inter-letter, inter-word and particularly inter-line spacing, coupled with appropriate line length and position on the page, carefuleditorial “chunking” and choice of the text architecture of titles, folios, and reference links.

The two concepts are distinguished by Walter Tracy in Letters of Credit: these ‘two aspects of a type’ are

fundamental to its effectiveness. Because the common meaning of “legible” is “readable” there arethose – even some professionally involved in typography – who think that the term “legibility” is all thatis needed in any discussion on the effectiveness of types. However, legibility and readability areseparate, though connected aspects of type. Properly understood… the two terms can help todescribe the character and function of type more precisely than legibility alone. … In typography weneed to draw the definition… of legibility… to mean the quality of being decipherable andrecognisable – so that we can say, for example, that the lowercase h in a particular old style italic is

Text typeset in Iowan Old Style

roman, italics and small caps,

optimized at approximately 10 words

per line, typeface sized at 14 points on

1.4 × leading, with 0.2 points extra

tracking. Extract of an essay by

Oscar Wilde The English Renaissance

of Art c. 1882.

not legible in small sizes because its in-turned leg makes it look like the letter b; or a figure 3 in aclassified advertisement is too similar to the 8. … In display sizes, legibility ceases to be a serious

matter; a character that causes uncertainty at 8 point size is plain enough at 24 point.[38]

Note that the above applies to people with 20/20 vision at appropriate reading distance and under optimal lighting.The analogy of an opticians chart, testing for visual acuity and independent of meaning, is useful to indicate thescope of the concept of legibility.

In typography… if the columns of a newspaper or magazine or the pages of a book can be read formany minutes at a time without strain or difficulty, then we can say the type has good readability. Theterm describes the quality of visual comfort – an importantrequirement in the comprehension of long stretches of text but,paradoxically, not so important in such things as telephonedirectories or air-line time-tables, where the reader is not readingcontinuously but searching for a single item of information. Thedifference in the two aspects of visual effectiveness is illustrated bythe familiar argument on the suitability of sans-serif types for textsetting. The characters in a particular sans-serif face may beperfectly legible in themselves, but no one would think of setting a

popular novel in it because its readability is low.[39]

Legibility ‘refers to perception’ and readability ‘refers to

comprehension’.[39] Typographers aim to achieve excellence in both.

"The typeface chosen should be legible. That is, it should be read withouteffort. Sometimes legibility is simply a matter of type size; more often,however, it is a matter of typeface design. In general, typefaces that aretrue to the basic letterforms are more legible than typefaces that havebeen condensed, expanded, embellished, or abstracted.

However, even a legible typeface can become unreadable throughpoor setting and placement, just as a less legible typeface can be

made more readable through good design.[40]

Studies of both legibility and readability have examined a wide range offactors including type size and type design. For example, comparing serif vs. sans-serif type, roman type vs.oblique type and italic type, line length, line spacing, color contrast, the design of right-hand edge (for example,justification, straight right hand edge) vs. ranged left, and whether text is hyphenated.

Legibility research has been published since the late nineteenth century. Although there are often commonalities andagreement on many topics, others often create poignant areas of conflict and variation of opinion. For example, noone has provided a conclusive answer as to which font, serifed or sans serif, provides the most legibility according

to Alex Poole.[41]

Other topics such as justified vs unjustified type, use of hyphens, and proper fonts for people with reading

difficulties such as dyslexia, have continued to be subjects of debate. Websites such as Hgrebdes,[42] Ban Comic

Sans,[43] UK National Literacy Trust,[44] and Mark Simsonson Studio[45] have raised debating opinions on the

above subjects and many more each presenting a thorough and well-organized position.

Legibility is usually measured through speed of reading, with comprehension scores used to check for effectiveness(that is, not a rushed or careless read). For example, Miles Tinker, who published numerous studies from the 1930sto the 1960s, used a speed of reading test that required participants to spot incongruous words as an effectivenessfilter.

The Readability of Print Unit at the Royal College of Art under Professor Herbert Spencer with Brian Coe and

Linda Reynolds[46] did important work in this area and was one of the centres that revealed the importance of thesaccadic rhythm of eye movement for readability—in particular, the ability to take in (i.e., recognise the meaning ofgroups of) around three words at once and the physiognomy of the eye, which means the eye tires if the linerequired more than 3 or 4 of these saccadic jumps. More than this is found to introduce strain and errors in reading(e.g. Doubling).

These days, legibility research tends to be limited to critical issues, or the testing of specific design solutions (forexample, when new typefaces are developed). Examples of critical issues include typefaces for people with visualimpairment, and typefaces for highway signs, or for other conditions where legibility may make a key difference.

Much of the legibility research literature is somewhat atheoretical—various factors were tested individually or incombination (inevitably so, as the different factors are interdependent), but many tests were carried out in theabsence of a model of reading or visual perception. Some typographers believe that the overall word shape(Bouma) is very important in readability, and that the theory of parallel letterwise recognition is either wrong, lessimportant, or not the entire picture.

Studies distinguishing between Bouma recognition and parallel letterwise recognition with regard to how peopleactually recognize words when they read, have favored parallel letterwise recognition, which is widely accepted bycognitive psychologists.

Some commonly agreed findings of legibility research include:

Text set in lower case is more legible than text set all in upper case (capitals), presumably because lower

case letter structures and word shapes are more distinctive.

Extenders (ascenders, descenders and other projecting parts) increase salience (prominence).

Regular upright type (roman type) is found to be more legible than italic type.

Contrast, without dazzling brightness, has also been found to be important, with black on yellow/cream being

most effective.

Positive images (e.g. black on white) are easier to read than negative or reversed (e.g. white on black).

However even this commonly accepted practice has some exceptions, for example in some cases of

disability.[44]

The upper portions of letters play a stronger part than the lower portions in the recognition process.

Readability can also be compromised by letter-spacing, word spacing, or leading that is too tight or too loose. Itcan be improved when generous vertical space separates lines of text, making it easier for the eye to distinguish oneline from the next, or previous line. Poorly designed fonts and those that are too tightly or loosely fitted can alsoresult in poor legibility.

Text typeset using LaTeX digital

typesetting software

Typography is an element of all printed material. Periodical publications, especially newspapers and magazines, usetypographical elements to achieve an attractive, distinctive appearance, to aid readers in navigating the publication,and in some cases for dramatic effect. By formulating a style guide, a periodical standardizes on a relatively smallcollection of typefaces, each used for specific elements within the publication, and makes consistent use of type

sizes, italic, boldface, large and small capital letters, colors, and othertypographic features. Some publications, such as The Guardian and TheEconomist, go so far as to commission a type designer to createbespoke (custom tailored) typefaces for their exclusive use.

Different periodical publications design their publications, including theirtypography, to achieve a particular tone or style. For example, USAToday uses a bold, colorful, and comparatively modern style throughtheir use of a variety of typefaces and colors; type sizes vary widely, andthe newspaper's name is placed on a colored background. In contrast,The New York Times uses a more traditional approach, with fewercolors, less typeface variation, and more columns.

Especially on the front page of newspapers and on magazine covers,headlines are often set in larger display typefaces to attract attention, and are placed near the masthead.

Evolution of typography

The design of typography has developed alongside the development of typesetting systems.[47]

Experimental typography

Experimental typography is defined as the unconventional and more artistic approach to setting type. FrancisPicabia was a Dada pioneer in the early 20th Century. David Carson is often associated with this movement,particularly for his work in Ray Gun magazine in the 1990s. His work caused an uproar in the design communitydue to his abandonment of standards in typesetting practices, layout, and design. Experimental typography placesemphasis on communicating emotion, rather than on legibility.

Display typography

Display typography is a potent element in graphic design, where there is less concern for readability and morepotential for using type in an artistic manner. Type is combined with negative space, graphic elements and pictures,forming relationships and dialog between words and images.

Color and size of type elements are much more prevalent than in text typography. Most display typography exploitstype at larger sizes, where the details of letter design are magnified. Color is used for its emotional effect inconveying the tone and nature of subject matter.

Display typography encompasses:

Book covers

Typographic logos and wordmarks

19th century wanted poster for John

Wilkes Booth (the assassin of U.S.

President Abraham Lincoln) printed

with lead and woodcut type, and

incorporating photography.A print advertisement for the

Encyclopædia Britannica from a

1913 issue of National Geographic

Packaging and labeling

Graffiti

Inscriptional and architectural lettering

Poster design and other large scale lettering signage such as signage and billboards

Business communications and advertising

Kinetic typography in motion pictures and television, vending machine displays, online, and computer screen

displays

Advertising

Typography has long been a vital part of promotional material andadvertising. Designers often use typography to set a theme and mood inan advertisement; for example using bold, large text to convey a

particular message to the reader.[48] Type is often used to draw attentionto a particular advertisement, combined with efficient use of color, shapes

and images.[49] Today, typography in advertising often reflects acompany's brand. Fonts used in advertisements convey differentmessages to the reader, classical fonts are for a strong personality, whilemore modern fonts are for a cleaner, neutral look. Bold fonts are usedfor making statements and attracting attention. In communicating amessage, a balance has to be achieved between the visual and the verbal

aspects in design. [50] Digital technology in the 20th and 21st centurieshas enabled the creation of typefaces for advertising that are more

experimental than traditional typefaces.[35]

Inscriptional and architectural lettering

The history of inscriptionallettering is intimately tied to thehistory of writing, the evolutionof letterforms and the craft ofthe hand. The widespread useof the computer and variousetching and sandblastingtechniques today has made thehand carved monument ararity, and the number of letter-carvers left in the USAcontinues to dwindle.

For monumental lettering to be effective it must be considered carefully in its context. Proportions of letters need tobe altered as their size and distance from the viewer increases. An expert letterer gains understanding of thesenuances through much practice and observation of their craft. Letters drawn by hand and for a specific project have

the possibility of being richly specific and profoundly beautiful in the hand of a master. Each can also take up to anhour to carve, so it is no wonder that the automated sandblasting process has become the industry standard.

To create a sandblasted letter, a rubber mat is laser cut from a computer file and glued to the stone. The sand thenbites a coarse groove or channel into the exposed surface. Unfortunately, many of the computer applications thatcreate these files and interface with the laser cutter do not have many typefaces available, and often have inferiorversions of typefaces that are available. What can now be done in minutes, however, lacks the striking architectureand geometry of the chisel-cut letter that allows light to play across its distinct interior planes.

See also

Justification (typesetting)

Kerning

List of type designers

Punctuation

Typeface

Typesetting

Symbols – Comprehensive list of typographical symbols

Supporting organizations

ATypI [International Typographic Association], French: Association Typographique Internationale.

International Society of Typographic Designers

Emil Ruder

Society of Typographic Aficionados

The Typophiles

Type Directors Club

Typophile (Internet forum)

Notes

1. ^ Kloetzel 2010, p. 34A.

2. ^ Bringhurst, Robert. The Elements of Typographic Style, version 3.1. Canada: Hartley & Marks, 2005. pp. 32.

3. ^ Pipes 1997, p. 40.

4. ^ Berry, John, Being a Typographer (http://www.creativepro.com/article/dot-font-being-a-typographer), Creative

pro.

5. ^ Blagodarskiy, Vas, Kinetic Typography and Mass Communications (http://kinetictypography.com/kinetic-

typography-and-mass-communications/).

6. ^ Jury, David (2006). What is Typography?. Mies, Switzerland: Rotovision. p. 63. ISBN 2-88046-822-1.

7. ^ Marzahn, Joachim (2010). Aramaic and Figural Stamp Impressions on Bricks of the Sixth Century B.C. from

Babylon. Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 11, 20, 160. ISBN 978-3-447-06184-1. ""the latter has cuneiform signs that

look as if made with a movable type, and impressions from Assur display the same phenomenon"

look as if made with a movable type, and impressions from Assur display the same phenomenon"

8. ̂a b Busic-Snyder, Cynthia (2012). A Typographic Workbook: A Primer to History, Techniques, and Artistry

(http://books.google.com/books?id=Lf0iDYCr6w0C). John Wiley & Sons. pp. 4, 123. ISBN 978-1-118-39988-0.

9. ^ Brekle 1997, pp. 60f.

10. ^ Schwartz 1959, p. 107.

11. ^ Diamond 1997.

12. ^ Lanciani 1881, p. 416.

13. ^ Pace 1986, p. 78.

14. ^ Hodge 1992, pp. 310f.

15. ^ Brekle 2010, p. 19.

16. ^ Brekle 2005, pp. 22–25.

17. ^ Brekle 1997, pp. 62f.

18. ^ Lehmann-Haupt 1940, pp. 96f.

19. ^ Hupp 1906, pp. 185f., fig.

20. ^ Lipinsky 1986, pp. 78–80.

21. ̂a b Koch 1994, p. 213.

22. ^ Brekle 2011.

23. ^ Lipinsky 1986, p. 78.

24. ^ Brekle 1997, pp. 61f.

25. ^ Lehmann-Haupt 1940, p. 97.

26. ^ Needham, Joseph (1994). The Shorter Science and Civilisation in China, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press.

p. 14. ISBN 9780521329958. "Bi Sheng... who first devised, about 1045, the art of printing with movable type"

27. ^ Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin (1985). Paper and Printing. Needham, Joseph Science and Civilization in China:. vol. 5

part 1. Cambridge University Press. pp. 201–217. ISBN 0-521-08690-6.

28. ^ Ch'on 1993, p. 19.

29. ^ McLuhan 1962.

30. ^ Eisenstein 1980.

31. ^ Febvre & Martin 1997.

32. ^ Man 2002.

33. ^ "Printing", Encyclopædia Britannica, 2006 .

34. ^ Dowding, Geoffrey. An Introduction to the History of Printing Types. London:Oak Knoll Press, 1998. pp. 3.

35. ̂a b Rothenberg, Randall (July 23, 1990). "Computers Change the Face of Type"

(http://www.nytimes.com/1990/07/23/business/computers-change-the-face-of-type.html). New York Times.

36. ^ Typogeography of Bangladesh (http://mapsnmaps.blogspot.com/2014/01/typogeography-of-bangladesh-text-art-

map.html).

37. ^ Eckersley 1994, p. 22: ‘A page is said to have good color if forms an even mass of gray. Squint at the page, and

you will see this.’

38. ^ Tracy 1986, pp. 30–31.

39. ̂a b Tracy 1986, p. 31.

40. ^ Craig & Scala 2006, p. 63.

41. ^ Poole, Alex, Literature review (http://www.alexpoole.info/academic/literaturereview.html).

42. ^ Hgrebdes - Colour Text Readability (http://www.hgrebdes.com/).

References

42. ^ Hgrebdes - Colour Text Readability (http://www.hgrebdes.com/).

43. ^ Ban Comic sans (http://bancomicsans.com/).

44. ̂a b Writing clearly (http://www.literacytrust.org.uk/Database/Writing/writingclearly.html), UK: National Literacy

Trust.

45. ^ Simsonson, Mark, Articles (http://www.ms-studio.com/articles.html).

46. ^ Reynolds 1988.

47. ^ Rob Carter, Ben Day, Philip B. Meggs Typographic Design: Form and Communication -- 2012 Page 125 "It is

the earliest mechanization of a handicraft: the handlettering of books. Typographic design has been closely bound

to the evolution of technology, for the capabilities and limitations of typesetting systems have posed constraints

upon the design process."

48. ^ Stanley, Thomas Blaine. The Technique of Advertising Production. New York: Prentice-Hall, 1940. pp. 40.

49. ^ Stanley, Thomas Blaine. The Technique of Advertising Production. New York: Prentice-Hall, 1940.

50. ^ Glaser, C. Knight, J. When Typography Speaks Louder Than Words. April 13th, 2012.

Standard Test Method of Comparative Legibility by Means of Polarizing Filter Instrumentation, ASTM

International, D7298.

Brekle, Herbert E (1997), "Das typographische Prinzip. Versuch einer Begriffsklärung"

(http://www.typeforum.de/news_332.htm), Gutenberg-Jahrbuch (in German) 72: 58–63.

——— (2005), Die Prüfeninger Weihinschrift von 1119. Eine paläographisch-typographische Untersuchung

(http://www.typeforum.de/news_308.htm) (brief summary) (in German), Regensburg: Scriptorium Verlag für

Kultur und Wissenschaft, ISBN 3-937527-06-0.

——— (2010), "Herstellungstechniken von Inschriften auf römischen Wasserleitungsrohren aus Blei", in

Hanneforth, Thomas; Fanselow, Gisbert, Language and Logos. Studies in Theoretical and Computational

Linguistics, Studia grammatica 72, Berlin: Akademie Verlag, pp. 419–37, ISBN 978-3-05-004931-1.

——— (2011), Die typographische Herstellungstechnik der Inschriften auf dem silbernen Altaraufsatz im Dom

von Cividale (http://epub.uni-

regensburg.de/20788/6/Die_typographische_Herstellungstechnik_der_Inschriften_auf_dem_silbernen_Altaraufsatz_

im_Dom_von_Cividale.pdf) (PDF) (in German), DE: Regensburg.

Bringhurst, Robert (2002), The Elements of Typographic Style (2.5 ed.), Vancouver: Hartley & Marks, ISBN 0-

88179-133-4. Often referred to simply as "Bringhurst", Elements is widely respected as the current authority on

typographic style for Latin typography (excerpts (http://www.aaronsw.com/2002/typographicStyle)). Well-paired

with Tschichold 1991.

Ch'on, Hye-bong (1993), "Typography in Korea", Koreana 7 (2): 10–19.

Craig, J; Scala, IK (2006), Designing with Type, the Essential Guide to Typography (5th ed.), Watson Guptil.

Diamond, Jared, "13: Necessity's Mother: The evolution of technology", Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of

Human Society, ISBN 0-393-03891-2.

Eckersley, Richard (1994), "Color", Glossary of Typesetting Terms, Chicago guides to writing, editing and

publishing, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-18371-8, OCLC 316234150

(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/316234150).

Eisenstein, Elizabeth L (1980), The Printing Press as an Agent of Change, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-

521-29955-1.

Febvre, Lucien; Martin, Henri-Jean (1997), The Coming of the Book: The Impact of Printing 1450–1800, London:

Verso, ISBN 1-85984-108-2.

Gill, Eric (2000) [1931], An Essay on Typography, David R Godine, p. 188, ISBN 0-87923-950-6.

Heller, Steven; Meggs, Philip B (2001), Texts on Type: Critical Writings on Typography, New York: Allworth

Press, ISBN 1-58115-082-2. A compilation of over fifty texts on the history, practice, and aesthetics of type

design and typography.

Hodge, A. Trevor (1992), Roman Aqueducts & Water Supply, London: Duckworth, ISBN 0-7156-2194-7.

Hupp, Otto (1906), "Die Prüfeninger Weiheinschrift von 1119", Studien aus Kunst und Geschichte, Festschrift für

Friedrich Schneider (in German), Freiburg i. Br.: Herder.

Jury, David (2004), About Face: Reviving the Rules of Typography, CH: Rotovision, ISBN 2-88046-798-5, 159

pp.

Kloetzel, James E, ed. (2010), 2011 Classic Specialized Catalogue of Stamps & Cover 1840–1940 (17 ed.),

Sidney, OH: Scott, p. 34A, ISBN 0-89487-455-1.

Koch, Walter (1994), Literaturbericht zur mittelalterlichen und neuzeitlichen Epigraphik (1985–1991), Monumenta

Germaniae Historica: Hilfsmittel (in German) 14, München, p. 213, ISBN 978-3-88612-114-4.

Lanciani, R (1975) [Classe di Scienze Morali, Rom 1881], "Topografia di Roma antica. I commentarii di Frontino

intorno le acque e gli acquedotti. Silloge epigrafica aquaria" [Topography of ancient Rome. The commentaries of

Frontini around the waters and the aqueducts], Memorie della Reale Accademia dei Lincei, III (in Italian) (Quasar)

IV: 215–616.

Lawson, Alexander (1990), Anatomy of a Typeface, ISBN 978-0-87923-333-4, devotes entire chapters to the

development and uses of individual or small groupings of typefaces.

Lehmann-Haupt, Hellmut (1940), "Englische Holzstempelalphabete des XIII. Jahrhunderts", Gutenberg-Jahrbuch

(in German): 93–97.

Lipinsky, Angelo (1986), "La pala argentea del Patriarca Pellegrino nella Collegiata di Cividale e le sue iscrizioni con

caratteri mobili", Ateneo Veneto (in Italian) 24: 75–80.

Man, John (2002), The Gutenberg Revolution: The Story of a Genius and an Invention that Changed the World,

London: Headline Review, ISBN 978-0-7472-4504-9.

Martínez de Sousa, José (2007), Manual de estilo de la lengua española [Style manual of the Spanish language]

(in Spanish) (3.ª ed.), Gijón: Trea.

——— (2008), Ortografía y ortotipografía del español actual [Orthography and orthotypography of current

Spanish] (in Spanish) (2.ª ed.), Gijón: Trea.

McLuhan, Marshall (1962), The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man (1st ed.), University of

Toronto Press, ISBN 978-0-8020-6041-9.

Mestres, Josep M; Costa, Joan; Oliva, Mireia; Fité, Ricard (2009), Manual d'estil. La redacció i l'edició de textos

[Style manual. The redaction & edition of texts] (in Catalan) (4a. rev. i ampl. ed.), Vic/Barcelona:

Eumo/UB/UPF/Rosa Sensat.

Pace, Pietrantonio (1986), Gli acquedotti di Roma e il Aquaeductu di Frontino [The aqueducts of Rome and the

aqueduct of Frontino] (in Italian) (2nd ed.), Rome: Art Studio S. Eligio.

External links

AIGA typography (http://www.aiga.org/content.cfm/search?topicAlias=typography) – Articles and

interviews relating to typography from AIGA's Voice section.

Inspireyourway (http://www.inspireyourway.com/) - An online magazine which publishes typography related

topics occasionally.

Decode Unicode (http://www.decodeunicode.org/) – A wiki with all 98,884 Unicode characters, including

full text search capability.

Type-Culture Academic Resource (http://www.typeculture.com/academic_resource/) – Educational

resources, including documentary videos about typography.

Typedesk (http://www.typedesk.com/) – An online journal of typography and graphic communication.

Archive.org (https://archive.org/stream/encyclopaediabri27chisrich#page/508/mode/thumb/) – The

Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, Typography, pages 509 to 548.

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Typography&oldid=612758257"

Papazian, Hrant H (2000), "Improving the Tool", in Swanson, Gunnar, Graphic Design and Reading: explorations

of an uneasy relationship, New York: Allworth Press, ISBN 1-58115-063-6.

Pipes, Alan (1997), Production For Graphic Designers (2nd ed.), Prentice Hall.

Pujol, JM; i Solà, Joan (2000), Ortotipografia. Manual de l'author, l'autoeditor i el dissenyador gràfic

[Orthotypography. Manual of the authors, the self-editor and the graphic designer] (in Catalan) (2a rev ed.),

Barcelona: Columna.

Reynolds, Linda (1988), "Legibility of Type", Baseline 10.

Schwartz, Benjamin (1959), "The Phaistos disk", Journal of Near Eastern Studies 18 (2): 105–12,

doi:10.1086/371517 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1086%2F371517).

Swanson, Gunnar (2000), Graphic Design and Reading: explorations of an uneasy relationship, New York:

Allworth Press, ISBN 1-58115-063-6.

Tracy, Walter (1986), Letters of Credit, Gordon Fraser.

Tschichold, Jan (1991), The Form of the Book: Essays on the Morality of Good Design, Vancouver: Hartley &

Marks, ISBN 978-0-88179-034-4. A comprehensive collection of essays on the typographic art. A more classic

companion to Bringhust 2002.

Warde, Beatrice (2000), "The Crystal Goblet, or Printing Should Be Invisible", in Swanson, Gunnar, Graphic

Design and Reading: explorations of an uneasy relationship, New York: Allworth Press, ISBN 1-58115-063-6.

White, Alex W (1999), Type in Use – Effective typography for electronic publishing (pbk) (2.0 ed.), New York:

WW Norton & Co, ISBN 0-393-73034-4.

Lexique des règles typographiques en usage à l'Imprimerie nationale [Lexic of the typographic rules used at the

National press] (in French), French: Imprimerie nationale, 2002, ISBN 2-7433-0482-0.

Categories: Typography Text Design Communication design Graphic design Philatelic terminology

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