1. TypographyDesign problemsTypographyResearch by Fady El-Masry

2. Design problemsTypography2Typography (from the Greek words (typos) = form and (graphe) = writing) is the art and technique of arranging type in order to makelanguage visible. The arrangement of type involves the selection of typefaces,point size, line length, leading (line spacing), adjusting the spaces betweengroups of letters (tracking) and adjusting the space between pairs of letters(kerning). Type design is a closely related craft, which some consider distinctand others a part of typography; most typographers do not design typefaces,and some type designers do not consider themselves typographers. In moderntimes, typography has been put into motion in film, television and onlinebroadcasts to add emotion to mass communication.Typography is performed by typesetters, compositors, typographers, graphicdesigners, art directors, comic book artists, graffiti artists, clerical workers,and anyone else who arranges type for a product. Until the Digital Age,typography was a specialized occupation. Digitization opened up typographyto new generations of visual designers and lay users, and it has been said thattypography is now something everybody does.Working in the media of engraving and the flexible steel pen, eighteenth-centurywritingmasters such as George Bickham created lavishly curved scripts as well finely detailedroman capitals rendered in high contrast. Such alphabets influenced the typeface designs ofBaskerville, Didot, and Bodoni.TypographyThe Dutch designer Wim Crouwel published his designs for a new alphabet, consisting ofno diagonals or curves, in 1967. 3. Design problemsTypography3Movable type was invented by Johannes Gutenberg in fifteenth-century Germany. Histypography took cues from the dark, dense handwriting of the period, called black letter.Specimen of Trajan typeface, based on the letterforms of capitalis monumentalis or Romansquare capitals, as used for the inscription at the base of Trajan's Column from which thetypeface takes its name 4. Design problemsTypography4 5. Design problemsTypography5 6. Design problemsTypography6The type historian Rob Roy Kelly created this chart to illustrate how the square serif wasmanipulated to create ornamental variations. 7. Design problemsTypography7HistoryTypography traces its origins to the first punches and dies used to make sealsand currency in ancient times. The typographical principle, that is the creationof a complete text by reusing identical characters, was first realized in thePhaistos Disc, an enigmatic Minoan print item from Crete, Greece, whichdates between 1850 and 1600 BC. It has been put forward that Roman leadpipe inscriptions were created by movable type printing, but this view hasbeen recently dismissed by the German typographer Herbert Brekle.The essential criterion of type identity was met by medieval print artifactssuch as the Latin Pruefening Abbey inscription of 1119 that was createdby the same technique as the Phaistos disc. In the northern Italian town ofCividale, there is a Venetian silver retable from ca. 1200, which was printedwith individual letter punches. The same printing technique can apparentlybe found in 10th to 12th century Byzantine staurotheca and lipsanotheca.Individual letter tiles where the words are formed by assembling single lettertiles in the desired order were reasonably widespread in medieval NorthernEurope.Modern movable type, along with the mechanical printing press, was inventedin mid-15th century Europe by the German goldsmith Johannes Gutenberg.His type pieces from a lead-based alloy suited printing purposes so well thatthe alloy is still used today. Gutenberg developed specialized techniques forcasting and combining cheap copies of letterpunches in the vast quantitiesrequired to print multiple copies of texts. This technical breakthrough wasinstrumental in starting the Printing Revolution. Typography with movabletype was separately invented in 11th-century China. Metal type was firstinvented in Korea during the Goryeo Dynasty around 1230. Both handprinting systems, however, were only sporadically used and discontinued afterthe introduction of Western lead type and the printing press.The painter and designer Geofroy Tory believed that the proportions of the alphabetshould reflect the ideal human form. He wrote, the cross-stroke covers the mans organ ofgeneration, to signify that Modesty and Chastity are required, before all else, in those whoseek acquaintance with well-shaped letters.Whereas humanist designers such as Geofroy Tory were inspired by the human body, this idealletterform was created along quasi-scientific lines. These engravings by Louis Simonneau isfrom an alphabet commissioned by Louis XIV in 1693. The engravings were the basis of aroyal typeface (romain du roi) designed by Philippe Grandjean. 8. Design problemsTypography8The traditional storage of fonts in two cases, one for majuscules and one for minuscules,yielded the terms uppercase and lowercase still used today.Garamond typefaces, based on the Renaissance designs of Claude Garamond, sixteenthcentury 9. Design problemsTypography9The types of the eighteenth-century English printer William Caslon are characterized bycrisp, upright characters that recall the fluid strokes of the flexible steel pen and the pointedquill.In the late eighteenth century, the English printer John Baskerville created type with suchcontrast between thick and thin elements that his contemporaries are said to have accusedhim of blinding all the Readers of the Nation; for the strokes of [his] letters, being too thinand narrow, hurt the Eye. 10. Design problemsTypography10Text typographyIn traditional typography, text is composed to create a readable, coherent, andvisually satisfying whole that works invisibly, without the awareness of thereader. Even distribution of typeset material, with a minimum of distractionsand anomalies, is aimed at producing clarity and transparency.Choice of font(s) is the primary aspect of text typographyprose fiction, non-fiction,editorial, educational, religious, scientific, spiritual and commercialwriting all have differing characteristics and requirements of appropriatetypefaces and fonts. For historic material established text typefaces arefrequently chosen according to a scheme of historical genre acquired bya long process of accretion, with considerable overlap between historicalperiods.Contemporary books are more likely to be set with state-of-the-art serif fedtext Romans or book Romans with design values echoing present-daydesign arts, which are closely based on traditional models such as those ofNicolas Jenson, Francesco Griffo (a punchcutter who created the modelfor Aldine typefaces), and Claude Garamond. With their more specializedrequirements, newspapers and magazines rely on compact, tightly fittedseriffed text fonts specially designed for the task, which offer maximumflexibility, readability and efficient use of page space. Sans serif text fontsare often used for introductory paragraphs, incidental text and whole shortarticles. A current fashion is to pair sans-serif type for headings with a high-performanceseriffed font of matching style for the text of an article.Typography is modulated by orthography and linguistics, word structures,word frequencies, morphology, phonetic constructs and linguistic syntax.Typography is also subject to specific cultural conventions. For example, inFrench it is customary to insert a non-breaking space before a colon (:) orsemicolon (;) in a sentence, while in English it is not. 11. Design problemsTypography11 12. Design problemsTypography12Page printed by John Baskerville The French printer Firmin Didot took Baskervilles initiatives to an extreme level by creatingtype with a wholly vertical axis and razor-thin serifs. 13. Design problemsTypography13ColorIn typography, color is the overall density of the ink on the page, determinedmainly by the typeface, but also by the word spacing, leading and depth of themargins. Text layout, tone or color of set matter, and the interplay of text withwhite space of the page and other graphic elements combine to impart a feelor resonance to the subject matter. With printed media typographers are alsoconcerned with binding margins, paper selection and printing methods.The rise of advertising in the nineteenth century stimulated demand for large-scale lettersthat could command attention in urban space. In this lithographic trading card from 1878, aman is shown posting a bill in flagrant disregard for the law. 14. Design problemsTypography14 15. Design problemsTypography15Readability and legibilityLegibility is primarily the concern of the typeface designer, to ensure thateach individual character or glyph is unambiguous and distinguishable fromall other characters in the font. Legibility is also in part the concern of thetypographer to select a typeface with appropriate clarity of design for theintended use at the intended size. An example of a well-known design, BrushScript, contains a number of illegible letters since many of the characters canbe easily misread especially if seen out of textual context.Readability is primarily the concern of the typographer or informationdesigner. It is the intended result of the complete process of presentationof textual material in order to communicate meaning as unambiguously aspossible. A reader should be assisted in navigating around the informationwith ease, by optimal inter-letter, inter-word and particularly inter-linespacing, coupled with appropriate line length and position on the page, carefuleditorial chunking and choice of the text architecture of titles, folios, andreference links.One of the clearest distinctions between the two concepts was presented byWalter Tracy in his Letters of Credit. These two aspects of a type are fundamental to its effectiveness. Because the common meaning oflegible is readable there are those even some professionally involvedin typography who think that the term legibility is all that is needed inany discussion on the effectiveness of types. But legibility and readability areseparate, though connected aspects of type. Properly understood the twoterms can help to describe the character and function of type more preciselythan legibility alone. In typography we need to draw the definition oflegibility to mean the quality of being decipherable and recognisable sothat we can say, for example, that the lowercase h in a particular old styleitalic is not legible in small sizes because its in-turned leg makes it look likethe letter b; or a figure 3 in a classified advertisement is too similar to the 8. In display sizes, legibility ceases to be a serious matter; a character thatcauses uncertainty at 8 point size is plain enough at 24 point.Text typeset in Iowan Old Style roman, italics and small caps, optimized at approximately 10words per line, typeface sized at 14 points on 1.4 x leading, with 0.2 points extra tracking.Extract of an essay by Oscar Wilde The English Renaissance of Art ca. 1882. 16. Design problemsTypography16Note that the above applies to people with 20/20 vision at appropriate readingdistance and under optimal lighting. The analogy of an opticians chart, testingfor visual acuity and independent of meaning, is useful to indicate the scopeof the concept of legibility.In typography if the columns of a newspaper or magazine or the pagesof a book can be read for many minutes at a time without strain or difficulty,then we can say the type has good readability. The term describes the qualityof visual comfort an important requirement in the comprehension oflong stretches of text but, paradoxically, not so important in such things astelephone directories or air-line time-tables, where the reader is not readingcontinuously but searching for a single item of information. The difference inthe two aspects of visual effectiveness is illustrated by the familiar argumenton the suitability of sans-serif types for text setting. The characters in aparticular sans-serif face may be perfectly legible in themselves, but no onewould think of setting a popular novel in it because its readability is low.Legibility refers to perception and readability refers to comprehension.Typographers aim to achieve excellence in both.The typeface chosen should be legible. That is, it should be read withouteffort. Sometimes legibility is simply a matter of type size. More oftenhowever, it is a matter of typeface design. In general typefaces that aretrue to the basic letterforms are more legible than typefaces that have beencondensed, expanded, embellished, or abstracted.However, even a legible typeface can become unreadable through poorsetting and placement, just as a less legible typeface can be made morereadable through good design.Studies of both legibility and readability have examined a wide range offactors including type size and type design. For example, comparing serifvs. sans-serif type, roman type vs. oblique type and italic type, line length,line spacing, color contrast, the design of right-hand edge (for example,justification, straight right hand edge) vs. ranged left, and whether text ishyphenated.Legibility research has been published since the late nineteenth century.Although there are often commonalities and agreement on many topics, othersoften create poignant areas of conflict and variation of opinion. For example,no one has provided a conclusive answer as to which font, serifed or sansserif, provides the most legibility according to Alex Poole. 17. Design problemsTypography17Other topics such as justified vs unjustified type, use of hyphens, and properfonts for people with reading difficulties such as dyslexia, have continued tobe subjects of debate. Websites such as hgredbes.com, ban comic sans, UKNational Literacy Trust, and Mark Simsonson Studio have raised debatingopinions on the above subjects and many more each presenting a thoroughand well-organized position.Legibility is usually measured through speed of reading, with comprehensionscores used to check for effectiveness (that is, not a rushed or careless read).For example, Miles Tinker, who published numerous studies from the 1930sto the 1960s, used a speed of reading test that required participants to spotincongruous words as an effectiveness filter.The Readability of Print Unit at the Royal College of Art under ProfessorHerbert Spencer with Brian Coe and Linda Reynoldsdid important workin this area and was one of the centres that revealed the importance of thesaccadic rhythm of eye movement for readabilityin particular, the ability totake in (i.e., recognise the meaning of groups of) around three words at onceand the physiognomy of the eye, which means the eye tires if the line requiredmore than 3 or 4 of these saccadic jumps. More than this is found to introducestrain and errors in reading (e.g. Doubling).These days, legibility research tends to be limited to critical issues, or thetesting of specific design solutions (for example, when new typefaces aredeveloped). Examples of critical issues include typefaces (also called fonts)for people with visual impairment, and typefaces for highway signs, or forother conditions where legibility may make a key difference.Much of the legibility research literature is somewhat atheoreticalvariousfactors were tested individually or in combination (inevitably so, as thedifferent factors are interdependent), but many tests were carried out in theabsence of a model of reading or visual perception. Some typographersbelieve that the overall word shape (Bouma) is very important in readability,and that the theory of parallel letterwise recognition is either wrong, lessimportant, or not the entire picture.Studies distinguishing between Bouma recognition and parallel letterwiserecognition with regard to how people actually recognize words when theyread, have favored parallel letterwise recognition, which is widely acceptedby cognitive psychologists. 18. Design problemsTypography18Some commonly agreed findings of legibility research include:Text set in lower case is more legible than text set all in upper case(capitals), presumably because lower case letter structures and wordshapes are more distinctive.Extenders (ascenders, descenders and other projecting parts) increasesalience (prominence).Regular upright type (roman type) is found to be more legible thanitalic type.Contrast, without dazzling brightness, has also been found to beimportant, with black on yellow/cream being most effective.Positive images (e.g. black on white) are easier to read than negativeor reversed (e.g. white on black). However even this commonlyaccepted practice has some exceptions, for example in some cases ofdisability. (See UK National Literacy Trust for their findings in thisarea.)The upper portions of letters play a stronger part than the lowerportions in the recognition process.Readability can also be compromised by letter-spacing, word spacing, orleading that is too tight or too loose. It can be improved when generousvertical space separates lines of text, making it easier for the eye todistinguish one line from the next, or previous line. Poorly designed fonts andthose that are too tightly or loosely fitted can also result in poor legibility.Typography is an element of all printed material. Periodical publications,especially newspapers and magazines, use typographical elements toachieve an attractive, distinctive appearance, to aid readers in navigating thepublication, and in some cases for dramatic effect. By formulating a styleguide, a periodical standardizes on a relatively small collection of typefaces,each used for specific elements within the publication, and makes consistentuse of type sizes, italic, boldface, large and small capital letters, colors, andother typographic features. Some publications, such as The Guardian andThe Economist, go so far as to commission a type designer to create bespoke(custom tailored) typefaces for their exclusive use.Different periodical publications design their publications, including theirtypography, to achieve a particular tone or style. For example, USA Todayuses a bold, colorful, and comparatively modern style through their use of avariety of typefaces and colors; type sizes vary widely, and the newspapersname is placed on a colored background. In contrast, The New York Timesuses a more traditional approach, with fewer colors, less typeface variation,and more columns.Especially on the front page of newspapers and on magazine covers, headlinesare often set in larger display typefaces to attract attention, and are placednear the masthead.Experimental typography is defined as the unconventional and more artisticapproach to setting type. Francis Picabia was a Dada pioneer in the early 20thCentury. David Carson is often associated with this movement, particularlyfor his work in Ray Gun magazine in the 1990s. His work caused an uproarin the design community due to his abandonment of standards in typesettingpractices, layout, and design. Experimental typography places emphasis oncommunicating emotion, rather than on legibility. 19. Design problemsTypography19 20. Design problemsTypography20 21. Design problemsTypography21 22. Design problemsTypography22Display typographyDisplay typography is a potent element in graphic design, where there is lessconcern for readability and more potential for using type in an artistic manner.Type is combined with negative space, graphic elements and pictures, formingrelationships and dialog between words and images.Color and size of type elements are much more prevalent than in texttypography. Most display typography exploits type at larger sizes, where thedetails of letter design are magnified. Color is used for its emotional effect inconveying the tone and nature of subject matter.This Dada poster uses a variety of typefaces as well as advertising cuts(stock illustrations available in the printers shop). The layout is innovativeand dynamic, fighting against the grid. of letterpress. Iliazd, 1923. 23. Design problemsTypography23 24. Design problemsTypography24 25. Design problemsTypography2519th century John Wilkes Booth wanted poster printed with wood and metaltypesFat Face is an inflated, hyper-bold type style developed in the earlynineteenth century. It is Bodoni on steroids. 26. Design problemsTypography26Display typography encompasses:posters; book covers;typographic logos and wordmarks; billboards;packaging and labeling; on-product typography; calligraphy;graffiti; inscriptional and architectural lettering;poster design and other large scale lettering signage;business communications and promotional collateral; advertising;wordmarks and typographic logos (logotypes),and kinetic typography in motion pictures and television; vendingmachine displays; online and computer screen displays.The wanted poster for the assassins of Abraham Lincoln was printed with leadand woodcut type, and incorporates photography.AdvertisingTypography has long been a vital part of promotional material andadvertising. Designers often use typography to set a theme and mood inan advertisement; for example using bold, large text to convey a particularmessage to the reader. Type is often used to draw attention to a particularadvertisement, combined with efficient use of color, shapes and images.Today, typography in advertising often reflects a companys brand. Fonts usedin advertisements convey different messages to the reader, classical fonts arefor a strong personality, while more modern fonts are for a cleaner, neutrallook. Bold fonts are used for making statements and attracting attention.Inscriptional and architectural letteringThe history of inscriptional lettering is intimately tied to the history ofwriting, the evolution of letterforms and the craft of the hand. The widespreaduse of the computer and various etching and sandblasting techniques todayhas made the hand carved monument a rarity, and the number of letter-carversleft in the USA continues to dwindle.For monumental lettering to be effective it must be considered carefully inits context. Proportions of letters need to be altered as their size and distancefrom the viewer increases. An expert letterer gains understanding of thesenuances through much practice and observation of their craft. Letters drawnby hand and for a specific project have the possibility of being richly specificand profoundly beautiful in the hand of a master. Each can also take up to anhour to carve, so it is no wonder that the automated sandblasting process hasbecome the industry standard.To create a sandblasted letter, a rubber mat is laser cut from a computer fileand glued to the stone. The sand then bites a coarse groove or channel into theexposed surface. Unfortunately, many of the computer applications that createthese files and interface with the laser cutter do not have many typefacesavailable, and often have inferior versions of typefaces that are available.What can now be done in minutes, however, lacks the striking architectureand geometry of the chisel-cut letter that allows light to play across its distinctinterior planes. 27. Design problemsTypography27 28. Design problemsTypography28 29. Design problemsTypography29 30. Design problemsTypography30 31. Design problemsTypography31Glossary of Typographic TermsThis section provides a small glossary of terms frequently used in the typeworld.AlignmentThe positioning of text within the text block or frame. Alignment can beflush left, flush right, justified, or centered. Flush left and flush right aresometimes referred to as left justified and right justified.AscenderThe part of lowercase letters (such as k,b,and d) that ascends above thex-height of theother lowercase letters in a font.Adobe Type Manager(ATM)ATM Light is a system software component for the Windows and MacOS platforms that automatically generates high-quality bitmappedcharacter shapes on a computer monitor from Postscript Type 1or OpenType outline font data.ATM light also allows you to print PostScriptfonts on non-PostScript printers. ATM Deluxe is Adobes personal fontmanagement application.BaselineThe imaginary linen which the majority of the characters in a typefacerest.Body textThe paragraphs in a document that make up the bulk of its content.Body text should be set in an appropriate and easy to read face,typically at to or 12 point size.BoldfaceA typeface that has been enhanced by rendering it in darker, thickerstrokes so that it will stand out on the page. Headlines that needemphasis should be bold face. italics are preferable for emphasis inbody text. Some publishing applications allow you to apply a computer-generated,or fake, bold style to a regular weight font. Using thistechnique is not recommended.BulletA dot or other special character placed at the left of items in a list toshow that they are individual, but related, points.Cap heightThe height from the baseline to the top of the uppercase letter in a footThis may or may not be the same as the height of ascenders. Cap heightis used in some systems to measure the type size.CenteredText placed at an equal distance from the left and right margins. Titlesare often centered. It is generally not good to mix centered text withflush left or flush right text.Character, character codeA single letter, punctuation mark, number, space, or any other object orsymbol in a typeface set. In the context of modern computer operatingsystems, it is often defined as a code with a meaning attached to it. Poorexample, the decimal character code97 represents the letter a.Also seecharacter encoding keyboard layout, Open Type, Unicode.Character mappingSee character encoding.Character encodingA table in a foot or a computer operating system that maps charactercodes to glyphs in a font. Most operating systems are moving from a 32. Design problemsTypography32platform-specific single-byte encoding system that limited the numberof possible glyphs in a font to 156 to a new two-byte internationalencoding standard called Unicode. Unicode allows for the inclusion ofup to 65,000 glyphs in a single font. Adobes Open Type fonts are basedon Unicode. Also see character, glyph, keyboard layout, Unicode.ColorSee typographic color.CondensedA narrower version of a font, used to fit a maximum number ofcharacters into a given space.ContrastA subjective feeling that graphic elements (such as fonts) are differentbut work together well. This gives a feeling of variety without losingharmony. Within a particular font, contrast also refers to the differencesof stroke thicknesses that make up the characters. For example, Myriadhas low contrast and Bodoni has high contrastCopy fittingThe process of adjusting the size and spacing of type to make it fitwithin a defined area of the page.Decorative fontAn appearance-based or usage-based category of fonts. Decorativefonts are often ornate and attention-grabbing. in her book The Non-Designers Design Book, Robin Williams has provided a useful workingdefinition of a decorative font:...if the thought of reading an entirebook in that font makes you want to throw up, you can probably put itin the decorative pot.DescenderThe part of lowercase letters (such as y, p, and q) that descends belowthe baseline of the other lowercase letters in a font. In some typefaces,the uppercase J and Q also descend below the baseline.DingbatsSymbol characters such as decorations, arrows, and bullets.Display fontsAnother category of fonts with characteristics similar to decorativefonts. In some typeface families, a font is categorized as a display fontwhen it has been specifically designed for larger sizes (usually over 24points) with thinner strokes, more delicate serifs, etc.DPLAn abbreviation for dots per inch. Refers to the resolution at whicha device, such as a monitor or printer, can display text and graphics.Monitors are usually 72 to 120 dpi or less, and laser printers are usually6oo dpi or higher. An image printed on a laser printer looks sharper thanthe same image on a monitor.Drop capA design treatment in which the first capital letter of a paragraph isset in a larger point size and aligned with the top of the first line. Thismethod is used to indicate the start of a new section of text, such as achapter. Also see raised cap.EllipsisA punctuation character consisting of three dots, or periods, in a row. Itindicates that a word or phrase has been omitted. 33. Design problemsTypography33Em,em space,emquad Common units of measurement in typography. An em istraditionally defined as the width of the uppercase M in the current faceand point size. It is more properly defined as simply the current pointsize. For example, in 12 point type, one em is a distance of 12 points.En dashA dash the length of an em, used to indicate a break in a sentence: Hisfriend-also an editor- thought the same thingEn,en space enquad Common units of measurement in typography. An en istraditionally defined as the width of the uppercase N in the current faceand the current point size. It is more properly defined as half the widthof an em.En dashA dash the length of an en, used to indicate a range of values: 1960-1990.EncodingSee character encoding.Expert set. expert collectionA font that has a more refined, or expanded, set of typographiccharacters than regular fonts. Expert sets may contain old style figures,ligatures, small capitals, embellishments, fractions, or other uniquecharacters. Also see Open Type.Face See typeface.FamilyA collection of typefaces that were designed and intended to be usedtogether. For example, the Utopia family consists of roman and italicstyles, as well as regular, semi bold, and bold weights. Each of the styleand weight combinations is referred to as a font or typeface.Flush leftText that is aligned on the left margin is said to be set ftu.sh left or flushleft, ragged right The term ragged right is sometimes used alone tomean the same thing.Flush rightText that is aligned on the right margin is said to be set flush right orflush right, ragged left. The term ragged left is sometimes used alone tomean the same thing.FontOne weight, width, and style of a typeface: Optima* Bold andHelvetica Light Condensed are examples of fonts. Before digital type,a font usually referred to a specific point size of a particular style ofa typeface. For example,48-point Helvetica Bold would have beenconsidered a font. Today, the terms font, typeface, and family are oftenused interchangeably, though family usually refers to the general typedesign, such as Helvetica, and font and typeface usually refer to thespecific weight, width, or style of a type design, such as Helvetica BoldFont family See family.Glyph In the context of modern computer operating systems, glyph isoften defined as a shape in a font that is used to represent a charactercode on screen or paper. The most common example of a glyph is aletter in a specific font, but the symbols and shapes in a font like lTCZapf Dingbats are also glyphs. Also see character, character encoding,and keyboard layout. 34. Design problemsTypography34Hanging IndentA document style in which the 6rstline of a paragraph is alignedwith the left margin, and the remaining lines are all indented an equalamount. This is an effective way to display lists of information.HeadlineThe short lines of emphasized text that introduce detail informationin the body text that follows. Also the category of typefaces that aredesigned to work best in headline text.Headline fontA font that has been designed to look good at large point sizes for usein headlines. Headline fonts generally do not contain a complete setof characters since they do not require a fullest of special symbols andpunctuation.HintsThe mathematical instructions added to digital fonts to make them sharpat all sizes and on display devices of different resolutions.ItalicA slanting or script-like version of a face. The upright faces are oftenreferred to as roman. Some publishing applications allow you to apply acomputer-generated, or fake, italicized style to a roman font. Using thistechnique is not recommended. Also see oblique.JustifiedA block of text that has been spaced so that the text aligns on both theleft and right margins. justified text has a more formal appearance, butmay be harder to read if not properly set.KerningThe adjustment of horizontal space between individual characters ina line of text. Without kerning adjustments, many letter combinationscan look awkward. The objective of kerning is to create visually equalspaces between all letters so that the eye can move smoothly along thetext. Some combinations of characters naturally have excessive spacebetween them (such as Ta or vo) and must be manually adjusted by thedesigner or typographer. These adjusted combinations are called kernedpairs. Kerning may be applied automatically by desktop publishingprograms based on tables of values built into the font. Some programsalso allow manual kerning to make fine adjustments. Adjustments inkerning are especially important in large display and headline text lines.Also see letter spacing.Keyboard layout, keyboard mappingA keyboard layout or mapping is a table used by a computer operatingsystem to govern which character code is generated when a key or keycombination is pressed. Sometimes known as a character mapping. Alsosee character, character encoding, glyph.Leading (pronounced ledding)The amount of space added between lines of text to make the documentlegible. The term originally referred to the thin lead spacers that printersused to physically increase space between lines of metal type. Mostapplications automatically apply standard leading based on the pointsize of the font. Closer leading fits more text on the page, but decreaseslegibility. Looser leading spreads text out to fill a page and makes thedocument easier to read. Leading can also be negative, in which casethe lines of text are so close that they overlap or touch.LetterspadngAdjusting the average distance between letters in a block of text to fitmore or less text into the given space or to improve legibility. Kerning 35. Design problemsTypography35allows adjustments between individual letters, letter spacing is appliedto a block of text as a whole. Letter spacing is sometimes referred to astracking or track kerning. Letter spacing is often adjusted to open up thelook of a typeface or to add drama to a headline by stretching it across apage. Also see kerning, tracking.LigatureTwo or more letters combined into a single letterform. In sometypefaces, character combinations such as fiend B overlap, resultingin an unsightly shape. The fi and fl ligatures were designed to improvethe appearance of these characters. Letter combinations such as ff, ffi,and ffl are available in Adobes expert set fonts and in most Open1ypePro fonts. Open Type fonts may also have other ligatures designed toimprove appearance of other letter combinations (such as Th) or forartistic effect.Multiple masterA class of PostScript font developed by Adobe that allows youto modify and create new fonts based on a particular style. Forinstance, you could create fonts that are bolder or expanded whilestill maintaining the correct proportions, stroke width changes, andother subtle design characteristics of the original typeface. Also seePostScript, PostScript Type 1.ObliqueA slanting version of a face. Oblique is similar to italic, but without thescript quality of a true italic. The upright faces are usually referred to asroman. Also see italic.Open TypeA cross-platform font file format developed by Adobe and Microsoft.Open Type is an extension to the TrueType file format that can nowsupport PostScript font data and new typographic features. Basedon Unicode,Open1ype fonts may include an expanded characterset and layout features to provide richer linguistic support andadvanced typographic control. Feature-rich Adobe Open1ype fontsare distinguished by the word Pro, which is part of the font name andappears in application font menus.Open1ype fonts can be installedand used alongside PostScript 1ype 1 and TrueType fonts. Also seeUnicode, True type, PostScript 1type 1.Optical sizeA specific typeface design that is tailored for the point size it is tobe used at Several of Adobes Open1ype fonts include four opticalsize variations-caption, regular, subhead, and display-that have beenoptimized for use at specific point sizes. Although the exact intendedsizes vary by family, the general size. ranges include: caption (6-8point), regular (9-13 point),subhead (14-24 point), and display (25-72point).Several of Adobes Multiple Master fonts also include the abilityto select an optical size.PFB fileThe portion of a Windows PostScript Type 1font that contains the fontsoutline information.PFM fileThe portion of a Windows PostScript Type 1font that contains the fontsmetria information.Paragraph rulesGraphic lines associated with a paragraph that separate blocks of text.Rules are commonly used to separate columns and isolate graphics on apage. Some programs allow paragraph styles to be created that includeparagraph rules above and/or below the paragra.ph. 36. Design problemsTypography36PicaA unit of measure in typography. A pica is equal to 12 points. The 1/6of an inch.Picture fontA font that displays pictures or symbols instead of letters or characters.Picture fonts are useful for making logos, borders or interestingbullets. Like clipart, they can also be used as graphic raw material insome graphics software packages, such as Adobe Photoshop or AdobeIllustrator. Also known as pi fonts, symbol fonts, and dingbats.PointA unit of measure in typography. There are approximately 72 points tothe inch. A pica is 12 points.Point sizeThe most common method of measuring type. The distance from thetop of the highest ascender to the bottom of the lowest descended inpoints. In Europe, type is sometimes measured by the cap height inmillimeters.PostScriptmathematically-based page description language that communicateswith your output device and conveys information regarding how tocreate complex letter shapes and graphics. Developed by Adobe in1985.Post Script Type 1A font format designed to conform to the PostScript page descriptionlanguage. On Windows, PostScript Type 1fontsconsist of a PPB file thatcontains the fonts outline information and a PFM file that contains thefonts metrics. On the Mac OS platform, PostScript fonts are composedof screen fonts (or bitmapped fonts) and printer fonts (or outline fonts).PostScript fonts require a PostScript printer to render accurately or theycan be printed to a non-PostScript output device using Adobe TypeManager. Also see PostScript font, Multiple Master.Printer fontOne of the two components of a PostScript font for the Mac OS. Theprinter font contains mathematically-defined outlines for all characters(or glyphs) in that font, and is downloaded to the printer when that fontis used in a document Also known as an outline font.Proportional figuresNumerals that have different widths depending on their shape. Whensetting body text, it is preferable to use proportional figures. Also seetabular figures.Raised capA design treatment in which the first capital letter of a paragraph is setin a large point size and aligned with the baseline of the first line of text.Also see drop cap.ReverseThe technique of printing or displaying whiter lightcoloredtext on ablack or dark background for emphasis. This technique greatly reduceslegibility, especially with small type.RiversWord spaces that align vertically from line to line in poorly justified textcreating a distracting river of white space in a block of copy.RomanCommonly refers to the upright version of a face within a font family,as compared to the italic version. 37. Design problemsTypography37RuleA solid or dashed graphic line in documents used to separate theelements of a page. Rules and other graphic devices should be usedsparingly, and only for clarifying the function of other elements on thepage.Sans serifA typeface that does not have serifs.Screen fontOne of two components for a PostScript font on the Mac OS platform.These are created by sending electronic information to pixels (dots) onthe computer screen thus allowing you to view the font on-screen. Alsoknown as a bitmapped font.Script fontFonts that appear to have been hand lettered with a calligraphy pen orbrush,or sometimes with a pencil or technical pen.SerifA small decorative stroke at the end of a letters main strokes. Serifsimprove readability by leading the eye along the line of type.StyleOne of the variations in appearance, such as italic and bold, that makeup the faces in a type family.Symbol fontA category of type in which the characters are special symbols ratherthan alphanumeric characters.Tabular figuresNumerals that all have the same width. This makes it easier to settabular matter. Most fonts have tabular figures. Also see proportionalfigures.Text fontText fonts are used for body copy and are most commonly serif fonts.In large families of typefaces these are often denoted with the suffixesregular or book (for example, Utopia Regular or lTC Veljovic Book).TrackingAdjusting the average distance between letters in a block of text.Generally, large type requires proportionally less space between lettersto appear subjectively right visually while small type requires moreletter spacing to appear right .Also see letter spading.TrueTypeAn outline font technology developed by Apple Computer.Type 1 See PostScript Type 1.Type family See family.TypefaceThe letters, numbers, and symbols that make up a design of type. Atypeface is often part of a type family of coordinated designs. Theindividual typefaces are named after the family and are also specifiedwith a designation, such as italic, bold, or condensed. For example, theitalic style of the Times family is referred to as a typeface or font. 38. Design problemsTypography38Typographic colorThe apparent blackness of a block of text. Color is a function of therelative thickness of the strokes that make up the characters in a font, aswell as the width, point size, and leading used for setting the text block.UnicodeAn international double-byte character encoding standard thatencompasses virtually all of the worlds languages. Supported by manyof the leading hardware and software manufacturers, Unicode assignsa unique value teach of the characters (or glyphs) in all of the worldslanguages.UnjustifiedDepending on alignment, this term refers to text that is set Rush left,Rush right, or centered.WeightThe relative darkness of the characters in the various typefaces withina type family. Weight is indicated by relative terms such as thin, light,bold, extra-bold, and black.White spaceThe blank areas on a page where text and illustrations are not printed.White space should be considered an important graphic element in pagedesign.WidthOne of the possible variations of a typeface within a font family, such ascondensed or extendedWord spaceAdjusting the average distance between words to improve legibility orto fit a block of text into a given amount of space.X-heightTraditionally, x-height is the height of the lowercase letter L It is alsothe height of the body of lowercase letters in a font, excluding theascenders and descanters. Some lowercase letters that do not haveascenders or descanters still extend a little bit above or below thex-height as part of their design. The x-height can vary greatly fromtypeface to typeface at the same point size. 39. Design problemsTypography39 40. Design problemsTypography40 41. Design problemsTypography41 42. Design problemsTypography42 43. Design problemsTypography43 44. Design problemsTypography44 45. Design problemsTypography45 46. Design problemsTypography46 47. Design problemsTypography47 48. Design problemsTypography48 49. Design problemsTypography49 50. Design problemsTypography50ReferencesASTM International D7298 Standard Test Method of Comparative Legibilityby Means of Polarizing Filter InstrumentationBrekle, Herbert E. (2005), Die Prfeninger Weihinschrift von 1119. Einepalographisch-typographische Untersuchung (brief summary), Regensburg:Scriptorium Verlag fr Kultur und Wissenschaft, ISBN 3-937527-06-0Brekle, Herbert E. (2010), Herstellungstechniken von Inschriften aufrmischen Wasserleitungsrohren aus Blei, in Hanneforth, Thomas; Fanselow,Gisbert, Language and Logos. Festschrift for Peter Staudacher on his 70thbirthday, Berlin: Akademie Verlag, pp. 120Bringhurst, Robert (2002). The Elements of Typographic Style (version2.5). Vancouver: Hartley & Marks. ISBN 0-88179-133-4. Often referred tosimply as Bringhurst, Elements is widely respected as the current authorityon typographic style for Latin typography. (excerpts). Well-paired withTschicholds The Form of the Book, below, from the same publisher.Febvre, Lucien; Martin, Henri-Jean (1997), The Coming of the Book: TheImpact of Printing 14501800, London: Verso, ISBN 1-85984-108-2Hupp, Otto (1906), Die Prfeninger Weiheinschrift von 1119, Studien ausKunst und Geschichte, Festschrift fr Friedrich Schneider, Freiburg i. Br.:HerderMan, John (2002), The Gutenberg Revolution: The Story of a Genius and anInvention that Changed the World, London: Headline Review, ISBN 978-0747245049McLuhan, Marshall (1962), The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making ofTypographic Man (1st ed.), University of Toronto Press, ISBN 978-0802060419Pace, Pietrantonio (1986), Gli acquedotti di Roma e il Aquaeductu di Frontino(2nd ed.), Rome: Art Studio S. EligioTracy, Walter Letters of Credit 1986 Gordon FraserTschichold, Jan (1991). The Form of the Book: Essays on the Morality ofGood Design. Vancouver: Hartley & Marks. ISBN 978-0881790344. Acomprehensive collection of essays on the typographic art. A more classiccompanion to Bringhust, above.Lexique des rgles typographiques en usage lImprimerie nationale, French:Imprimerie nationale, 2002, ISBN 2-7433-0482-0, for French typography.Swanson, Gunnar Graphic Design and Reading: explorations of an uneasyrelationship (c) 2000, Allworth Press, Allworth Communications, New York.ISBN 1-58115-063-6. The Crystal Goblet, or Printing Should Be InvisibleBeatrice Warde; Improving the Tool Hrant H. Papazian.Alexander Lawson, Anatomy of a Typeface, first published in 1990, devotesentire chapters to the development and uses of individual or small groupingsof typefaces. ISBN 978-0879233334White, Alex W. (1999). Type in Use Effective typography for electronicpublishing (version 2.0). W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. New York. ISBN0-393-73034-4 (pbk).Mestres, Josep M.; Costa, Joan; Oliva, Mireia; Fit, Ricard. Manual destil.La redacci i ledici de textos. 4a ed., rev. i ampl. Vic / Barcelona: Eumo /UB / UPF / Rosa Sensat, 2009. For Catalan typography.