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METAPHYSICS

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Teacher TrainingClassical Studies: Philosophy (Metaphysics)

I. Syllabus

a. Prerequisites b. Course goals c. Content pathway

i. Introduction ii. Search for the αρχη iii. Plato

iv. Aristotle

v. Metaphysics affecting ethics: Epicureans and Stoics

vi. Christianization: Boethius and Aquinas

II. Format of the course

a. Reading

b. Lecture c. Discussion

III. Study Guide a. Role

b. Kinds of questions c. Quizzes and tests d. Essays

IV. Model Lesson

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Highlands Latin SchoolClassical Studies V Syllabus

2019-2020

Teacher: Mr. Schaeffer Email: pschaeffer@thelatinschool.org Phone: - Availability: M-F 8-5

Course GoalsI: We will start with Aristotle’s introduction to his Metaphysics and Plato’s Apology to define wonder, wisdom, and knowledge, and understand why we are doing philosophy at all.II. Then we will embrace a historical approach, starting with the pre-Socratics, their search for the ἀρχή and their problems of the one and the many, and change and permanence.III. We will then engage with the philosophical giants of the ancient world: Plato and Aristotle, continuing our search for the ἀρχή.IV. Our historical journey will lead us then to evaluate Epicureanism and Stoicism through Cicero’s On the Na-ture of the Gods.V. We will then encounter Christian medieval thought that envisions the “love of wisdom” as a manifestation of the love of God through Boethius’ Consolation of Philosophy.VI. Finally we will reach the pinnacle of Christian philosophical thought in epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, and anthropology via Kreeft’s synopsis of Aquinas.

TextsA History of Philosophy, Volume I: Greece and Rome (selections) by Frederick Copleston, S.J.The Last Days of Socrates (Phaedo, Apology) by PlatoRepublic (Book 7) by PlatoPhysics, Book I by AristotleThe Nature of the Gods by CiceroA Consolation of Philosophy by BoethiusA Shorter Summa by Peter Kreeft

Requirements/AssignmentsBinder: Students are required to keep a well organized binder for this class. The binder will vital to all students when preparing for testing and will be checked at least once a trimester for NEATNESS and COMPLETION. See the attached binder rubric for specific organizational requirements.

Attendance: Much of the reading for the course will be completed in class. For this reason it is vital that all stu-dents make attendance a priority. Regular absences will negatively affect your grade.

Participation: Students are expected to come to each class prepared and to contribute constructively. This means that students who do not have their text, notebook, or homework will lose participation points for that day.

Quizzes & Tests: There will be regular quizzes that students will be informed of beforehand. For those quizzes, students will be expected to have a good familiarity with the in-class reading and homework readings. Students

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who have read and followed along should easily score well on these quizzes. Tests will occur regularly based on end of trimester periods and the sections of the course (Pre-Socratics, Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, Boethius, Aqui-nas). They will be announced one week in advance. Short answer and essay questions will play an important role on these tests.

Grading

Grades are point based, but weight is given to assignments as follows:Binder & Notes: 10%Participation 30%Tests 30%Quizzes & Essays: 30%

Participation will be gauged in three areas:- Maturely taking part in class- Preparation for class

N.B. The instructor reserves the right to make adjustments to the schedule or course content as needed. Any such changes will be written on the board and announced in class.

Schedule by Week - Dates are subject to change

1. Introduction, Aristotle’s Metaphysics, Book I, Part A (appendix)2. Plato’s Apology (Last Days of Socrates, pp. 39-70)3. Plato’s Apology (Last Days of Socrates, pp. 39-70)4. Copleston Ch. 3-5, pp. 22-465. Copleston Ch. 6-7, pp. 47-606. Copleston Ch. 8, 9, 10, 13 (section 1), pp. 61-75, 87-917. Review, Test 18. Copleston Ch 14, 17, pp. 96-115, 127-1329. Plato’s Republic, Book 7 (from beginning through line 521) (appendix)10. Plato’s Phaedo (first third)11. Plato’s Phaedo (second third)12. Plato’s Phaedo (third third)13. Review, Test 214. Intro to Aristotle, Aristotle’s Physics, Book I (first half)15. Aristotle’s Physics, Book I (second half)16. Copleston Ch 29, pp. 287-31917. Copleston Ch 29, pp. 287-31918. Review, Test 319. Cicero, The Nature of the Gods, Book I20. Cicero, The Nature of the Gods, Book II21. Cicero, The Nature of the Gods, Book II22. Cicero, The Nature of the Gods, Book III23. Review, Test 424. Boethius, Books 1-225. Boethius, Book 326. Boethius, Book 427. Boethius, Book 5

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28. Review, Test 529. Kreeft, The Shorter Summa30. Kreeft, The Shorter Summa31. Kreeft, The Shorter Summa32. Kreeft, The Shorter Summa33. Kreeft, The Shorter Summa34. Review/Finish Writing Essay35. Finals Week

PoliciesStudents are expected to comply with the following classroom policies. Failure to do so will result in a lowered grade.

Ink Color: Notes are to be written in either pencil or blue or black ink. Blue or black ink is required for work that is to be turned in. You may use other colors for checking work. Extraneous drawing, doodling, etc. is not ac-ceptable and will result in a lowered notebook grade.

Academic Dishonesty: No form of cheating or plagiarism will be tolerated.

Neatness: Any work to be turned in must be legible. If the teacher deems it illegible, it must be rewritten and will automatically have 30% deducted from the final score.

Late work: Any late work will automatically have 50% deducted from the score. Absentees have until the follow-ing class period after their return to turn in their work for a full credit grade.

Notebook Organization

Students need: one 1” or 1.5” binder with three dividers

Students will keep all handouts, quizzes/tests, and essays in their notebook. Also they will take neat and thor-ough notes throughout the course. The notebook will be checked periodically for COMPLETENESS and NEAT-NESS. If the notebook is not obviously up to date and detailed, students will receive an appropriately lowered notebook grade and will have a re-check the following week.

Tabs

I: Study Guide/Handouts

II. Notes

III. Quizzes, Tests, Essays

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TEACHING NOTESAlla thales men ho tes taoiautes

archejos philsophias: “But Thales is the originator of such philosophy.” This points out the high place Thales occupies as he was the first to ask the question of the ἀρχή.Require students to keep a running list of philosophers and their proposed ἀρχή.The pre-Socratics ask three basic questions: (1) What is the ἀρχή? (2) Can there be change? (3) Can there be unity in diversity? In the next few weeks, present these questions to your students again and again.

COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS1. He “declared the primary stuff of all

things to be water,” raising the questionof what one thing underlies the entireworld. In this he began the search forthe ἀρχή. He found a unity in the world(“the One”) in what we perceive to bemade up of many different things.

2. He believed that the ultimate natureof the world was the IndeterminateInfinite. He didn’t claim a particularelement as the ἀρχή, but rather wassubstance without limits (τὁ ἄπειρον)since change can only come throughopposites and water was one of theopposites we see in the world.

3. He says there is an eternal motionthat in some way spins creating aseparating off of the different elements,with the heavier elements of earthand water staying in the center of thevortex while the lighter elements of fireand air rising above.

4. Anaximenes thought that the ἀρχήwas air, but his greatest contributionwas his explanation of it. He defendedhis thesis by claiming that as air iscondensed it becomes water andearth; as it rarefies, it becomes fire. Inessence he was saying that the qualityof a thing is dependant on how muchof the ἀρχή it has.

5. They were the first to see the soul as eternal in a good way, notlike the other Greeks who saw the afterlife as a shadow of thislife. The soul was the real part of a man; the body was merelyimprisonment.

6. For them, things are numbers. They seem to have come to thisconclusion by recognizing the numerical aspect of music and/orby identifying geometry with numbers. This is closely aligned tothe thought of Anaximenes in his attempt to found all quality onquantity (see Logic question #3).

7. They saw everything as made up of units: points, lines,surfaces, all were made up of individual parts that weredivisible; they were not a continuous quantity.

THE PRESOCRATIC PHILOSOPHERS

Copleston, Ch. 3-5

THE PRESOCRATIC PHILOSOPHERS

PRE-GRAMMAR | Preparation1. What is the world made of?2. think of a time where your ideas have been changed over

time due to discussions with others.

Copleston, Ch. 3-5

GRAMMAR | PresentationREADING NOTES1. First principle – that which underlies all of reality2. Urstoff / ἀρχή – German and Greek words for the

fi rst principle; literally “original matt er” and“beginning” respectively

3. τὸ ἄπειρον – Greek term for “unbounded”4. Orphicism – ancient Greek religion that particularly

reverenced dionysus5. Transmigration of souls / metempsychosis – the belief that

after death the soul will change and come back to earth asanother creature, whether human or otherwise

6. A posteriori – Latin phrase meaning “from what comesafter”; logical reasoning where one arrives at principlesfrom observing concrete experiences

7. A priori – Latin phrase meaning “from what comes before”;logical reasoning where one arrives at conclusions fromprinciples not relying on observation

8. Terminus a quo – Latin phrase meaning “the starting point”9. Terminus ad quem – Latin phrase meaning “the result”

THE PRESOCRATIC PHILOSOPHERS • Copleston, Ch. 3-5

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12 the PreSOcratic PhiLOSOPherS • Copleston, Ch. 3-5

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2. We are in the search for the primaryelement and Anaximander shows thatThales’ position presents a problem:the world is made of opposites andopposites cannot be contained inthe same thing. While it doesn’t fullyanswer the question, it is a legitimateattempt to address an issue in hispredecessor’s thought.

3. By his doctrine of rarefaction andcondensation, Anaximenes is sayingthat when there is more of the ἀρχή(air), it ends up changing its quality(becoming fire), and when there isless, it also changes its quality (e.g.,becoming water or earth). Typicallythe ancients saw those are twoseparate categories and a change inthe amount of something (quantity)would not explain a change in quality(its attributes).

4. Yes. Their search for the ἀρχήamounted to a search for the soulof the world. As they discovered themathematical principles that showorder in the world and took them tobe the ἀρχή, they felt a sense of awe,even claiming that it was good forthe soul to pursue mathematics. Inthe same way, they saw the soul assomething good and eternal, not justthe shadow of a man.

5. Thales and Anaximanes definitelyseem to be materialists in that thewords they use to explain metaphysicalreality is concrete. Anaximander couldbe considered materialist in that heis the first to refer to the ἀρχή as thematerial cause. The Pythagoreans arethe first to fully break away from thatmold seeking to find an answer outsideof matter.

6. Just as a river is one and yet cannot bestepped in twice since it is constantlymoving, all of reality can be one withforces in it that make it continuallychange. We can conceive of reality asone thing but it physically can be madeup of many.

RHETORIC1.

8. Fire as the ἀρχή is attributed to Heraclitus, not truly as a materialelement but as the manifestation of constant change. He is remembered for asserting that all is change, that everything is in flux, nothing is stable. However, he doesn’t see the tensionof opposites as contrary to there being one underlying principle;rather he sees it as being an essential part of it.

9. He saw “the One” (fire) as God. However, his view of God waspantheistic, not personal.

LOGIC1. All things that live seem to need water to emanate from seed.

Also, we see water getting hard (freezing) and becoming air(evaporating). This would seem to indicate that water could bethe underlying substratum of all things. However, if water is theopposite of fire, how could fire be made of water?

A History of Philosophy, Volume I: Greece and Rome,Ch. 3-5, pp. 22-46

COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS1. What was thales’ most important contribution to philosophy?2. What is the ἀρχή for Anaximander?3. how does anaximander account for the world’s coming to be?4. What did anaximenes add to the conversation about the

fi rst principle of the world?5. how did the Pythagoreans view the soul?6. What did the Pythagoreans think was the ἀρχή?7. What does it mean that the Pythagoreans “regarded

numbers spatially”?8. What is the Heraclitan ἀρχή?9. What is the “word” of heraclitus?

LOGIC | Dialectic1. defend that the ultimate nature of the world is water.2. is anaximander’s position a contribution to philosophy or is

he dodging the question?3. What does it mean that Anaximenes att empted “to found all

quality on quantity”?4. is there a connection between the Pythagoreans view of the

soul and their view of number underlying the world?5. are the pre-Socratics we have seen so far “materialists”?6. how can all things be one and many at the same time?

RHETORIC | Expression1. does it make sense that all being is one? how does that

relate to Aristotle’s defi nition of wisdom?

THE PRESOCRATIC PHILOSOPHERS • Copleston, Ch. 3-5

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13the PreSOcratic PhiLOSOPherS • Copleston, Ch. 3-5

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COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS1. He says one ought to either ascertain

the facts (if it is in fact possible toestablish the truth of the answer) orselect the best theory and use it as acourse of action for life (85d).

2. He says that the body must be held in balance between extremes (like hot andcold, tall and small, etc.) and the soul is the balance itself (86c).

3. Because the body is continually changing (in a sense, dying and replacing itself), one could say that the soul is what holds the body together. Once the soul leaves or perishes, it is then that the body “reveals its natural frailty” (87e). Even if the soul is longer-living than the body, itstill doesn’t mean that it can withstand death or multiple deaths.

4. Juxtaposition (putting two things next toeach other) cannot explain substantialchange. If a horse and a man are putnext to each other, it doesn’t follow thatthey are a centaur. But that is whatthe atomists, Empedocles, and othersproposed (96e-97b).

5. He thought of it as an Intelligencethat set everything the way that wouldbe the best for it. It was an orderingprinciple based on the good of theindividual thing and the universal good.

6. He says one must distinguish betweenthe reason why something happens andthe conditions required for the reason tobe operative. As an example, one mustrecognize that a man is cutting downa tree to have firewood but he is doing it by means of an ax. So to say thetree falls because it was cut by an ax is only to speak of the conditions of the fall; the reason for the fall is tobecome firewood.

7. He asserts that goodness, beauty, and the like exist in themselves as separate beings (100b), and thereforewhen we say something is “beautiful,” it is because it participates in Beauty itself.

8. The concept of “three” cannot admit of anything even. For three to become even, it would have to ceasebeing three.

LOGIC1. If the soul is merely the balance of extremes in the body, its existence is predicated on the body. Without the

body, it cannot exist as harmony of something cannot be spoken of if that something doesn’t already exist.Simmias uses the example of a musical instrument--if the instrument is broken, no harmony can come from itor be a part of it.

Plato’s Phaedo, Lines 84c-107a

GRAMMAR | PresentationREADING NOTES

if you have trouble understanding Plato’s arguments or his main points, use the history of Philosophy by copleston as a reference. Particularly helpful will be pp. 142-163 on the theory of knowledge, pp. 163-206 on the doctrine of the Forms, and pp. 244-252 on Plato’s Physics.1. hoopoe – a bird with a distinctive crown of feathers, of a

gold or tan color on the top half of its body and stripedblack and white on the lower half.

2. misologic – dislike of reasoning3. misanthropic – hatred of humankind

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COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS1. Simmias outlines two possible courses of action when faced

with the possibility that it is very diffi cult to establish theimmortality of the soul. What are they?

2. How does Simmias defi ne the soul?3. What is cebes’ objection to the immortality of the soul?4. What problems does Socrates raise with regards to

substantial change?5. how did Socrates understand the Nous of anaxagoras?6. What is the distinction Socrates draws with regards to the

reason why things happen?7. What does Socrates assume when trying to defend his

theory of causation?

PLATO • Plato’s Phaedo, Lines 84c-107a

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Plato's Phaedo, Lines 84c-107a

24 PLatO • Plato's Phaedo, Lines 84c-107a

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4. The idea of attunement allowsfor a greater or lesser degree ofattunement--but one person cannothave more of a soul than another.Therefore, the soul cannot bean attunement. Also, the soul asattunement would seem to indicatethat the soul must follow the leadof the bodily elements while clearlythe soul leads the body in manycases such as exercise training orany form of self-control.

5. These are the metaphysicalreasons, not the physicalhappenings that can be said to bethe cause of something. Socratesdid not want to know the biologicalreasons or forces of physics causingsomeone to sit down; rather, hewanted to know why the person wassitting in the sense of purpose.

6. It conflates accidents withessences. When we say that“Simmias is bigger than Socrates” itseems to indicate that it is innate toSimmias to be taller than Socrates.However, that quality is accidentalto both Simmias and Socrates.

7. First, the soul must be present ina thing to make it alive. And sincethings cannot admit Forms oppositeto their nature, and dying is oppositeto living, the soul as that which isnecessarily present for life, must notadmit of dying. Just as three wouldbe imperishable if odd were eternal,the soul is imperishable as life isundying. After all of this we know thesoul is immortal.

RHETORIC1. Answers will vary.

2. They find themselves to be skeptics--they deny that thereis anything “stable or dependable either in things or inarguments” (90c) because they continually hold one thing astrue then realize it isn’t and then repeat the process. Socratesencourages us to never become misologic.

3. No, they cannot be in accord with one another. If the soul ismerely the balance between physical qualities, then it will bethe last thing to come into existence and the first thing to go outof existence. Therefore it cannot exist prior to earthly life andthe theory of recollection is impossible.

8. Give an example that illustrates the following: “Not onlydoes an opposite not admit its opposite, but if anythingis accompanied by a Form which has an opposite, andmeets that opposite, then the thing which is accompaniednever admits the opposite of the Form by which it isaccompanied.” (105a)

LOGIC | Dialectic1. How does Simmias’ defi nition of the soul demand that the

soul cease to exist after death?2. What is the end result of people who become disillusioned

with argumentation? Why?3. can the theory of recollection and the objection from

att unement be harmonized? Why or why not?4. Argue against the view that the soul is an att unement of

the body.5. What does Socrates mean by “the real reasons” (98e)?6. in line 102c Socrates says, “But do you agree that the

statement ‘Simmias is bigger than Socrates’ is not, asexpressed, an accurate refl ection of the facts?” Why doesthat not express well the relationship to tallness thatSimmias and Socrates have?

7. defend the immortality of the soul based on Plato’sdoctrine of the Forms.

RHETORIC | Expression1. “You know of no other way in which any given att ribute

can come to be except by sharing the essential nature of thething it has a share of” (101c). defend this in the light of thepre-Socratic philosophers.

PLATO • Plato’s Phaedo, Lines 84c-107a

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25PLatO • Plato's Phaedo, Lines 84c-107a

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