Oceanography

For the scientific journal, see Oceanography (journal).“Ocean science” redirects here. For the scientificjournal, see Ocean Science (journal).

Oceanography (compound of the Greek words

Thermohaline circulation

ὠκεανός meaning "ocean" and γράφω meaning“write”), also known as oceanology, is the branch ofEarth science that studies the ocean. It covers a widerange of topics, including ecosystem dynamics; oceancurrents, waves, and geophysical fluid dynamics; platetectonics and the geology of the sea floor; and fluxesof various chemical substances and physical propertieswithin the ocean and across its boundaries. These diversetopics reflect multiple disciplines that oceanographersblend to further knowledge of the world ocean andunderstanding of processes within: astronomy, biology,chemistry, climatology, geography, geology, hydrology,meteorology and physics. Paleoceanography studies thehistory of the oceans in the geologic past.

1 History

1.1 Early history

Humans first acquired knowledge of the waves andcurrents of the seas and oceans in pre-historic times.Observations on tides were recorded by Aristotle andStrabo. Early exploration of the oceans was primarily forcartography and mainly limited to its surfaces and of theanimals that fishermen brought up in nets, though depthsoundings by lead line were taken.Although Juan Ponce de León in 1513 first identified theGulf Stream, and the current was well-known tomariners,Benjamin Franklin made the first scientific study of it

Map of the Gulf Stream by Benjamin Franklin, 1769-1770.Courtesy of the NOAA Photo Library.

and gave it its name. Franklin measured water temper-atures during several Atlantic crossings and correctly ex-plained the Gulf Stream’s cause. Franklin and TimothyFolger printed the first map of the Gulf Stream in 1769-1770.[1][2]

1799 map of the currents in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, byJames Rennell

Information on the currents of the Pacific Ocean wasgathered by explorers of the late 18th century, includingJames Cook and Louis Antoine de Bougainville. JamesRennell wrote the first scientific textbooks on oceanogra-phy, detailing the current flows of the Atlantic and Indianoceans. During a voyage around the Cape of Good Hopein 1777, he mapped “the banks and currents at the Lagul-

1

2 1 HISTORY

las". He was also the first to understand the nature of theintermittent current near the Isles of Scilly, (now knownas Rennell’s Current).[3]

Sir James Clark Ross took the first modern sounding indeep sea in 1840, and Charles Darwin published a pa-per on reefs and the formation of atolls as a result ofthe Second voyage of HMS Beagle in 1831-6. RobertFitzRoy published a four-volume report of the Beagle’sthree voyages. In 1841–1842 Edward Forbes undertookdredging in the Aegean Sea that founded marine ecology.The first superintendent of theUnited States Naval Obser-vatory (1842–1861), Matthew Fontaine Maury devotedhis time to the study of marine meteorology, navigation,and charting prevailing winds and currents. His 1855textbook Physical Geography of the Sea was one of thefirst comprehensive oceanography studies. Many nationssent oceanographic observations to Maury at the NavalObservatory, where he and his colleagues evaluated theinformation and distributed the results worldwide.[4]

1.2 Modern oceanography

Despite all this, human knowledge of the oceans re-mained confined to the topmost few fathoms of the waterand a small amount of the bottom, mainly in shallow ar-eas. Almost nothing was known of the ocean depths. TheRoyal Navy's efforts to chart all of the world’s coastlinesin the mid-19th century reinforced the vague idea thatmost of the ocean was very deep, although little more wasknown. As exploration ignited both popular and scien-tific interest in the polar regions and Africa, so too didthe mysteries of the unexplored oceans.

HMS Challenger undertook the first global marine research ex-pedition in 1872.

The seminal event in the founding of the modern scienceof oceanography was the 1872-76 Challenger expedition.As the first true oceanographic cruise, this expeditionlaid the groundwork for an entire academic and researchdiscipline.[5] In response to a recommendation from theRoyal Society, The British Government announced in

1871 an expedition to explore world’s oceans and con-duct appropriate scientific investigation. Charles WyvilleThompson and Sir John Murray launched the Challengerexpedition. The Challenger, leased from the Royal Navy,was modified for scientific work and equipped with sep-arate laboratories for natural history and chemistry.[6]Under the scientific supervision of Thomson, Challengertravelled nearly 70,000 nautical miles (130,000 km) sur-veying and exploring. On her journey circumnavigat-ing the globe,[6] 492 deep sea soundings, 133 bottomdredges, 151 open water trawls and 263 serial water tem-perature observations were taken.[7] Around 4,700 newspecies of marine life were discovered. The result was theReport Of The Scientific Results of the Exploring Voyageof H.M.S. Challenger during the years 1873-76. Murray,who supervised the publication, described the report as“the greatest advance in the knowledge of our planet sincethe celebrated discoveries of the fifteenth and sixteenthcenturies”. He went on to found the academic disciplineof oceanography at the University of Edinburgh, whichremained the centre for oceanographic research well intothe 20th century.[8] Murray was the first to study marinetrenches and in particular the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, andmap the sedimentary deposits in the oceans. He tried tomap out the world’s ocean currents based on salinity andtemperature observations, and was the first to correctlyunderstand the nature of coral reef development.In the late 19th century, other Western nations also sentout scientific expeditions (as did private individuals andinstitutions). The first purpose built oceanographic ship,the Albatros, was built in 1882. In 1893, Fridtjof Nansenallowed his ship, Fram, to be frozen in theArctic ice. Thisenabled him to obtain oceanographic, meteorological andastronomical data at a stationary spot over an extendedperiod.

Ocean currents (1911)

Between 1907 and 1911 Otto Krümmel published theHandbuch der Ozeanographie, which became influen-tial in awakening public interest in oceanography.[9] Thefour-month 1910 North Atlantic expedition headed byJohn Murray and Johan Hjort was the most ambitious re-search oceanographic and marine zoological project evermounted until then, and led to the classic 1912 book The

3

Depths of the Ocean.The first acoustic measurement of sea depth was madein 1914. Between 1925 and 1927 the “Meteor” expedi-tion gathered 70,000 ocean depth measurements using anecho sounder, surveying the Mid-Atlantic ridge.Sverdrup, Johnson and Fleming published The Oceansin 1942,[10] which was a major landmark. The Sea (inthree volumes, covering physical oceanography, seawaterand geology) edited by M.N. Hill was published in 1962,while Rhodes Fairbridge'sEncyclopedia of Oceanographywas published in 1966.The Great Global Rift, running along the Mid AtlanticRidge, was discovered by Maurice Ewing and BruceHeezen in 1953; in 1954 a mountain range under theArctic Ocean was found by the Arctic Institute of theUSSR. The theory of seafloor spreading was developedin 1960 by Harry Hammond Hess. The Ocean DrillingProgram started in 1966. Deep sea vents were discov-ered in 1977 by John Corlis and Robert Ballard in thesubmersible DSV Alvin.In the 1950s, Auguste Piccard invented the bathyscapheand used the Trieste to investigate the ocean’s depths. TheUnited States nuclear submarine Nautilus made the firstjourney under the ice to the North Pole in 1958. In 1962the FLIP (Floating Instrument Platform), a 355-foot sparbuoy, was first deployed.From the 1970s, there has been much emphasis on theapplication of large scale computers to oceanography toallow numerical predictions of ocean conditions and asa part of overall environmental change prediction. Anoceanographic buoy array was established in the Pacificto allow prediction of El Niño events.1990 saw the start of the World Ocean Circulation Ex-periment (WOCE) which continued until 2002. Geosatseafloor mapping data became available in 1995.In recent years studies advanced particular knowledge onocean acidification, ocean heat content, ocean currents,the El Niño phenomenon, mapping of methane hydratedeposits, the carbon cycle, coastal erosion, weatheringand climate feedbacks in regards to climate change in-teractions.Study of the oceans is linked to understanding globalclimate changes, potential global warming and relatedbiosphere concerns. The atmosphere and ocean arelinked because of evaporation and precipitation as wellas thermal flux (and solar insolation). Wind stress is amajor driver of ocean currents while the ocean is a sinkfor atmospheric carbon dioxide. All these factors relateto the ocean’s biogeochemical setup.

Oceanographic frontal systems on the Southern Hemisphere

2 Branches

The study of oceanography is divided into these fourbranches:

• Biological oceanography, or marine biology, investi-gates the ecology of marine organisms in the contextof the physical, chemical, and geological character-istics of their ocean environment and the biology ofindividual marine organisms.

• Chemical oceanography, or marine chemistry, isthe study of the chemistry of the ocean and itschemica constraint programming is a programmingparadigm wherein relations between variables arestated in the form of constraints. l interaction withthe atmosphere.

• Geological oceanography, or marine geology, is thestudy of the geology of the ocean floor includingplate tectonics and paleoceanography.

• Physical oceanography, or marine physics, stud-ies the ocean’s physical attributes includingtemperature-salinity structure, mixing, surfacewaves, internal waves, surface tides, internal tides,and currents.

3 Ocean acidification

Main article: Ocean acidification

Ocean acidification describes the decrease in ocean pHthat is caused by anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2)emissions into the atmosphere.[11] Seawater is slightly

4 7 RELATED DISCIPLINES

alkaline and had a preindustrial pH of about 8.2. Morerecently, anthropogenic activities have steadily increasedthe carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere; about 30–40% of the added CO2 is absorbed by the oceans, form-ing carbonic acid and lowering the pH (now below 8.1[12])through ocean acidification.[13][14][15] The pH is expectedto reach 7.7 by the year 2100.[16]

An important element for the skeletons of marine animalsis calcium, but calcium carbonate becomes more solu-ble with pressure, so carbonate shells and skeletons dis-solve below the carbonate compensation depth.[17] Cal-cium carbonate becomes more soluble at lower pH, soocean acidification is likely to affect marine organismswith calcareous shells, such as oysters, clams, sea urchinsand corals,[18][19] and the carbonate compensation depthwill rise closer to the sea surface. Affected planktonicorganisms will include pteropods, coccolithophorids andforaminifera, all important in the food chain. In trop-ical regions, corals are likely to be severely affected asthey become less able to build their calcium carbon-ate skeletons,[20] in turn adversely impacting other reefdwellers.[16]

The current rate of ocean chemistry change seems to beunprecedented in Earth’s geological history, making itunclear how well marine ecosystems will adapt to theshifting conditions of the near future.[21] Of particularconcern is the manner in which the combination of acidi-fication with the expected additional stressors of highertemperatures and lower oxygen levels will impact theseas.[22]

4 Ocean currents

Further information: Ocean current

Since the early ocean expeditions in oceanography, a ma-jor interest was the study of the ocean currents and tem-perature measurements. The tides, the Coriolis effect,changes in direction and strength of wind, salinity andtemperature are the main factors determining ocean cur-rents. The thermohaline circulation (THC) thermo- refer-ring to temperature and -haline referring to salt contentconnects 4 of 5 ocean basins and is primarily dependenton the density of sea water. Ocean currents such as theGulf Stream are wind-driven surface currents.

5 Ocean heat content

Further information: Oceanic heat content

Oceanic heat content (OHC) refers to the heat stored inthe ocean. The changes in the ocean heat play an impor-tant role in sea level rise, because of thermal expansion.

Oceans of Climate Change NASA

Ocean warming accounts for 90% of the energy accumu-lation from global warming between 1971 and 2010.[23]

6 Oceanographic institutions

Oceanographic Museum

See also: List of oceanographic institutions and programs

The first international organization of oceanography wascreated in 1902 as the International Council for theExploration of the Sea. In 1903 the Scripps Institu-tion of Oceanography was founded, followed by WoodsHole Oceanographic Institution in 1930, Virginia Insti-tute of Marine Science in 1938, and later the Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory at Columbia University, andthe School of Oceanography at University of Washing-ton. In Britain, the National Oceanography Centre (aninstitute of the Natural Environment Research Council)is the successor to the UK’s Institute of OceanographicSciences. In Australia, CSIRO Marine and AtmosphericResearch (CMAR), is a leading centre. In 1921 theInternational Hydrographic Bureau (IHB) was formed inMonaco.

7 Related disciplines• Biogeochemistry

• Biogeography

5

• Climatology

• Coastal geography

• Environmental science

• Geophysics

• Glaciology

• Hydrography

• Hydrology

• Limnology

• Meteorology

• MetOcean

• Marine science

8 See also

• Anoxic event – Anoxic sea water

• Argo (oceanography)

• Bathymetric chart

• Ecological Forecasting

• List of ocean circulation models

• List of seas

• List of submarine topographical features

• Marine archaeology

• Marine current power

• Marine engineering

• Ocean colonization

• Ocean engineering

• Oceans Act of 2000

• Sea level

• Sea level rise

9 References[1] 1785: Benjamin Franklin’s 'Sundry Maritime Observa-

tions’

[2] Wilkinson, Jerry. History of the Gulf Stream 1 January2008

[3] Lee, Sidney, ed. (1896). "Rennell, James". Dictionary ofNational Biography. 48. London: Smith, Elder & Co.

[4] Williams, Frances L. Matthew Fontaine Maury, Scientistof the Sea. (1969) ISBN 0-8135-0433-3

[5] Then and Now: The HMS Challenger Expedition and the'Mountains in the Sea' Expedition, Ocean Explorer web-site (NOAA), accessed 2 January 2012

[6] Rice, A. L. (1999). “The Challenger Expedition”.Understanding the Oceans: Marine Science in the Wake ofHMS Challenger. Routledge. pp. 27–48. ISBN 978-1-85728-705-9.

[7] Oceanography: an introduction to the marine environment(Peter K. Weyl, 1970), p. 49

[8] “Sir John Murray (1841-1914) - Founder Of ModernOceanography”. Science and Engineering at The Univer-sity of Edinburgh. Retrieved 7 November 2013.

[9] Otto Krümmel (1907). [Online Abstract “Handbuch derOzeanographie"] Check |url= value (help). J. Engelhorn.

[10] Sverdrup, Harald Ulrik; Johnson, Martin Wiggo; Flem-ing, Richard H. (1942). The Oceans, Their Physics, Chem-istry, and General Biology. New York: Prentice-Hall.

[11] Caldeira, K.; Wickett, M. E. (2003). “Anthropogeniccarbon and ocean pH” (PDF). Nature. 425 (6956):365–365. Bibcode:2001AGUFMOS11C0385C.doi:10.1038/425365a. PMID 14508477.

[12] “Ocean Acidity”. U.S. EPA climate change web site. EPA.13 September 2013. Retrieved 1 November 2013. Exter-nal link in |work= (help)

[13] Feely, R. A.; et al. (July 2004). “Impact of AnthropogenicCO2 on the CaCO3 System in the Oceans”. Science.305 (5682): 362–366. Bibcode:2004Sci...305..362F.doi:10.1126/science.1097329. PMID 15256664.

[14] Zeebe, R. E.; Zachos, J. C.; Caldeira, K.; Tyrrell,T. (4 July 2008). “OCEANS: Carbon Emissionsand Acidification”. Science. 321 (5885): 51–52.doi:10.1126/science.1159124. PMID 18599765.

[15] Gattuso, J.-P.; Hansson, L. (15 September 2011). OceanAcidification. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-959109-1. OCLC 730413873.

[16] “Ocean acidification”. Department of Sustainability, En-vironment, Water, Population & Communities: Aus-tralian Antarctic Division. 28 September 2007. Retrieved17 April 2013.

[17] Pinet, Paul R. (1996). Invitation to Oceanography. WestPublishing Company. pp. 126, 134–135. ISBN 978-0-314-06339-7.

[18] “What is Ocean Acidification?". NOAA PMEL CarbonProgram. Retrieved 15 September 2013.

[19] Orr, James C.; et al. (2005). “Anthropogenicocean acidification over the twenty-first century andits impact on calcifying organisms” (PDF). Nature.437 (7059): 681–686. Bibcode:2005Natur.437..681O.doi:10.1038/nature04095. PMID 16193043. Archivedfrom the original (PDF) on 25 June 2008.

6 10 EXTERNAL LINKS

[20] Cohen, A.; Holcomb, M. (2009). “Why Corals CareAbout Ocean Acidification: Uncovering the Mech-anism” (PDF). Oceanography. 24 (4): 118–127.doi:10.5670/oceanog.2009.102.

[21] Hönisch, Bärbel; Ridgwell, Andy; Schmidt, DanielaN.; Thomas, E.; et al. (2012). “The Geologi-cal Record of Ocean Acidification”. Science. 335(6072): 1058–1063. Bibcode:2012Sci...335.1058H.doi:10.1126/science.1208277. PMID 22383840.

[22] Gruber, N. (18 April 2011). “Warming up, turningsour, losing breath: ocean biogeochemistry under globalchange”. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal SocietyA: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 369(1943): 1980–96. Bibcode:2011RSPTA.369.1980G.doi:10.1098/rsta.2011.0003.

[23] IPCC AR5WG1 (2013). PDF “Summary for policymak-ers” Check |url= value (help) (PDF).

• Hamblin, JacobDarwin (2005)Oceanographers andthe Cold War: Disciples of Marine Science. Univer-sity of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-98482-7

• Steele, J., K. Turekian and S. Thorpe. (2001). En-cyclopedia of Ocean Sciences. SanDiego: AcademicPress. (6 vols.) ISBN 0-12-227430-X

• Sverdrup, Keith A., Duxbury, Alyn C., Duxbury,Alison B. (2006). Fundamentals of Oceanography,McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-07-282678-9

• Lang, Michael A., Ian G.Macintyre, and Klaus Rüt-zler, eds. Proceedings of the SmithsonianMarine Sci-ence Symposium. Smithsonian Contributions to theMarine Sciences, no. 38. Washington, D.C.: Smith-sonian Institution Scholarly Press (2009)

• Boling Guo, Daiwen Huang. Infinite-DimensionalDynamical Systems in Atmospheric and Oceanic Sci-ence, 2014, World Scientific Publishing, ISBN 978-981-4590-37-2. Sample Chapter

10 External links• NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory - PhysicalOceanography Distributed Active Archive Center(PO.DAAC). A data center responsible for archiv-ing and distributing data about the physical state ofthe ocean.

• Scripps Institution of Oceanography. One of theworld’s oldest, largest, and most important centersfor ocean and Earth science research, education, andpublic service.

• Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI).One of the world’s largest private, non-profit oceanresearch, engineering and education organizations.

• British Oceanographic Data Centre. A source ofoceanographic data and information.

• NOAA Ocean and Weather Data Navigator. Plotand download ocean data.

• Freeview Video 'Voyage to the Bottom of the DeepDeep Sea' Oceanography Programme by the VegaScience Trust and the BBC/Open University.

• Atlas of Spanish Oceanography by InvestigAdHoc.

• Glossary of Physical Oceanography and RelatedDisciplines by Steven K. Baum, Department ofOceanography, Texas A&M University

• Barcelona-Ocean.com Inspiring Education in Ma-rine Sciences

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11 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

11.1 Text• Oceanography Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanography?oldid=734815717 Contributors: The Epopt, Mav, Tarquin, Gareth

Owen, -- April, Amillar, Redmist, Danny, Rgamble, Rmhermen, Christian List, William Avery, JDG, Michael Hardy, Lexor, Ixfd64, Kose-bamse, Goatasaur, Ahoerstemeier, Stan Shebs, William M. Connolley, Александър, Glenn, Kils, Shammack, Dragons flight, SEWilco,Phoebe, Mignon~enwiki, Wetman, Flockmeal, Guppy, Robbot, Sander123, ZimZalaBim, Altenmann, Stewartadcock, Flauto Dolce,Rholton, SchmuckyTheCat, Hadal, Fuelbottle, Giftlite, Tom harrison, Peruvianllama, Bkonrad, Arnejohs, Lolipop123~enwiki, Scottveirs,Tagishsimon, Onco p53, Karol Langner, GeoGreg, Discospinster, Vsmith, Wikiacc, MeltBanana, Dbachmann, Indrian, Bender235, ESkog,Violetriga, El C, Aude, Bobo192, Smalljim, Cmdrjameson, Dtremenak, Maurreen, Pearle, Nsaa, Geschichte, Jumbuck, Alansohn, Baba-jobu, Plumbago, Iothiania, JinFX, Snowolf, Melaen, Jsnyder, Mikeo, Ghirlandajo, Recury, Ron Ritzman, Anilocra, Kokoriko, MONGO,Eleassar777, Wikiklrsc, Hard Raspy Sci, Surfscuba, Mendaliv, Rjwilmsi, Rogerd, Саша Стефановић, Jake Wartenberg, Daniel Collins,Boccobrock, Kl833x9~enwiki, Ian Dunster, FlaBot, Margosbot~enwiki, Piyrwq, Jrtayloriv, Scimitar, Chobot, DVdm, E Pluribus An-thony, YurikBot, Wavelength, Borgx, RobotE, Sceptre, Phantomsteve, RussBot, Fabartus, Sarranduin, Bergsten, Lar, Gaius Cornelius,Rsrikanth05, Wimt, NawlinWiki, ZacBowling, Nick, Brandon, Muu-karhu, Grafikm fr, Epipelagic, SFC9394, DeadEyeArrow, Jrissman,Wknight94, Wardog, The imp, Aeon1006, Mais oui!, ArielGold, AlexD, Imerilai, Mejor Los Indios, Luk, A bit iffy, SmackBot, Tarret,Prodego, Hydrogen Iodide, Unyoyega, Jrockley, Delldot, Hobbit~enwiki, Jormundgard, Commander Keane bot, Cool3, Gilliam, Skizzik,Andy M. 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CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Antarctic_bottom_water_hg.png' class='image'><imgalt='Antarctic bottom water hg.png' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Antarctic_bottom_water_hg.png/100px-Antarctic_bottom_water_hg.png' width='100' height='77' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Antarctic_bottom_water_hg.png/150px-Antarctic_bottom_water_hg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Antarctic_bottom_water_hg.png/200px-Antarctic_bottom_water_hg.png 2x' data-file-width='3300' data-file-height='2550'/></a> Original artist: Fred the Oyster

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8 11 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Gulf_stream_map.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Gulf_stream_map.gif License: Public do-main Contributors: http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/library/readings/gulf/media/gulf_bf.html Original artist: Benjamin Franklin

• File:Helmet_logo_for_Underwater_Diving_portal.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/Helmet_logo_for_Underwater_Diving_portal.png License: Public domain Contributors: This file was derived from Kask-nurka.jpg: <ahref='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kask-nurka.jpg' class='image'><img alt='Kask-nurka.jpg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Kask-nurka.jpg/50px-Kask-nurka.jpg' width='50' height='70' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Kask-nurka.jpg/75px-Kask-nurka.jpg 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Kask-nurka.jpg/100px-Kask-nurka.jpg 2x' data-file-width='981' data-file-height='1371' /></a>Original artist: Kask-nurka.jpg: User:Julo

• File:Land_ocean_ice_cloud_hires.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6b/Land_ocean_ice_cloud_hires.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Musée_Océanographique_de_Monaco.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Mus%C3%A9e_Oc%C3%A9anographique_de_Monaco.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Stanimir Stoyanov

• File:Ocean_currents_1911.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Ocean_currents_1911.jpg License:Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Oceans_of_Climate_Change.ogv Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Oceans_of_Climate_Change.ogv License: Public domain Contributors: http://climate.nasa.gov/climate_reel/OceansClimateChange640360 Original artist: NASA

• File:People_icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/People_icon.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Open-Clipart Original artist: OpenClipart

• File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?Original artist: ?

• File:Rennel_map_1799.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Rennel_map_1799.png License: Public do-main Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.nasa.gov/images/content/115334main_image_feature_329_ys_full.jpgOriginal artist: NASA/Apollo 17 crew; taken by either Harrison Schmitt or Ron Evans

• File:Thermohaline_Circulation_2.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Thermohaline_Circulation_2.png License: Public domain Contributors: NASA Earth Observatory Original artist: Robert Simmon, NASA. Minor modifications byRobert A. Rohde also released to the public domain

• File:Upwelling.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/Upwelling.svg License: Public domain Contributors:• File:Upwelling.jpg Original artist: Lichtspiel• File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau

• File:Working_Diver_01.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/Working_Diver_01.jpg License: Publicdomain Contributors:This Image was released by the United States Navy with the ID 070104-N-3093M-016 <a class='external text' href='//commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Files_created_by_the_United_States_Navy_with_known_IDs,<span>,&,</span>,filefrom=070104-N-3093M-016#mw-category-media'>(next)</a>.This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.Original artist: Mass Communication Specialist Senior Chief Andrew McKaskle

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