Parthenon 1

Parthenon

ParthenonΠαρθενών (Greek)

The Parthenon

Location within Greece Athens central

General information

Type Greek Temple

Architectural style Classical

Location Athens, Greece

Coordinates 37°58′12.9″N 23°43′20.89″E

Current tenants Museum

Construction started 447 BC[1] [2]

Completed 432 BC[1] [2]

Height 13.72 m (45.0 ft)

Technical details

Size 69.5 by 30.9 m (228 by 101 ft)

Other dimensions Cella: 29.8 by 19.2 m (98 by 63 ft)

Design and construction

Owner Greek government

Architect Iktinos, Kallikrates

Other designers Phidias (sculptor)

The Parthenon (Ancient Greek: Παρθενών) is a temple on the Athenian Acropolis, Greece, dedicated to the Greek goddess Athena, whom the people of Athens considered their patron. Its construction began in 447 BC and was completed in 438 BC, although decorations of the Parthenon continued until 432 BC. It is the most important surviving building of Classical Greece, generally considered to be the culmination of the development of the Doric order. Its decorative sculptures are considered some of the high points of Greek art. The Parthenon is regarded as an

Parthenon 2

enduring symbol of Ancient Greece and of Athenian democracy and one of the world's greatest cultural monuments.The Greek Ministry of Culture is currently carrying out a program of selective restoration and reconstruction toensure the stability of the partially ruined structure.[3]

The Parthenon itself replaced an older temple of Athena, which historians call the Pre-Parthenon or Older Parthenon,that was destroyed in the Persian invasion of 480 BC. Like most Greek temples, the Parthenon was used as atreasury. For a time, it served as the treasury of the Delian League, which later became the Athenian Empire. In the5th century AD, the Parthenon was converted into a Christian church dedicated to the Virgin Mary. After theOttoman Turk conquest, it was turned into a mosque in the early 1460s, and it had a minaret built in it. On 26September 1687, an Ottoman Turk ammunition dump inside the building was ignited by Venetian bombardment.The resulting explosion severely damaged the Parthenon and its sculptures. In 1806, Thomas Bruce, 7th Earl ofElgin removed some of the surviving sculptures, with the Ottoman Turks' permission. These sculptures, now knownas the Elgin Marbles or the Parthenon Marbles, were sold in 1816 to the British Museum in London, where they arenow displayed. The Greek government is committed to the return of the sculptures to Greece, so far with nosuccess.[4]

EtymologyThe origin of the Parthenon's name is from the Greek word "παρθενών" (parthenon), which referred to the "virgin'sapartments" in a house and in the Parthenon's case seems to have been used only for a particular room of thetemple;[5] it is debated which room this is and how the room acquired its name. The Liddell-Scott-JonesGreek-English Lexicon states that this room was the western cella of the Parthenon. Jamauri D. Green holds that theparthenon was the room in which the peplos presented to Athena at the Panathenaic Festival was woven by thearrephoroi, a group of four young girls chosen to serve Athena each year.[6] Christopher Pelling asserts that AthenaParthenos may have constituted a discrete cult of Athena, intimately connected with, but not identical to, that ofAthena Polias.[7] According to this theory, the name of Parthenon means the "temple of the virgin goddess" andrefers to the cult of Athena Parthenos that was associated with the temple.[8] The epithet parthénos (Greek:παρθένος), whose origin is also unclear,[9] meant "maiden, girl", but also "virgin, unmarried woman"[10] and wasespecially used for Artemis, the goddess of wild animals, the hunt, and vegetation, and for Athena, the goddess ofstrategy and tactics, handicraft, and practical reason.[11] It has also been suggested that the name of the templealludes to the virgins (parthenoi), whose supreme sacrifice guaranteed the safety of the city.[12]

The first instance in which Parthenon definitely refers to the entire building is in the 4th-century BC oratorDemosthenes. In 5th-century building accounts, the structure is simply called ho naos ("the temple"). The architectsMnesikles and Kallikrates are said to have called the building Hekatompedos ("the hundred footer") in their losttreatise on Athenian architecture,[13] and, in the 4th century and later, the building was referred to as theHekatompedos or the Hekatompedon as well as the Parthenon; the 1st-century AD writer Plutarch referred to thebuilding as the Hekatompedon Parthenon.[14]

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Architecture

Floor plan of the Parthenon

Reconstruction of the Acropolis and Areus Pagusin Athens, Leo von Klenze, 1846

The first endeavor to build a sanctuary for Athena Parthenos on the siteof the present Parthenon was begun shortly after the Battle ofMarathon (c. 490–488 BC) upon a muscular limestone foundation thatextended and leveled the southern part of the Acropolis summit. Thisbuilding was replaced by a hekatompedon (meaning "hundred-footer")and would have stood beside the archaic temple dedicated to theAthena Polias. The Older or Pre-Parthenon, as it is frequently referredto, was still under construction when the Persians sacked the city in480 BC and razed the Acropolis.[15] [16]

In the mid-5th century BC, when the Athenian Acropolis became theseat of the Delian League and Athens was the greatest cultural centreof its time, Pericles initiated an ambitious building project that lastedthe entire second half of the century. The most important buildingsvisible on the Acropolis today—the Parthenon, the Propylaia, theErechtheion and the temple of Athena Nike—were erected during thisperiod. The Parthenon was built under the general supervision of thesculptor Phidias, who also had charge of the sculptural decoration. Thearchitects, Iktinos and Kallikrates, began in 447 BC, and the buildingwas substantially completed by 432, but work on the decorationscontinued until at least 431. Some of the financial accounts for theParthenon survive and show that the largest single expense wastransporting the stone from Mount Pentelicus, about 16 kilometresfrom Athens, to the Acropolis. The funds were partly drawn from thetreasury of the Delian League, which was moved from the Panhellenicsanctuary at Delos to the Acropolis in 454 BC.

Although the nearby Temple of Hephaestus is the most completesurviving example of a Doric order temple, the Parthenon, in its day,was regarded as the finest. The temple, wrote John Julius Cooper,"Enjoys the reputation of being the most perfect Doric temple everbuilt. Even in antiquity, its architectural refinements were legendary,especially the subtle correspondence between the curvature of thestylobate, the taper of the naos walls and the entasis of thecolumns."[17] Entasis refers to the slight bulge of the columns as theyrise, though the observable effect on the Parthenon is considerablymore subtle than on earlier temples with their noticeably cigar-shapedcolumns. The stylobate is the platform on which the columns stand. As in many other classical Greek temples,[18] ithas a slight parabolic upward curvature intended to shed rainwater and reinforce the building against earthquakes.The columns might therefore be supposed to lean outwards, but they actually lean slightly inwards so that if theycarried on, they would meet exactly a mile above the centre of the Parthenon; since they are all the same height, thecurvature of the outer stylobate edge is transmitted to the architrave and roof above: "All follow the rule of beingbuilt to delicate curves," Gorham Stevens observed when pointing out that, in addition, the west front was built at aslightly higher level than that of the east front.[19] It is not universally agreed what the intended effect of these"optical refinements" was; it may serve as a sort of "reverse optical illusion".[20] As the Greeks may have been

Parthenon 4

aware, two parallel lines appear to bow, or curve outward, when intersected by converging lines. In this case, theceiling and floor of the temple may seem to bow in the presence of the surrounding angles of the building. Strivingfor perfection, the designers may have added these curves, compensating for the illusion by creating their owncurves, thus negating this effect and allowing the temple to be seen as they intended. It is also suggested that it wasto enliven what might have appeared an inert mass in the case of a building without curves, but the comparison oughtto be with the Parthenon's more obviously curved predecessors than with a notional rectilinear temple.Some studies of the Acropolis, including the Parthenon, conclude that many of its proportions approximate thegolden ratio. The Parthenon's facade as well as elements of its facade and elsewhere can be circumscribed by goldenrectangles.[21] This view that the golden ratio was employed in the design has been disputed in more recentstudies.[22]

Measured at the stylobate, the dimensions of the base of the Parthenon are 69.5 metres by 30.9 metres(228.0 x 101.4 ft). The cella was 29.8 metres long by 19.2 metres wide (97.8 x 63.0 ft), with internal colonnades intwo tiers, structurally necessary to support the roof. On the exterior, the Doric columns measure 1.9 metres (6.2 ft) indiameter and are 10.4 metres (34.1 ft) high. The corner columns are slightly larger in diameter. The Parthenon had46 outer pillars and 23 inner pillars in total. The stylobate has an upward curvature towards its centre of60 millimetres (2.36 in) on the east and west ends, and of 110 millimetres (4.33 in) on the sides. The roof wascovered with large overlapping marble tiles known as imbrices and tegulae.

Sculpture

The Parthenon from the south. In the foregroundof the image, a reconstruction of the marble

imbrices and tegulae (roof tiles) forming the roofis visible, resting on wooden supports.

The Parthenon, an octostyle, peripteral Doric temple with Ionicarchitectural features, housed the chryselephantine statue of AthenaParthenos sculpted by Phidias and dedicated in 439 or 438 BC. Thedecorative stonework was originally highly coloured.[23] The templewas dedicated to Athena at that time, though construction continueduntil almost the beginning of the Peloponnesian War in 432. By theyear 438, the sculptural decoration of the Doric metopes on the friezeabove the exterior colonnade, and of the Ionic frieze around the upperportion of the walls of the cella, had been completed. The richness ofthe Parthenon's frieze and metope decoration is in agreement with thefunction of the temple as a treasury. In the opisthodomus (the backroom of the cella) were stored the monetary contributions of the DelianLeague, of which Athens was the leading member.

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Metopes

Detail of the West metopes, illustrating thecurrent condition of the temple in detail after

2,500 years of war, pollution, erraticconservation, pillage and vandalism

The ninety-two metopes were carved in high relief, a practiceemployed until then only in treasuries (buildings used to keep votivegifts to the gods). According to the building records, the metopesculptures date to the years 446–440 BC. Their design is attributed tothe sculptor Kalamis. The metopes of the east side of the Parthenon,above the main entrance, depict the Gigantomachy (mythical battlesbetween the Olympian gods and the Giants). The metopes of the westend show Amazonomachy (mythical battle of the Athenians against theAmazons). The metopes of the south side show the ThessalianCentauromachy (battle of the Lapiths aided by Theseus against thehalf-man, half-horse Centaurs). Metopes 13–21 are missing, butdrawings from 1674 attributed to Jaques Carrey indicate a series of

humans; these have been interpreted as scenes from the Lapith wedding, scenes from the early history of Athens andvarious myths.[24] On the north side of the Parthenon, the metopes are poorly preserved, but the subject seems to bethe sack of Troy.

The metopes present surviving traces of the Severe Style in the anatomy of the figures' heads, in the limitation of thecorporal movements to the contours and not to the muscles, and in the presence of pronounced veins in the figures ofthe Centauromachy. Several of the metopes still remain on the building, but, with the exception of those on thenorthern side, they are severely damaged. Some of them are located at the Acropolis Museum, others are in theBritish Museum, and one can be seen at the Louvre museum.In March 2011, it was announced that five metopes of the Parthenon had been discovered in the south wall ofAcropolis which had been extended when the Acropolis was used as a fortress. According to “Eleftherotypia” daily,the archaeologists claim that the metopes have been placed in the 18th century, when the Acropolis wall was beingrepaired. The experts discovered the metopes, while processing 2250 photos with modern photographic methods asthe white Pentelic marble of which they are made differed from the other stone of the wall. It was previouslypresumed that the missing metopes had been destroyed during the Morosini explosion of the Parthenon, in 1687.[25]

Frieze

Phidias Showing the Frieze of the Parthenon tohis Friends, 1868 painting by Lawrence

Alma-Tadema

The most characteristic feature in the architecture and decoration of thetemple is the Ionic frieze running around the exterior walls of the cella.The bas-relief frieze was carved in situ; it is dated in 442 BC-438 BC.

One interpretation is that it depicts an idealized version of thePanathenaic procession from the Dipylon Gate in the Kerameikos tothe Acropolis. In this procession held every year, with a specialprocession taking place every four years, Athenians and foreignerswere participating to honour the goddess Athena, offering sacrificesand a new peplos (dress woven by selected noble Athenian girls calledergastines).

Joan Breton Connelly has recently argued for another interpretation ofthe frieze, in which she attempts to prove that the iconography of the frieze is based on Greek mythology. Thisinterpretation postulates that the scenes depict the sacrifice of Pandora, youngest daughter of Erechtheus, to Athena.This human sacrifice was demanded by Athena to save the city from Eumolpus, king of Eleusis, who had gatheredan army to attack Athens.[26]

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PedimentsThe 2nd-century traveller Pausanias, when he visited the Acropolis at the end of the 2nd century AD, onlymentioned briefly the sculptures of the pediments (gable ends) of the temple, reserving the majority of hisdescription for the gold and ivory statue of the goddess inside.

East pediment

Part of the east pediment still found on theParthenon

The east pediment narrates the birth of Athena from the head of herfather, Zeus. According to Greek mythology, Zeus gave birth toAthena after a terrible headache prompted him to summon Hephaestus'(the god of fire and the forge) assistance. To alleviate the pain, heordered Hephaestus to strike him with his forging hammer, and whenhe did, Zeus's head split open and out popped the goddess Athena infull armour. The sculptural arrangement depicts the moment ofAthena's birth.

Unfortunately, the centrepieces of the pediment were destroyed evenbefore Jacques Carrey created otherwise useful documentary drawingsin 1674, so all reconstructions are subject to conjecture andspeculation. The main Olympian gods must have stood around Zeus and Athena watching the wondrous event, withHephaestus and Hera probably near them. The Carrey drawings are instrumental in reconstructing the sculpturalarrangement beyond the center figures to the north and south.[27]

West pediment

The west pediment faced the Propylaia and depicted the contest between Athena and Poseidon during theircompetition for the honor of becoming the city's patron. Athena and Poseidon appear at the center of thecomposition, diverging from one another in strong diagonal forms, with the goddess holding the olive tree and thegod of the sea raising his trident to strike the earth. At their flanks, they are framed by two active groups of horsespulling chariots, while a crowd of legendary personalities from Athenian mythology fills the space out to the acutecorners of the pediment.The work on the pediments lasted from 438 to 432 BC, and the sculptures of the Parthenon pediments are some ofthe finest examples of classical Greek art. The figures are sculpted in natural movement with bodies full of vitalenergy that bursts through their flesh, as the flesh in turn bursts through their thin clothing. The thin chitons allowthe body underneath to be revealed as the focus of the composition. The distinction between gods and humans isblurred in the conceptual interplay between the idealism and naturalism bestowed on the stone by the sculptors.[28]

The pediments no longer exist.

Athena ParthenosThe only piece of sculpture from the Parthenon known to be from the hand of Phidias[29] was the statue of Athenahoused in the naos. This massive chryselephantine sculpture is now lost and known only from copies, vase painting,gems, literary descriptions and coins.[30]

Older ParthenonThe first endeavour to build a sanctuary for Athena Parthenos on the site of the present Parthenon was begun shortly after the Battle of Marathon (c. 490–88 BC). This building replaced a hekatompedon (meaning "hundred-footer") and would have stood beside the archaic temple dedicated to Athena Polias. The “older Parthenon”, as it is frequently referred to, was still under construction when the Persians sacked the city in 480 BC and razed the Acropolis. The

Parthenon 7

existence of the proto-Parthenon and its destruction were known from Herodotus,[31] and the drums of its columnswere plainly visible built into the curtain wall north of the Erechtheum. Further material evidence of this structurewas revealed with the excavations of Patagiotis Kavvadias of 1885–90. The findings of this dig allowed WilhelmDörpfeld, then director of the German Archaeological Institute, to assert that there existed a distinct substructure tothe original Parthenon, called Parthenon I by Dörpfeld, not immediately below the present edifice as had beenpreviously assumed.[32] Dörpfeld's observation was that the three steps of the first Parthenon consisted of two stepsof Poros limestone, the same as the foundations, and a top step of Karrha limestone that was covered by the loweststep of the Periclean Parthenon. This platform was smaller and slightly to the north of the final Parthenon, indicatingthat it was built for a wholly different building, now wholly covered over. This picture was somewhat complicatedby the publication of the final report on the 1885–90 excavations, indicating that the substructure was contemporarywith the Kimonian walls, and implying a later date for the first temple.[33]

If the original Parthenon was indeed destroyed in 480, it invites the question of why the site was left a ruin forthirty-three years. One argument involves the oath sworn by the Greek allies before the Battle of Plataea in479 BC[34] declaring that the sanctuaries destroyed by the Persians would not be rebuilt, an oath from which theAthenians were only absolved with the Peace of Callias in 450.[35] The mundane fact of the cost of reconstructingAthens after the Persian sack is at least as likely a cause. However, the excavations of Bert Hodge Hill led him topropose the existence of a second Parthenon, begun in the period of Kimon after 468 BC.[36] Hill claimed that theKarrha limestone step Dörpfeld took to be the highest of Parthenon I was in fact the lowest of the three steps ofParthenon II, whose stylobate dimensions Hill calculated to be 23.51 by 66.888 metres (77.13 ft × 219.45 ft).One difficulty in dating the proto-Parthenon is that at the time of the 1885 excavation the archaeological method ofseriation was not fully developed; the careless digging and refilling of the site led to a loss of much valuableinformation. An attempt to make sense of the potsherds found on the acropolis came with the two-volume study byGraef and Langlotz published 1925–33.[37] This inspired American archaeologist William Bell Dinsmoor to attemptto supply limiting dates for the temple platform and the five walls hidden under the re-terracing of the Acropolis.Dinsmoor concluded that the latest possible date for Parthenon I was no earlier 495 BC, contradicting the early dategiven by Dörpfeld.[38] Further Dinsmoor denied that there were two proto-Parthenons, and that the onlypre-Periclean temple was what Dörpfeld referred to as Parthenon II. Dinsmoor and Dörpfeld exchanged views in theAmerican Journal of Archaeology in 1935.[39]

FunctionAlthough the Parthenon is architecturally a temple and is usually called so, it is not really one in the conventionalsense of the word.[40] A small shrine has been excavated within the building, on the site of an older sanctuaryprobably dedicated to Athena as a way to get closer to the God,[40] but the Parthenon never hosted the cult of AthenaPolias, patron of Athens: the cult image which was bathed in the sea and to which was presented the peplos, was anolivewood xoanon, located at an older altar on the northern side of the Acropolis.[41]

The colossal statue of Athena by Phidias was not related to any cult[42] and never inspired any recorded religiousfervour.[41] It did not seem to have any priestess, altar nor cult name.[43] According to Thucydides, Pericles oncereferred to the statue as a gold reserve, stressing that it "contained forty talents of pure gold and it was allremovable".[44] The Athenian statesman thus implies that the metal, obtained from contemporary coinage,[45] couldbe used again without any impiety.[43]

The Parthenon should then be viewed as a grand setting for the votive statue of Phidias rather than a cult site.[46] Italso served as a treasury: the funds of the Delian League, transferred from Delos to Athens in 454 BC, were housedin one of its rooms.

Parthenon 8

Later history

Christian churchThe Parthenon survived as a temple to Athena for close to a thousand years. It was certainly still intact in the 4thcentury AD, by which time it was already as old as Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris is now, and far older than St.Peter's Basilica in Rome. But by that time Athens had been reduced to a provincial city of the Roman Empire, albeitone with a glorious past. Sometime in the 5th century AD, the great cult image of Athena was looted by one of theEmperors, and taken to Constantinople, where it was later destroyed, possibly during the siege of Constantinopleduring the Fourth Crusade in 1204 AD.

Image of Parthenon at night

Shortly after this, the Parthenon was converted to a Christian church.In Byzantine times it became the Church of the Parthenos Maria(Virgin Mary), or the Church of the Theotokos (Mother of God). It wasthe fourth most important pilgrimage in the Eastern Roman Empireafter Constantinople, Ephessos and Thessalonica.[47] In 1018, theemperor Basil II went on a pilgrimage to Athens directly after his finalvictory over the Bulgarians for the sole purpose of worshipping at theParthenon.[47] In medieval Greek accounts it called the Temple ofTheotokos Atheniotissa and often indirectly referred to, as famouswithout explaining which temple they were referring to precisely, thus

establishing that it was indeed well known.[47]

At the time of the Latin occupation, it became for about 250 years a Roman Catholic church of Our Lady. Theconversion of the temple to a church involved removing the internal columns and some of the walls of the cella, andthe creation of an apse at the eastern end. This inevitably led to the removal and dispersal of some of the sculptures.Those depicting gods were either possibly re-interpreted according to a Christian theme, or removed and destroyed.

Islamic mosqueIn 1456, Athens fell to the Ottomans and a portion of the Parthenon was converted into a mosque. The Ottomanswere respectful of ancient monuments in their territories and did not willfully destroy the antiquities of Athens, but atthe same time made no special effort to protect them. A minaret was added to the Parthenon, and its base andstairway are still functional, leading up as high as the architrave and hence invisible from the outside. Otherwise, theOttomans did not further modify the building. European visitors in the 17th century, as well as some representationsof the Acropolis hill, testified that the building was largely intact.Despite the existing tensions the 17th century, Turkish traveler Evliya Çelebi published one of the most poeticappraisals ever made of its enduring beauty. He concluded with a fervent prayer that the Parthenon, “a work less ofhuman hands than of Heaven itself, should remain standing for all time.” Just a few years later, it was all butannihilated in the worst moment of its history. In the evening of 26 September 1687, a well-armed band of Venetianinvaders surrounded the Acropolis, intent on capturing these historic heights from the Turks. As the Turks huddledfor safety inside the ancient monument, more than 700 Venetian cannonballs found their mark against the marble.But not only Turks sheltered here: So did their stores of gunpowder—until a Venetian volley crashed through theroof and exploded the Turkish magazine. Three hundred perished, and the roofing, columns, and interior rooms wereseverely damaged.[48]

Parthenon 9

Destruction

The southern side of the Parthenon, whichsustained considerable damage in the 1687

explosion

"View of the Parthenon from the Propylea",Edward Dodwell, Views in Greece, London 1821,

depicting buildings of the time within theAcropolis

Fragment of an exploded shellfound on top of a wall in the

Parthenon, thought to originatefrom the time of the Venetian

siege

In 1687, the Parthenon suffered its greatest blow when the Venetiansunder Francesco Morosini attacked Athens, and the Ottoman Turksfortified the Acropolis and used the building as a gunpowder magazine.On 26 September a Venetian mortar, fired from the Hill ofPhilopappus, blew the magazine up and the building was partlydestroyed.[49] Morosini then proceeded to attempt to loot sculpturesfrom the ruin. The internal structures were demolished, whatever wasleft of the roof collapsed, and some of the pillars, particularly on thesouthern side, were decapitated. The sculptures suffered heavily. Manyfell to the ground, and souvenirs were later made from their pieces.Consequently some sections of the sculptural decoration are knownonly from the drawings made by Flemish artist Jacques Carrey in1674.[50] After this, much of the building fell into disuse and a smallermosque was erected.

The 18th century was a period of Ottoman Turk stagnation; as a result,many more Europeans found access to Athens, and the picturesqueruins of the Parthenon were much drawn and painted, spurring a rise inphilhellenism and helping to arouse sympathy in Britain and France forGreek independence. Amongst those early travellers and archaeologistswere James Stuart and Nicholas Revett, who were commissioned bythe Society of Dilettanti to survey the ruins of classical Athens. Whatthey produced was the first measured drawings of the Parthenonpublished in 1787 in the second volume of Antiquities of AthensMeasured and Delineated. In 1801, the British Ambassador atConstantinople, the Earl of Elgin, obtained a firman (edict) from theSultan to make casts and drawings of the antiquities on the Acropolis,to demolish recent buildings if this was necessary to view theantiquities, and to remove sculptures from them. Although theexistence of the firman is doubtful, as the original document has notbeen rescued, he took this as permission to collect all the sculptures hecould find. He employed local people to detach them from the buildingitself; a few others he collected from the ground, and some smallerpieces he bought from local people. The detachment of the sculpturescaused further irreparable damage to what was left of the building, assome of the frieze blocks were sawn in half to lessen their weight forshipment to England.

Independent Greece

When independent Greece gained control of Athens in 1832, the visible section of the minaret was demolished fromthe Parthenon, and soon all the medieval and Ottoman buildings on the Acropolis were destroyed. However theimage of the small mosque within the Parthenon's cella has been preserved in Joly de Lotbinière's photograph,published in Lerebours's Excursions Daguerriennes in 1842: the first photograph of the Acropolis.[51] The area

became a historical precinct controlled by the Greek government. Today it attracts millions of tourists every year, who travel up the path at the western end of the Acropolis, through the restored Propylaea, and up the Panathenaic

Parthenon 10

Way to the Parthenon, which is surrounded by a low fence to prevent damage.

Dispute over the marbles

Life-size pediment sculptures from the Parthenonin the British Museum

The dispute centres around the Parthenon Marbles removed by the Earlof Elgin, which are in the British Museum. A few sculptures from theParthenon are also in the Louvre in Paris, in Copenhagen, andelsewhere, but over fifty percent are in the Acropolis Museum inAthens.[52] [53] A few can still be seen on the building itself. The Greekgovernment has been campaigning since 1983 for the British Museumsculptures to be returned to Greece.[52] The British Museum hassteadfastly refused to return the sculptures,[54] and successive Britishgovernments have been unwilling to force the Museum to do so (whichwould require legislation). Nevertheless, talks between seniorrepresentatives from Greek and British cultural ministries, and theirlegal advisors took place in London on 4 May 2007. These were the first serious negotiations for several years, andthere were hopes that the two sides may move a step closer to a resolution.[55]

ReconstructionIn 1975, the Greek government began a concerted effort to restore the Parthenon and other Acropolis structures.After some delay a Committee for the Conservation of the Acropolis Monuments was established in 1983.[56] Theproject later attracted funding and technical assistance from the European Union. An archaeological committeethoroughly documented every artifact remaining on the site, and architects assisted with computer models todetermine their original locations. Particularly important and fragile sculptures were transferred to the AcropolisMuseum. A crane was installed for moving marble blocks; the crane was designed to fold away beneath the rooflinewhen not in use. In some cases, prior re-construction was found to be incorrect. These were dismantled, and a carefulprocess of restoration began.[57] Originally, various blocks were held together by elongated iron H pins that werecompletely coated in lead, which protected the iron from corrosion. Stabilizing pins added in the 19th century werenot so coated, and corroded. Since the corrosion product (rust) is expansive, the expansion caused further damage bycracking the marble.[58] All new metalwork uses titanium, a strong, light, and corrosion resistant material.The Parthenon will not be restored to a pre-1687 state, but the explosion damage will be mitigated as much aspossible, both in the interest of restoring the structural integrity of the edifice (important in this earthquake-proneregion) and to restore the aesthetic integrity by filling in chipped sections of column drums and lintels, usingprecisely sculpted marble cemented in place. New Pentelic marble is being used from the original quarry. Ultimately,almost all major pieces of marble will be placed in the structure where they originally would have been, supported asneeded by modern materials. While the repairs initially show as white against the weathered tan of original surfacesthey will become less prominent as they age.

Parthenon 11

Restorationworks, 2002

Partialreconstruction

(work inprogress) of

theParthenon,Athens, to

ensurestructuralstability,

2007

Areconstructed

architraveblock of theParthenon.

Diagram of reconstruction ofnorth side

Wide-scale restoration in 2010.

Notes[1] http:/ / academic. reed. edu/ humanities/ 110Tech/ Parthenon. html[2] http:/ / www. ancientgreece. com/ s/ Parthenon/[3] Ioanna Venieri. "Acropolis of Athens" (http:/ / odysseus. culture. gr/ h/ 3/ eh351. jsp?obj_id=2384). Hellenic Ministry of Culture. . Retrieved

2007-05-04.[4] "Greece urges Britain to return sculptures" (http:/ / www. upi. com/ Top_News/ 2009/ 06/ 22/ Greece-urges-Britain-return-sculptures/

UPI-36201245680874/ ). UPI.com. 2009-06-22. . Retrieved 2009-06-29.[5] παρθενών (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 04. 0057:entry=parqenw/ n), Henry George Liddell, Robert

Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library[6] Hurwit, The Athenian Acropolis, 161–163.[7] Research has revealed a shrine with altar pre-dating the Older Parthenon, respected by, incorporated and rebuilt in the north pteron of the

Parthenon (Pelling, Greek Tragedy and the Historian, 169).[8] "Parthenon". Encyclopaedia Britannica.[9] Parthenon (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?term=Parthenon), Online Etymology Dictionary[10] παρθένος (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 04. 0057:entry=parqe/ nos), Henry George Liddell, Robert

Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library[11] Frazer, The Golden Bough, 18[12] Whitley, The Archaeology of Ancient Greece, 352[13] Harpocration.[14] Plutarch, Pericles 13.4.[15] Hurwit, The Parthenon and the Temple of Zeus, 135[16] Ioanna Venieri http:/ / odysseus. culture. gr/ h/ 3/ eh351. jsp?obj_id=2384[17] John Julius Norwich, Great Architecture of the World, 2001, p.63[18] And in the surviving foundations of the preceding Older Parthenon (Penrose, Principles of Athenian Architecture 2nd ed. ch. II.3, plate 9).[19] Penrose op. cit. pp 32–34, found the difference motivated by economies of labour; Gorham P. Stevens, "Concerning the Impressiveness of

the Parthenon" American Journal of Archaeology 66.3 (July 1962:337–338).[20] Archeologists discuss similarly curved architecture and offer the theory. Nova, "Secrets of the Parthenon," PBS. http:/ / video. yahoo. com/

watch/ 1849622/ 6070405[21] Van Mersbergen, Audrey M., "Rhetorical Prototypes in Architecture: Measuring the Acropolis", Philosophical Polemic Communication

Quarterly, Vol. 46, 1998.[22] See e.g. George Markowsky (January 1992). "Misconceptions about the Golden Ratio" (http:/ / www. math. nus. edu. sg/ aslaksen/ teaching/

maa/ markowsky. pdf) (PDF). The College Mathematics Journal 23 (1). .

Parthenon 12

[23] "Tarbell, F.B. ''A History of Ancient Greek Art''. (online book)" (http:/ / www. ellopos. net/ elpenor/ greek-texts/ ancient-greece/history-of-ancient-greek-art-12. asp). Ellopos.net. . Retrieved 2009-04-18.

[24] Barringer, Judith M (2008). Art, myth, and ritual in classical Greece (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ title/art-myth-and-ritual-in-classical-greece/ oclc/ 174134120). Cambridge. p. 78. ISBN 0521646472.

[25] of Five Metopes (http:/ / greece. greekreporter. com/ 2011/ 03/ 04/ archaeologists-discover-new-metopes-of-parthenon/ Discovery)[26] Connelly, Parthenon and Parthenoi, 53–80.[27] "Thomas Sakoulas, Ancient Greece.org" (http:/ / www. ancient-greece. org/ art/ parthenon-ped-east. html). Ancient-greece.org. 2007-04-21.

. Retrieved 2009-04-18.[28] "Thomas Sakoulas, Ancient Greece.org" (http:/ / www. ancient-greece. org/ art/ parthenon-ped-west. html). Ancient-greece.org. 2007-04-21.

. Retrieved 2009-04-18.[29] Lapatin, Kenneth D. S. (2001). Chryselephantine Statuary in the Ancient Mediterranean World. Oxford: OUP. p. 63.

ISBN 978-0-19-815311-5.[30] N. Leipen, Athena Parthenos: a huge reconstruction, 1972.[31] Herodotus Histories, 8.53[32] W. Dörpfeld, "Der aeltere Parthenon", Ath. Mitteilungen, XVII, 1892, p. 158-89 and W. Dörpfeld, "Die Zeit des alteren Parthenon", AM 27,

1902, 379–416[33] P. Kavvadis, G. Kawerau, Die Ausgabung der Acropolis vom Jahre 1885 bis zum Jahre 1890, 1906[34] NM Tod, A Selection of Greek Historical Inscriptions II, 1948, no. 204, lines 46–51, The authenticity of this is disputed, however; see also

P. Siewert, Der Eid von Plataia (Munich 1972) 98–102[35] See Minott Kerr, "The Sole Witness": The Periclean Parthenon (http:/ / people. reed. edu/ ~mkerr/ papers/ Parth95. html)[36] B. H. Hill, "The Older Parthenon", AJA', XVI, 1912, 535–58[37] B. Graef, E. Langlotz, Die Antiken Vasen von der Akropolis zu Athen, Berlin 1925–33[38] W. Dinsmoor, "The Date of the Older Parthenon", AJA, XXXVIII, 1934, 408–48[39] W. Dörpfeld, "Parthenon I, II, III", AJA, XXXIX, 1935, 497–507, and W. Dinsmoor, AJA, XXXIX, 1935, 508–9[40] S. Deacy, Athena, Routledge, 2008, p.111.[41] Burkert, Greek Religion, Blackwell, 1985, p.143.[42] MC. Hellmann, L'Architecture grecque. Architecture religieuse et funéraire, Picard, 2006, p.118.[43] B. Nagy, "Athenian Officials on the Parthenon Frieze", AJA, Vol.96, No.1 (January 1992), pp.55.[44] Thucydides 2.13.5. Retrieved 11 September 2008.[45] S. Eddy, "The Gold in the Athena Parthenos", AJA, Vol.81, No.1 (Winter, 1977), pp.107–111.[46] B. Holtzmann and A. Pasquier, Histoire de l'art antique : l'art grec, École du Louvre, Réunion des musées nationaux and Documentation

française, 1998, p.177.[47] Anthony Kaldellis Associate Professor (Department of Greek and Latin, The Ohio State University), A Heretical (Orthodox) History of the

Parthenon (http:/ / www. lsa. umich. edu/ UMICH/ modgreek/ Home/ _TOPNAV_WTGC/ Lectures at U-M/ ParthenonKaldellis. pdf), p.3[48] http:/ / www. saudiaramcoworld. com/ issue/ 200806/ i. marble. maiden. htm[49] Theodor E. Mommsen, The Venetians in Athens and the Destruction of the Parthenon in 1687, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 45,

No. 4 (October – December, 1941), pp. 544–556[50] T. Bowie, D. Thimme, The Carrey Drawings of the Parthenon Sculptures, 1971[51] Neils, The Parthenon: From Antiquity to the Present, 336– the picture was taken in October 1839[52] Greek Premier Says New Acropolis Museum to Boost Bid for Parthenon Sculptures (http:/ / www. iht. com/ articles/ ap/ 2006/ 10/ 09/

europe/ EU_GEN_Greece_Acropolis_Museum. php), International Herald Tribune[53] "Parthenon". Encyclopaedia Britannica.[54] "The Parthenon Sculptures: The Position of the British Museum Truistees and Common Misconceptions" (http:/ / www. britishmuseum. org/

the_museum/ news_and_press_releases/ statements/ the_parthenon_sculptures/ facts_and_figures. aspx). The British Museum. . Retrieved2009-04-18.

[55] Talks Due on Elgin Marbles Return (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ uk_news/ 6578661. stm), BBC News[56] Lina Lambrinou, "State of the Art: ‘Parthenon of Athens: A Challenge Throughout History" (http:/ / www. arcchip. cz/ w09/

w09_lambrinou. pdf) (pdf file) with bibliography of interim conservation reports;[57] "The Surface Conservation Project" (http:/ / cipa. icomos. org/ fileadmin/ papers/ Athens2007/ FP111. pdf) (pdf file). Once they had been

conserved the West Frieze blocks were moved to the museum, and copies cast in artificial stone were reinstalled in their places.[58] Hadingham, Evan (2008). "Unlocking the Mysteries of the Parthenon" (http:/ / www. smithsonianmag. com/ history-archaeology/ parthenon.

html). Smithsonian Magazine. . Retrieved 2008-02-22.

Parthenon 13

References

Printed sources• Burkert, Walter (1985). Greek Religion. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-36281-0.• Connelly, Joan B. (1996-01-01). "Parthenon and Parthenoi: A Mythological Interpretation of the Parthenon

Frieze". American Journal of Archaeology 100 (1): 53. doi:10.2307/506297. JSTOR 506297.• Frazer, Sir James George (1998). "The King of the Woods". The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion.

Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-192-83541-6.• Hurwit, Jeffrey M. (2000). The Athenian Acropolis: History, Mythology, and Archeology from the Neolithic Era

to the Present. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-42834-3.• Hurwit, Jeffrey M. (2005). "The Parthenon and the Tample of Zeus at Olympia". In Judith M. Barringer, Jeffrey

M. Hurwit, Jerome Jordan Pollitt. Periklean Athens and Its Legacy: Problems and Perspectives. University ofTexas Press. ISBN 0-292-70622-7.

• Neils, Jenifer (2005). The Parthenon: From Antiquity to the Present. Cambridge University Press.ISBN 0-521-82093-6.

• "Parthenon". Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2002.• Pelling, Christopher (1997). "Tragedy and Religion: Constructs and Readings". Greek Tragedy and the Historian.

Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-198-14987-5.• Tarbell, F.B. A History of Ancient Greek Art (http:/ / www. ellopos. net/ elpenor/ greek-texts/ ancient-greece/

history-of-ancient-greek-art-12. asp). online.• Whitley, James (2001). "The Archaeology of Democracy: Classical Athens". The Archaeology of Ancient Greece.

Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-62733-8.

Online sources• "Greek Premier Says New Acropolis Museum to Boost Bid for Parthenon Sculptures" (http:/ / www. iht. com/

articles/ ap/ 2006/ 10/ 09/ europe/ EU_GEN_Greece_Acropolis_Museum. php). International Herald Tribune.2006-10-09. Retrieved 2007-04-23.

• "Parthenon" (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?term=Parthenon). Online Etymology Dictionary.Retrieved 2007-05-05.

• "Talks Due on Elgin Marbles Return" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ uk_news/ 6578661. stm). BBC News.2007-04-21. Retrieved 2007-04-23.

• Ioanna Venieri. "Acropolis of Athens – History" (http:/ / odysseus. culture. gr/ h/ 3/ eh351. jsp?obj_id=2384).Acropolis of Athens. Οδυσσεύς. Retrieved 2007-05-04.

• Nova – PBS. "Secrets of the Parthenon – History" (http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=MLCW0zKR4xk&feature=related). Acropolis of Athens. PBS. Retrieved 2010-10-14.

Further reading• Beard, Mary. The Parthenon. Harvard University: 2003. ISBN 0-674-01085-X.• Cosmopoulos, Michael (editor). The Parthenon and its Sculptures. Cambridge University: 2004. ISBN

0-521-83673-5.• Holtzman, Bernard (2003) (in French). L'Acropole d'Athènes : Monuments, Cultes et Histoire du sanctuaire

d'Athèna Polias. Paris: Picard. ISBN 2-7084-0687-6.• Papachatzis, Nikolaos D. Pausaniou Ellados Periegesis- Attika Athens, 1974.• Tournikio, Panayotis. Parthenon. Abrams: 1996. ISBN 0-8109-6314-0.• Traulos, Ioannis N. I Poleodomike ekselikses ton Athinon Athens, 1960 ISBN 960-7254-01-5• Woodford, Susan. The Parthenon. Cambridge University: 1981. ISBN 0-521-22629-5.

Parthenon 14

• King, Dorothy "The Elgin Marbles" Hutchinson / Random House, January 2006. ISBN 0-09-180013-7• Queyrel, François Le Parthénon, Un monument dans l'Histoire (http:/ / www. editions-bartillat. fr/ fiche-livre.

asp?Clef=281). Bartillat, 2008. ISBN 978-2-84100-435-5.

External links• The Acropolis of Athens: The Parthenon (http:/ / odysseus. culture. gr/ h/ 2/ eh251. jsp?obj_id=912) (official site

with a schedule of its opening hours, tickets and contact information)• (Hellenic Ministry of Culture) The Acropolis Restoration Project (http:/ / www. yppo. gr/ 4/ e40. jsp?obj_id=123)• The Athenian Acropolis by Livio C. Stecchini (http:/ / www. metrum. org/ key/ athens/ index. htm) (Takes the

heterodox view of the date of the proto-Parthenon, but a useful summary of the scholarship.)• UNESCO World Heritage Centre – Acropolis, Athens (http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ en/ list/ 404)• Metropolitan Government of Nashville and Davidson County – The Parthenon (http:/ / www. nashville. gov/

parthenon/ index. htm)• Google Sketchup 3D Model of Parthenon (simplistic) (http:/ / sketchup. google. com/ 3dwarehouse/

details?mid=8174b921338882e8816a3771436c8474)• Parthenon virtual tour (http:/ / www. vgreece. com/ index. php?entry=entry050714-163859) Interactive 360°

panoramas in high resolution.• The Friends of the Acropolis (http:/ / www. acropolisfriends. gr/ index. php?lang=en)• Illustrated Parthenon Marbles (http:/ / people. hsc. edu/ drjclassics/ lectures/ ParthenonMarbles/ marbles. shtm) –

Dr. Janice Siegel, Department of Classics, Hampden-Sydney College, Virginia• Parthenon:description, photo album (http:/ / travels. co. ua/ engl/ greece/ athens/ acropolis/ parthenon/ index.

html)• A Wikimedia video of the main sights of the Athenian Acropolis• Secrets of the Parthenon (http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=MLCW0zKR4xk& feature=related) video by

Public Broadcasting Service, on YouTube

Article Sources and Contributors 15

Article Sources and ContributorsParthenon  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=444884871  Contributors: 15lsoucy, 5telios, A Macedonian, A username not in use, A.Cython, A.M. Winship, Aaron Schulz,Absalom Lied, Acalamari, Acersystem, Adam Bishop, Adam Carr, Adashiel, Addshore, AdjustShift, Aeonx, After Midnight, Ahoerstemeier, Akhilleus, Akubhai, Alansohn, Alasdair, Aldis90,Aldux, Alexius08, Alias Flood, Allstarecho, Alsandro, Amanda53, Amandajm, Ancheta Wis, Andonic, Andre Engels, Andrepalis, Andrew Dalby, Andy M. Wang, Animum, AnnaFrance,AnnaJGrant, Anonymousphrase, AnotherLoophole, Antalope, Antandrus, Anthony Appleyard, Arakunem, ArchStanton69, Argento, Argos'Dad, Arjun01, Arnon Chaffin, Artacoana, Ashleykennedy3, Athenean, Athinaios, Atif.t2, Atomician, Attilios, Avatar, Avenged Eightfold, Aviwiki4637, Avoided, Awien, B21O303V3941W42371, BTech4Eva, Babbage, Backpackadam,Badgernet, Bamelement199, Barts1a, Ben Babcock, Berkunt, Bevo, Bfigura's puppy, Bhadani, Bhgriffdawg, BigDunc, Biglovinb, Blackcat913, Bluerasberry, Bobblewik, Bobo192, BokicaK,Bongwarrior, Boodlesthecat, Brainyiscool, Bravo-Alpha, Brawlie, Brian Crawford, Brian0918, BrianFG, Brianga, Brighterorange, Bruxism, Bsimmons666, Bth, Bullzeye, Bwilkins,CBDunkerson, CIS, Calamitas-92, Calmargulis, Calvin 1998, CambridgeBayWeather, Can You Prove That You're Human, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Canley, Cantiorix, Capricorn42,Captain-tucker, CaptainVindaloo, Captmondo, CardinalDan, Casmith 789, Catalographer, CatherineMunro, Ccarroll, CenozoicEra, Chameleon, Championalex, Chasingsol, Chesdovi, Chinju,Chochopk, Chris 73, Chrislk02, Christopher Parham, Christopher chalmers, ChristopherWillis, Clarince63, Closedmouth, Cnadybaebee, Coemgenus, Colinmullin, CommonsDelinker, Conversionscript, Cool3, Coreyvi66, Corvus cornix, Courcelles, Crazykiler, Cremepuff222, Cryptic, Cskor, CyberGhostface, Cypriot stud, CyrilB, D6, D666D, DIEGO RICARDO PEREIRA, DStoykov,DaL33T, Daa89563, DaisukeVulgar, Daisy2, Dale Arnett, Dan100, Daniel 1992, DanielCD, Dark Shikari, DarkFalls, Darkterp, Dast, David Gale, David Gerard, Dbfirs, DeadEyeArrow,Delirium, Denisarona, Deor, Dgies, Dhartung, Dimadick, Dimboukas, Dinggas, Discospinster, Dismas, Ditta43, Dixi, Dkollodge, Dmytro.tyshchenko, Docu, Dogdmxdog, Donarreiskoffer,Doniago, Dougofborg, Download, Dr. Blofeld, DreamGuy, Dv82matt, Dxjbr999, ENDWW, ERK, Edderso, Egos1, El C, El Greco, Elekhh, Eleland, Elinnea, ElinorD, ElockidAlternate,Eloquence, Emerson7, Emote, Enviroboy, Epbr123, Eric A. Warbuton, ErkDemon, Error, Erud, Esparcadia, Eurosong, Evzone, Excirial, Explicit, Fan-1967, Fieldday-sunday, Filippos2, FlautoDolce, Flyax, Footwarrior, Freakofnurture, Fredrik, Freedomlinux, FreplySpang, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Fæ, Gaius Cornelius, Galoubet, Gavrilis, GeeJo, George The Dragon, Geoterms, Ggia,Ghirlandajo, Giftlite, Gilliam, Glane23, Gogo Dodo, Grafen, Graldensblud, Graziano94, Greenshed, Gscshoyru, Guitarluvr21, Gurch, Hadal, Hari, Harryboyles, Hatpins, Hawaiian717, Hebrides,Hede2000, Henkium, Hephaestos, Heran et Sang'gres, Here Under The Oaks, HexaChord, Hmains, Hobartimus, Hut 8.5, Hydrogen Iodide, I can fly 1, IPSOS, IRP, ISeneca, Iamhi10, Ian Page,Ian Pitchford, Icegirl97, Ihateprojects12, Ihcoyc, Imalad, Immaculateinsanity, Immunize, Indoor246, InfernoXV, Instinct, Intelligentsium, Inter, Interstate295revisited, Ipodamos, Iridescent,Ironist, Isewell, Islaammaged126, Ixfd64, J.delanoy, JForget, JMK, JNW, Ja 62, Jabberjawjapan, Jackfork, Jake Wartenberg, James Arboghast, James086, Jamesgr8, Jamesmusik, Jameswilson,Jan eissfeldt, Jaranda, Jastrow, Jauhienij, JavierMC, Jay-Sebastos, Jeffreytheawesome, Jerry, Jersyko, Jguk 2, JimVC3, Jkassa11, Jkbrat, Jklamo, Jlin, JoJaysius, JonDePlume, Jonathunder,JorgeGG, Joseph Dwayne, JoshAnish, Jpbowen, Juanpdp, Juliancolton, Junkyardprince, Just Another Dan, Justinarce, Kahuroa, Kaldari, Ke4roh, Keenan Pepper, Khazar, Kieran544, Kimon,Kirill Lokshin, Kkailas, Knucmo2, Kross, Kukini, Kungming2, Kuru, Kzhr, Ladybirdintheuk, Lantay77, Laxplaya94, Leandrod, LeaveSleaves, Leonard G., LiDaobing, Lightlowemon, Lights,Ligulem, Liken Wolfe, Lindmere, Littlealien182, Llarry Amrose, Logical2u, Longbow4u, Loonymonkey, Lowellian, Lyricmac, MER-C, MGTom, MONGO, Madhero88, Madmedea, Maelor,Magnus Manske, Mandarax, Mandavi, Manu bcn, MaratL, Marek69, Marsyas, Martin451, Masgatotkaca, Masseyboy519, Matthew Yeager, Maurreen, Mav, Maxatl, Me da man34, Meaghan,Mechamind90, MeegsC, Mendaliv, Mentifisto, Mephistophelian, 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Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:O Partenon de Atenas.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:O_Partenon_de_Atenas.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: SteveSwaynefile:Location map Greece Athens central.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Location_map_Greece_Athens_central.png  License: unknown  Contributors: Dr. BlofeldFile:Red pog.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Red_pog.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnduxFile:Parthenon-top-view.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Parthenon-top-view.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: ArgentoFile:Akropolis by Leo von Klenze.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Akropolis_by_Leo_von_Klenze.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Aristeas, ChristosV,Gryffindor, Odysses, Ronaldino, 1 anonymous editsFile:Parthenon from south.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Parthenon_from_south.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:Thermos (Thermos)File:Parthenon XL.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Parthenon_XL.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Bibi Saint-Pol,Conudrum, JuTa, Platonides, Siebrand, Thermos, Winterkind, 1 anonymous editsFile:1868 Lawrence Alma-Tadema - Phidias Showing the Frieze of the Parthenon to his Friends.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1868_Lawrence_Alma-Tadema_-_Phidias_Showing_the_Frieze_of_the_Parthenon_to_his_Friends.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:DenghiùComm, Juanpdp, Mattes, Oxxo, Raeky, Shakko, 2 anonymous editsFile:Partenon04.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Partenon04.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: DorieoFile:ParthenonNight.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ParthenonNight.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Schuppi, Thermos,WinterkindFile:Parthenon.Southern.Side.damaged.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Parthenon.Southern.Side.damaged.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Bibi Saint-Pol, Conudrum, Longbow4u, Para, Platonides, SiebrandFile:Dodwell Parthenon 1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dodwell_Parthenon_1.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Badseed, ChristosV, Jonathan Groß,Kenmayer, Shakko, WinterkindFile:MotarFragmentFromParthenon-BritishMuseum-August21-08.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MotarFragmentFromParthenon-BritishMuseum-August21-08.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors:User:CaptmondoFile:Parthenon-pediment-sculptures.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Parthenon-pediment-sculptures.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: LizzieFile:Athen Baustelle Akropolis 20020809-262.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Athen_Baustelle_Akropolis_20020809-262.jpg  License: GNU Free DocumentationLicense  Contributors: User:WpoppFile:ParthenonRecon06185.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ParthenonRecon06185.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Leonard GFile:ParthenonRepairDetail06163.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ParthenonRepairDetail06163.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Leonard G.

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 16

File:ParthenonNorthReconDiag6183.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ParthenonNorthReconDiag6183.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Leonard GFile:Parthenon in the rain.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Parthenon_in_the_rain.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:Wknight94 talk

LicenseCreative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unportedhttp:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/