HagiaSophia - Freeturkey.free.fr/english/ayasofya.pdfof Hagia Sophia continue to require...

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Hagia Sophia “Aghia Sophia” redirects here. For the steamship, see SS Aghia Sophia. For other uses, see Hagia Sophia (disambiguation). Hagia Sophia (from the Greek: Ἁγία Σοφία, "Holy Wisdom"; Latin: Sancta Sophia or Sancta Sapientia; Turkish: Ayasofya) is a former Christian patriarchal basilica (church), later an imperial mosque, and now a museum (Ayasofya Müzesi) in Istanbul, Turkey. From the date of its construction in 537 until 1453, it served as an Orthodox cathedral and seat of the Patriarch of Con- stantinople, [1] except between 1204 and 1261, when it was converted to a Roman Catholic cathedral under the Latin Empire. The building was a mosque from 29 May 1453 until 1931. It was then secularized and opened as a museum on 1 February 1935. [2] Famous in particular for its massive dome, it is considered the epitome of Byzantine architecture [3] and is said to have “changed the history of architecture”. [4] It remained the world’s largest cathedral for nearly a thousand years, until Seville Cathedral was completed in 1520. The cur- rent building was originally constructed as a church be- tween 532 and 537 on the orders of the Byzantine Em- peror Justinian I and was the third Church of the Holy Wisdom to occupy the site, the previous two having both been destroyed by rioters. It was designed by the Greek geometers Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles. [5] The church was dedicated to the Wisdom of God, the Logos, the second person of the Holy Trinity, [6] its patronal feast taking place on 25 December, the commemoration of the birth of the incarnation of the Lo- gos in Christ. [6] Although sometimes referred to as Sancta Sophia (as though it were named after Saint Sophia), sophia being the phonetic spelling in Latin of the Greek word for wisdom, its full name in Greek is Ναός τῆς Ἁγίας τοῦ Θεοῦ Σοφίας, “Shrine of the Holy Wisdom of God”. [7][8] The church contained a large collection of holy relics and featured, among other things, a 15-metre (49 ft) silver iconostasis. The focal point of the Eastern Orthodox Church for nearly one thousand years, the building wit- nessed the excommunication of Patriarch Michael I Ceru- larius on the part of Humbert of Silva Candida, the papal envoy of Pope Leo IX in 1054, an act which is commonly considered the start of the Great Schism. In 1453, Constantinople was conquered by the Ottoman Turks under Sultan Mehmed II, who ordered this main church of Orthodox Christianity converted into a mosque. By that point, the church had fallen into a state of disrepair. Nevertheless, the Christian cathedral made a strong impression on the new Ottoman rulers and they decided to convert it into a mosque. [9][10] The bells, altar, iconostasis, and sacrificial vessels and other relics were removed and the mosaics depicting Jesus, his Mother Mary, Christian saints and angels were also removed or plastered over. Islamic features—such as the mihrab, minbar, and four minarets—were added. It remained a mosque until 1931, when it was closed to the public for four years. It was re-opened in 1935 as a museum by the Republic of Turkey. Hagia Sophia is currently (2014) the second-most visited museum in Turkey, attracting almost 3.3 million visitors annually. [11] From its initial conversion until the construction of the nearby Sultan Ahmed Mosque (Blue Mosque of Istan- bul) in 1616, it was the principal mosque of Istanbul. The Byzantine architecture of the Hagia Sophia served as inspiration for many other Ottoman mosques, such as the Blue Mosque, the Şehzade Mosque, the Süleymaniye Mosque, the Rüstem Pasha Mosque and the Kılıç Ali Paşa Mosque. 1 History 1.1 First church The first church on the site was known as the Μεγάλη Ἐκκλησία (Megálē Ekklēsíā, “Great Church”), or in Latin “Magna Ecclesia”, [12][13] because of its larger di- mensions in comparison to the contemporary churches in the City. [6] Inaugurated on 15 February 360 (during the reign of Constantius II) by the Arian bishop Eudoxius of Antioch, [14] it was built next to the area where the im- perial palace was being developed. The nearby Hagia Eirene (“Holy Peace”) church was completed earlier and served as cathedral until the Great Church was com- pleted. Both churches acted together as the principal churches of the Byzantine Empire. Writing in 440, Socrates of Constantinople claimed that the church was built by Constantius II, who was work- ing on it in 346. [14] A tradition which is not older than the 7th – 8th century, reports that the edifice was built by Constantine the Great. [14] Zonaras reconciles the two opinions, writing that Constantius had repaired the edi- fice consecrated by Eusebius of Nicomedia, after it had collapsed. [14] Since Eusebius was bishop of Constantino- ple from 339 to 341, and Constantine died in 337, it 1

Transcript of HagiaSophia - Freeturkey.free.fr/english/ayasofya.pdfof Hagia Sophia continue to require...

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Hagia Sophia

“Aghia Sophia” redirects here. For the steamship, seeSS Aghia Sophia. For other uses, see Hagia Sophia(disambiguation).

Hagia Sophia (from the Greek: Ἁγία Σοφία, "HolyWisdom"; Latin: Sancta Sophia or Sancta Sapientia;Turkish: Ayasofya) is a former Christian patriarchalbasilica (church), later an imperial mosque, and now amuseum (Ayasofya Müzesi) in Istanbul, Turkey. Fromthe date of its construction in 537 until 1453, it served asan Orthodox cathedral and seat of the Patriarch of Con-stantinople,[1] except between 1204 and 1261, when itwas converted to a Roman Catholic cathedral under theLatin Empire. The building was a mosque from 29 May1453 until 1931. It was then secularized and opened as amuseum on 1 February 1935.[2]

Famous in particular for its massive dome, it is consideredthe epitome of Byzantine architecture[3] and is said tohave “changed the history of architecture”.[4] It remainedthe world’s largest cathedral for nearly a thousand years,until Seville Cathedral was completed in 1520. The cur-rent building was originally constructed as a church be-tween 532 and 537 on the orders of the Byzantine Em-peror Justinian I and was the third Church of the HolyWisdom to occupy the site, the previous two having bothbeen destroyed by rioters. It was designed by the Greekgeometers Isidore ofMiletus and Anthemius of Tralles.[5]

The church was dedicated to the Wisdom of God,the Logos, the second person of the Holy Trinity,[6]its patronal feast taking place on 25 December, thecommemoration of the birth of the incarnation of the Lo-gos in Christ.[6] Although sometimes referred to as SanctaSophia (as though it were named after Saint Sophia),sophia being the phonetic spelling in Latin of the Greekword for wisdom, its full name in Greek is Ναός τῆςἉγίας τοῦ Θεοῦ Σοφίας, “Shrine of the Holy Wisdomof God”.[7][8]

The church contained a large collection of holy relics andfeatured, among other things, a 15-metre (49 ft) silvericonostasis. The focal point of the Eastern OrthodoxChurch for nearly one thousand years, the building wit-nessed the excommunication of PatriarchMichael I Ceru-larius on the part of Humbert of Silva Candida, the papalenvoy of Pope Leo IX in 1054, an act which is commonlyconsidered the start of the Great Schism.In 1453, Constantinople was conquered by the OttomanTurks under Sultan Mehmed II, who ordered thismain church of Orthodox Christianity converted into a

mosque. By that point, the church had fallen into a stateof disrepair. Nevertheless, the Christian cathedral madea strong impression on the new Ottoman rulers and theydecided to convert it into a mosque.[9][10] The bells, altar,iconostasis, and sacrificial vessels and other relics wereremoved and the mosaics depicting Jesus, his MotherMary, Christian saints and angels were also removed orplastered over. Islamic features—such as the mihrab,minbar, and four minarets—were added. It remained amosque until 1931, when it was closed to the public forfour years. It was re-opened in 1935 as a museum by theRepublic of Turkey. Hagia Sophia is currently (2014) thesecond-most visited museum in Turkey, attracting almost3.3 million visitors annually.[11]

From its initial conversion until the construction of thenearby Sultan Ahmed Mosque (Blue Mosque of Istan-bul) in 1616, it was the principal mosque of Istanbul.The Byzantine architecture of the Hagia Sophia servedas inspiration for many other Ottoman mosques, such asthe Blue Mosque, the Şehzade Mosque, the SüleymaniyeMosque, the Rüstem Pasha Mosque and the Kılıç AliPaşa Mosque.

1 History

1.1 First church

The first church on the site was known as the ΜεγάληἘκκλησία (Megálē Ekklēsíā, “Great Church”), or inLatin “Magna Ecclesia”,[12][13] because of its larger di-mensions in comparison to the contemporary churches inthe City.[6] Inaugurated on 15 February 360 (during thereign of Constantius II) by the Arian bishop Eudoxius ofAntioch,[14] it was built next to the area where the im-perial palace was being developed. The nearby HagiaEirene (“Holy Peace”) church was completed earlier andserved as cathedral until the Great Church was com-pleted. Both churches acted together as the principalchurches of the Byzantine Empire.Writing in 440, Socrates of Constantinople claimed thatthe church was built by Constantius II, who was work-ing on it in 346.[14] A tradition which is not older thanthe 7th – 8th century, reports that the edifice was builtby Constantine the Great.[14] Zonaras reconciles the twoopinions, writing that Constantius had repaired the edi-fice consecrated by Eusebius of Nicomedia, after it hadcollapsed.[14] Since Eusebius was bishop of Constantino-ple from 339 to 341, and Constantine died in 337, it

1

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2 1 HISTORY

seems possible that the first church was erected by thelatter.[14] The edifice was built as a traditional Latincolonnaded basilica with galleries and a wooden roof. Itwas preceded by an atrium. It was claimed to be one ofthe world’s most outstanding monuments at the time.The Patriarch of Constantinople John Chrysostom cameinto a conflict with Empress Aelia Eudoxia, wife of theemperorArcadius, andwas sent into exile on 20 June 404.During the subsequent riots, this first church was largelyburned down.[14] Nothing remains of the first church to-day.

1.2 Second church

A second church was ordered by Theodosius II, who inau-gurated it on 10 October 415. The basilica with a woodenroof was built by architect Rufinus. A fire started duringthe tumult of the Nika Revolt and burned the second Ha-gia Sophia to the ground on 13–14 January 532.Several marble blocks from the second church survive tothe present; among them are reliefs depicting 12 lambsrepresenting the 12 apostles. Originally part of a mon-umental front entrance, they now reside in an excavationpit adjacent to the museum’s entrance after they were dis-covered in 1935 beneath the western courtyard by A. M.Schneider. Further digging was forsaken for fear of im-pinging on the integrity of the building.

1.3 Third church (current structure)

On 23 February 532, only a few weeks after the destruc-tion of the second basilica, Emperor Justinian I decidedto build a third and entirely different basilica, larger andmore majestic than its predecessors.

Construction of church depicted in codex Manasses Chronicle(14th century)

Justinian chose physicist Isidore of Miletus and mathe-matician Anthemius of Tralles as architects; Anthemius,however, died within the first year of the endeavor.The construction is described in the Byzantine historianProcopius' On Buildings (Peri ktismatōn, Latin: De aedi-ficiis). Columns and other marbles were brought from allover the empire, throughout the Mediterranean. The ideaof these columns being spoils from cities such as Rome

and Ephesus is a later invention.[15] Even though theywere made specifically for Hagia Sophia, the columnsshow variations in size.[16]More than ten thousand peoplewere employed. This new churchwas contemporaneouslyrecognized as a major work of architecture. The theoriesof Heron of Alexandria may have been utilized to addressthe challenges presented by building such an expansivedome over so large a space. The emperor, together withthe Patriarch Menas, inaugurated the new basilica on 27December 537 – 5 years and 10months after constructionstart – with much pomp.[17][18][19] The mosaics inside thechurch were, however, only completed under the reign ofEmperor Justin II (565–578).Hagia Sophia was the seat of the Orthodox patriarchof Constantinople and a principal setting for Byzantineimperial ceremonies, such as coronations. Like otherchurches throughout Christendom, the basilica offeredsanctuary from persecution to outlaws.Earthquakes in August 553 and on 14 December 557caused cracks in the main dome and eastern half-dome.Themain dome collapsed completely during a subsequentearthquake on 7 May 558,[20] destroying the ambon, al-tar, and ciborium. The crash was due mainly to the toohigh bearing load and to the enormous shearing load ofthe dome, which was too flat.[17] These caused the de-formation of the piers which sustained the dome.[17] Theemperor ordered an immediate restoration. He entrustedit to Isidorus the Younger, nephew of Isidore of Mile-tus, who used lighter materials and elevated the domeby “30 feet”[17] (about 6.25 meters or 20.5 feet) – giv-ing the building its current interior height of 55.6 meters(182 ft).[21] Moreover, Isidorus changed the dome type,erecting a ribbed dome with pendentives, whose diame-ter lay between 32.7 and 33.5 m.[17] Under Justinian’s or-ders, eight Corinthian columns were disassembled fromBaalbek, Lebanon, and shipped to Constantinople around560.[22] This reconstruction, giving the church its present6th-century form, was completed in 562. The Byzantinepoet Paul the Silentiary composed a long epic poem (stillextant), known as Ekphrasis, for the rededication of thebasilica presided over by Patriarch Eutychius on 23 De-cember 562.In 726, the emperor Leo the Isaurian issued a series ofedicts against the veneration of images, ordering the armyto destroy all icons – ushering in the period of Byzantineiconoclasm. At that time, all religious pictures and stat-ues were removed from the Hagia Sophia. After a briefreprieve under Empress Irene (797–802), the iconoclastsmade a comeback. Emperor Theophilus (829–842) wasstrongly influenced by Islamic art,[23] which forbids therepresentation of living beings.[24] He had a two-wingedbronze door with his monograms installed at the southernentrance of the church.The basilica suffered damage, first in a great fire in 859,and again in an earthquake on 8 January 869, that made ahalf-dome collapse. Emperor Basil I ordered the church

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1.4 Mosque (1453–1935) 3

The vaulting of the nave. (annotations)

repaired.After the great earthquake of 25 October 989, which col-lapsed the Western dome arch, Emperor Basil II askedfor the Armenian architect Trdat, creator of the greatchurches of Ani and Argina, to direct the repairs.[25] Heerected again and reinforced the fallen dome arch, andrebuilt the west side of the dome with 15 dome ribs.[26]The extent of the damage required six years of repair andreconstruction; the church was re-opened on 13May 994.At the end of the reconstruction, the church’s decorationswere renovated, including the additions of paintings offour immense cherubs, a new depiction of Christ on thedome, and on the apse a new depiction of the VirginMaryholding Jesus between the apostles Peter and Paul.[27] Onthe great side arches were painted the prophets and theteachers of the church.[27]

In his book De caerimoniis aulae Byzantinae (“Bookof Ceremonies”), Emperor Constantine VII (913–919)wrote a detailed account of the ceremonies held in theHagia Sophia by the emperor and the patriarch.Upon the capture of Constantinople during the FourthCrusade, the church was ransacked and desecrated bythe Latin Christians, as described by the Byzantine histo-rian Niketas Choniates. During the Latin occupation ofConstantinople (1204–1261) the church became a Ro-man Catholic cathedral. Baldwin I of Constantinoplewas crowned emperor on 16 May 1204 in Hagia Sophia,

at a ceremony which closely followed Byzantine prac-tices. Enrico Dandolo, the Doge of Venice who com-manded the sack and invasion of the city by the LatinCrusaders in 1204, is buried inside the church. Thetomb inscription carrying his name, which has becomea part of the floor decoration, was spat upon by manyof the angry Byzantines who recaptured Constantino-ple in 1261.[28] However, restoration led by the brothersGaspare and Giuseppe Fossati during the period 1847–1849 cast doubt upon the authenticity of the doge’s grave;it is more likely a symbolic memorial rather than burialsite.After the recapture in 1261 by the Byzantines, thechurch was in a dilapidated state. In 1317, emperorAndronicus II ordered four new buttresses (Πυραμὶδας,Greek:"Piramídas”) to be built in the eastern and northernparts of the church, financing them with the inheritanceof his deceased wife, Irene.[29] New cracks developed inthe dome after the earthquake of October 1344, and sev-eral parts of the building collapsed on 19 May 1346; con-sequently, the church was closed until 1354, when repairswere undertaken by architects Astras and Peralta.

1.4 Mosque (1453–1935)

Constantinople was taken by the Ottomans on 29 May1453. In accordance with the custom at the time Sul-tan Mehmet II allowed his troops three days of unbri-dled pillage once the city fell, after which he would claimits contents for himself.[30][31] Hagia Sophia was not ex-empted from the pillage, becoming its focal point as theinvaders believed it to contain the greatest treasures ofthe city.[32] Shortly after the city’s defenses collapsed, pil-lagers made their way to the Hagia Sophia and battereddown its doors.[33] Throughout the siege worshipers par-ticipated in the Holy Liturgy and Prayer of the Hoursat the Hagia Sophia, and the church formed a refugefor many of those who were unable to contribute to thecity’s defense, such as women, children and elderly.[34][35]Trapped in the church, congregants and refugees becamespoils to be divided amongst the Ottoman invaders. Thebuilding was desecrated and looted, and occupants en-slaved, violated or slaughtered;[32] while elderly and in-firm were killed, women and girls were raped and theremainder chained and sold into slavery.[33] Priests con-tinued to perform Christian rites until stopped by theinvaders.[33] When the Sultan and his cohort entered thechurch, he insisted it should be at once transformed intoa mosque. One of the Ulama then climbed the pulpit andrecited the Shahada.[29][36]

As described by several Western visitors (such as theCórdoban nobleman Pero Tafur[37] and the FlorentineCristoforo Buondelmonti),[38] the church was in a dilap-idated state, with several of its doors fallen from theirhinges; Mehmed II ordered a renovation as well as theconversion. Mehmet attended the first Friday prayer inthe mosque on 1 June 1453.[39] Aya Sofya became the

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4 1 HISTORY

Fountain (Şadırvan) for ritual ablutions

first imperial mosque of Istanbul.[40] To the correspond-ing Waqf were endowed most of the existing houses inthe city and the area of the future Topkapı Palace.[29]From 1478, 2,360 shops, 1,300 houses, 4 caravanserais,30 boza shops, and 23 shops of sheep heads and trottersgave their income to the foundation.[41] Through the im-perial charters of 1520 (AH 926) and 1547 (AH 954)shops and parts of the Grand Bazaar and other marketswere added to the foundation.[29]

Before 1481 a small minaret was erected on the southwestcorner of the building, above the stair tower.[29] Later, thesubsequent sultan, Bayezid II (1481–1512), built anotherminaret at the northeast corner.[29] One of these collapsedafter the earthquake of 1509,[29] and around the middleof the 16th century they were both replaced by two diag-onally opposite minarets built at the east and west cornersof the edifice.[29]

The mihrab located in the apse where the altar used to stand,pointing towards Mecca

In the 16th century the sultan Suleiman the Magnifi-cent (1520–1566) brought back two colossal candlesticksfrom his conquest of Hungary. They were placed on ei-ther side of the mihrab. During the reign of Selim II(1566–1574), the building started showing signs of fa-tigue and was extensively strengthened with the additionof structural supports to its exterior by the great Ottomanarchitect Mimar Sinan, who is also considered one ofthe world’s first earthquake engineers.[42] In addition tostrengthening the historic Byzantine structure, Sinan builtthe two additional large minarets at the western end of thebuilding, the original sultan’s lodge, and the Türbe (mau-soleum) of Selim II to the southeast of the building in1576-7 / AH 984. In order to do that, parts of the Pa-triarchate at the south corner of the building were pulleddown the previous year.[29]Moreover, the golden crescentwas mounted on the top of the dome,[29] while a respectzone 35 arşin (about 24 m) wide was imposed around thebuilding, pulling down all the houses which in the mean-time had nested around it.[29] Later his türbe hosted also43 tombs of Ottoman princes.[29] In 1594 / AH 1004Mi-mar (court architect) Davud Ağa built the türbe ofMuradIII (1574–1595), where the Sultan and his Valide, SafiyeSultan were later buried.[29] The octagonal mausoleum oftheir son Mehmed III (1595–1603) and his Valide wasbuilt next to it in 1608 / 1017 H by royal architect DalgiçMehmet Aĝa.[43] His son Mustafa I (1617–1618; 1622–1623) converted the baptistery into his türbe.[43]

Murad III had also two large alabaster Hellenistic urnstransported from Pergamon and placed on two sides ofthe nave.[29]

In 1717, under Sultan Ahmed III (1703–1730), thecrumbling plaster of the interior was renovated, con-tributing indirectly to the preservation of many mosaics,which otherwise would have been destroyed by mosqueworkers.[43] In fact, it was usual for them to sell mosaicsstones – believed to be talismans – to the visitors.[43] Sul-tan Mahmud I ordered the restoration of the building in1739 and added a medrese (a Koranic school, now the li-brary of the museum), an Imaret (soup kitchen for distri-bution to the poor) and a library, and in 1740 a Şadirvan(fountain for ritual ablutions), thus transforming it into akülliye, i.e. a social complex. At the same time a newsultan’s lodge and a new mihrab were built inside.

1.4.1 Renovation of 1847

The most famous restoration of the Aya Sofya was or-dered by Sultan Abdülmecid and completed by eight hun-dred workers between 1847 and 1849, under the supervi-sion of the Swiss-Italian architect brothers Gaspare andGiuseppe Fossati. The brothers consolidated the domeand vaults, straightened the columns, and revised thedecoration of the exterior and the interior of the build-ing. The mosaics in the upper gallery were uncoveredand cleaned, although many were re-covered “for protec-tion against further damage”. The old chandeliers were

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5

replaced by new pendant ones. New gigantic circular-framed disks or medallions were hung on columns. Thesewere inscribed with the names of Allah, Muhammad,the first four caliphs Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali,and the two grandchildren of Muhammad: Hassan andHussain, by the calligrapher Kazasker Mustafa İzzed Ef-fendi (1801–1877). In 1850 the architect Fossati built anew sultan’s lodge or loge in a Neo-Byzantine style con-nected to the royal pavilion behind the mosque. Theyalso renovated the minbar and mihrab. Outside the mainbuilding, the minarets were repaired and altered so thatthey were of equal height.[44][45] A timekeeper’s buildingand a new madrasah were built. When the restorationwas finished, the mosque was re-opened with ceremonialpomp on 13 July 1849.

1.5 Museum (1935–present)

The interior undergoing restoration

In 1935, the first Turkish President and founder of the Re-public of Turkey, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, transformedthe building into a museum. The carpets were removedand the marble floor decorations such as the Omphalionappeared for the first time in centuries, while the whiteplaster covering many of the mosaics was removed. Nev-ertheless, the condition of the structure deteriorated, andthe World Monuments Fund placed Hagia Sophia on1996 World Monuments Watch, and again in 1998. Thebuilding’s copper roof had cracked, causing water to leak

down over the fragile frescoes and mosaics. Moistureentered from below as well. Rising ground water hadraised the level of humidity within the monument, cre-ating an unstable environment for stone and paint. Withthe help of financial services company American Ex-press, WMF secured a series of grants from 1997 to2002 for the restoration of the dome. The first stage ofwork involved the structural stabilization and repair ofthe cracked roof, which was undertaken with the par-ticipation of the Turkish Ministry of Culture. The sec-ond phase, the preservation of the dome’s interior, af-forded the opportunity to employ and train young Turk-ish conservators in the care of mosaics. By 2006, theWMF project was complete, though many other areasof Hagia Sophia continue to require significant stabil-ity improvement, restoration and conservation.[46] HaghiaSophia is currently (2014) the second most visited mu-seum in Turkey, attracting almost 3.3 million visitorsannually.[11]

Although use of the complex as a place of worship(mosque or church) was strictly prohibited,[47] in 2006the Turkish government allowed the allocation of a smallroom in the museum complex to be used as a prayer roomfor Christian and Muslim museum staff,[48] and since2013 from the minarets of the museum the muezzin singsthe call to prayer twice per day, in the afternoon.[49]

In 2007, Greek American politician Chris Spiroulaunched an international organization “Free Agia SophiaCouncil” championing the cause of restoring the build-ing to its original function as a Christian church.[50][51][52]Since the early 2010s, several campaigns and govern-ment high officials, notably Turkey’s deputy prime min-ister Bülent Arınç in November 2013, have been de-manding that Hagia Sophia be converted into a mosqueagain.[53][54][55] In an attempt to retaliate against PopeFrancis after his acknowledgment of the ArmenianGenocide, the Mufti of Ankara, Mefail Hızlı, stated thatthe conversion of Haghia Sophia into a mosque will beaccelerated.[56][57]

2 Architecture

Section of a “restored” design

Hagia Sophia is one of the greatest surviving examplesof Byzantine architecture.[3] Its interior is decorated with

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6 2 ARCHITECTURE

a) Plan of the gallery (upper half)b) Plan of the ground floor (lower half)

mosaics and marble pillars and coverings of great artis-tic value. The temple itself was so richly and artisticallydecorated that Justinian proclaimed, "Solomon, I haveoutdone thee!" (Νενίκηκά σε Σολομών). Justinian him-self had overseen the completion of the greatest cathedralever built up to that time, and it was to remain the largestcathedral for 1,000 years up until the completion of thecathedral in Seville in Spain.[58]

Justinian’s basilica was at once the culminating architec-tural achievement of late antiquity and the first master-piece of Byzantine architecture. Its influence, both archi-tecturally and liturgically, was widespread and enduringin the Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and Muslimworlds alike.The vast interior has a complex structure. The nave iscovered by a central dome which at its maximum is 55.6m (182 ft 5 in) from floor level and rests on an arcadeof 40 arched windows. Repairs to its structure have leftthe dome somewhat elliptical, with the diameter varyingbetween 31.24 and 30.86 m (102 ft 6 in and 101 ft 3 in).At the western entrance side and eastern liturgical side,there are arched openings extended by half domes ofidentical diameter to the central dome, carried on smallersemi-domed exedras; a hierarchy of dome-headed ele-ments built up to create a vast oblong interior crownedby the central dome, with a clear span of 76.2 m (250ft).[3]

Interior surfaces are sheathed with polychrome marbles,green and white with purple porphyry, and gold mosaics.The exterior, clad in stucco, was tinted yellow and redduring restorations in the 19th century at the direction ofthe Fossati architects.

2.1 Narthex and portals

The Imperial Gate was the main entrance between theexo- and esonarthex. It was reserved only for the em-peror. The Byzantine mosaic above the portal depictsChrist and an unnamed Emperor.A long ramp from the northern part of the outer narthex

leads up to the upper gallery.

2.2 Upper Gallery

West side of the upper gallery

The upper gallery is laid out in a horseshoe shape thatencloses the nave until the apse. Several mosaics are pre-served in the upper gallery, an area traditionally reservedfor the empress and her court. The best-preserved mo-saics are located in the southern part of the gallery.The upper gallery contains runic graffiti presumed to befrom the Varangian Guard.

2.3 Dome

Cupola dome, semi-dome, and apse

The dome of Hagia Sophia has spurred particular inter-est for many art historians, architects and engineers be-cause of the innovative way the original architects envi-sioned it. The cupola is carried on four spherical triangu-lar pendentives, an element which was first fully realizedin this building. The pendentives implement the transi-tion from the circular base of the dome to the rectangu-lar base below,[59][60] restraining the lateral forces of thedome and allow its weight to flow downwards. They were

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2.4 Minarets 7

See commons file for annotations

reinforced with buttresses during Byzantine and later dur-ing Ottoman times, under the guidance of the architectSinan. The weight of the dome remained a problem formost of the building’s existence. The original cupola col-lapsed entirely after the quake of 558; in 563 a new domewas built by Isidore the younger, a nephew of Isidore ofMiletus. Unlike the original, this included 40 ribs andwas slightly taller, in order to lower the lateral forces onthe church walls. A larger section of the second dome col-lapsed as well, in two episodes, so that today only two sec-tions of the present dome, in the north and south side, stilldate from the 562 reconstruction. Of the whole dome’s40 ribs, the surviving north section contains 8 ribs, whilethe south section includes 6 ribs.[61]

Although this design stabilizes the dome and the sur-rounding walls and arches, the actual construction of thewalls of Hagia Sophia weakened the overall structure.The bricklayers used more mortar than brick, weaken-ing the walls. The structure would have been more stableif the builders at least let the mortar cure before they be-gan the next layer; however, they did not do this. Whenthe dome was erected, its weight caused the walls to leanoutward because of the wet mortar underneath. WhenIsidore the Younger rebuilt the fallen cupola, he had tofirst build up the interior of the walls to make them ver-tical again. Additionally, the architect raised the heightof the rebuilt dome by approximately six metres so thatthe lateral forces would not be as strong and its weightwould flow more easily down into the walls. Moreover,he shaped the new cupola like a scalloped shell or the in-side of an umbrella, with ribs that extend from the topdown to the base. These ribs allow the weight of the dometo flow between the windows, down the pendentives, andultimately to the foundation.Hagia Sophia is famous for the light that reflects every-where in the interior of the nave, giving the dome the

appearance of hovering above. This effect was achievedby inserting forty windows around the base of the originalstructure. Moreover, the insertion of the windows in thedome structure lowers its weight.

2.4 Minarets

One of the minarets (at southwest) was built from redbrick while the other three were built from white lime-stone and sandstone, of which the slender northeast col-umn was erected by Sultan Bayezid II while the two largerminarets to the west were erected by Sultan Selim IIand designed by the famous Ottoman architect MimarSinan.[62]

3 Notable elements and decora-tions

Originally, under Justinian’s reign, the interior decora-tions consisted of abstract designs on marble slabs onthe walls and floors, as well as mosaics on the curv-ing vaults. Of these mosaics, one can still see the twoarchangels Gabriel and Michael in the spandrels of thebema. There were already a few figurative decorations,as attested by the eulogy of Paul the Silentiary. Thespandrels of the gallery are revetted in opus sectile, show-ing patterns and figures of flowers and birds in preciselycut pieces of white marble set against a background ofblack marble. In later stages figurative mosaics wereadded, which were destroyed during the iconoclastic con-troversy (726–843). Present mosaics are from the post-iconoclastic period. The number of treasures, relics andmiracle-working, painted icons of the Hagia Sophia grewprogressively richer into an amazing collection. Apartfrom the mosaics, a large number of figurative decora-tions were added during the second half of the 9th cen-tury: an image of Christ in the central dome; Orthodoxsaints, prophets and Church Fathers in the tympana be-low; historical figures connected with this church, such asPatriarch Ignatius; some scenes from the gospel in the gal-leries. Basil II let paint on each of the four pendentives agiant six-winged Cherub.[27] The Ottomans covered theirface with a golden halo,[27] but in 2009 one of them wasrestored to the original state.[63]

3.1 Loge of the Empress

The Loge of the Empress is located in the centre of theupper enclosure, or gallery, of the Hagia Sophia. Fromthere the empress and the court-ladies would watch theproceedings down below. A round, green stone marksthe spot where the throne of the empress stood.

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8 3 NOTABLE ELEMENTS AND DECORATIONS

3.2 Lustration urns

Two huge marble lustration (ritual purification) urns werebrought from Pergamon during the reign of Sultan MuradIII. Stemming from theHellenistic period, they are carvedfrom single blocks of marble.[29]

3.3 Marble Door

TheMarble Door inside the Hagia Sophia is located in thesouthern upper enclosure, or gallery. It was used by theparticipants in synods, they entered and left the meetingchamber through this door.

3.4 Wishing column

At the northwest of the building there is a column with ahole in the middle covered by bronze plates. This columngoes by different names; the perspiring column, the wish-ing column, the sweating column or the crying column.The column is said to be damp when touched and havesupernatural powers.[64] The legend states that since St.Gregory the Miracle Worker appeared at the column inyear 1200, the column is moist. It is believed that touch-ing the moisture cures many illnesses.[65][66]

3.5 Mosaics

Ceiling decoration showing original Christian cross still visiblethrough the later aniconic decoration

The church was richly decorated with mosaics throughoutthe centuries. They either depicted the VirginMother, Je-sus, saints, or emperors and empresses. Other parts weredecorated in a purely decorative style with geometric pat-terns.The mosaics however for their most part date to after theend of the Byzantine Iconoclasm of 800 AD.During the Sack of Constantinople in 1204, the LatinCrusaders vandalized valuable items in every importantByzantine structure of the city, including the golden mo-saics of the Hagia Sophia. Many of these items wereshipped to Venice, whose Doge, Enrico Dandolo, had or-ganized the invasion and sack of Constantinople.

3.5.1 19th-century restoration

Following the building’s conversion into a mosque in1453, many of its mosaics were covered with plaster,due to Islam’s ban on representational imagery. Thisprocess was not completed at once, and reports existfrom the 17th century in which travellers note that theycould still see Christian images in the former church. In1847–49, the building was restored by two Swiss Ital-ian Fossati brothers, Gaspare and Giuseppe, and SultanAbdülmecid allowed them to also document any mosaicsthey might discover during this process. This work didnot include repairing the mosaics and after recording thedetails about an image, the Fossatis painted it over again.The Fossatis restored the mosaics of the two hexapteryga(singular Greek: εξαπτέρυγον, pr. hexapterygon, six-winged angel); it is uncertain whether they are seraphimor cherubim) located on the two east pendentives, cover-ing their faces again before the end of the restoration.[67]The other two placed on the west pendentives are copiesin paint created by the Fossatis, since they could find nosurviving remains of them.[67] As in this case, the archi-tects reproduced in paint damaged decorative mosaic pat-terns, sometimes redesigning them in the process. TheFossati records are the primary sources about a numberof mosaic images now believed to have been completelyor partially destroyed in the 1894 Istanbul earthquake.These include a mosaic over a now-unidentified Door ofthe Poor, a large image of a jewel-encrusted cross, and alarge number of images of angels, saints, patriarchs, andchurch fathers. Most of the missing images were locatedin the building’s two tympana.One mosaic they documented is Christ Pantocrator in acircle, which would indicate it to be a ceiling mosaic, pos-sibly even of the main dome which was later covered andpainted over with Islamic calligraphy that expounds Godas the light of the universe. The drawings of the HagiaSophia mosaics are today kept in the Cantonal Archiveof Ticino.[68]

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3.5 Mosaics 9

3.5.2 20th-century restoration

A large number of mosaics were uncovered in the 1930sby a team from the Byzantine Institute of America led byThomas Whittemore. The team chose to let a number ofsimple cross images remain covered by plaster, but un-covered all major mosaics found.Because of its long history as both a church and amosque,a particular challenge arises in the restoration process.Christian iconographic mosaics can be uncovered, but of-ten at the expense of important and historic Islamic art.Restorers have attempted to maintain a balance betweenboth Christian and Islamic cultures. In particular, muchcontroversy rests upon whether the Islamic calligraphy onthe dome of the cathedral should be removed, in orderto permit the underlying Pantocrator mosaic of Christ asMaster of the World, to be exhibited (assuming the mo-saic still exists).[69]

3.5.3 Imperial Gate mosaic

Imperial gate mosaic

The Imperial Gate mosaic is located in the tympanumabove that gate, which was used only by the emperorswhen entering the church. Based on style analysis, it hasbeen dated to the late 9th or early 10th century. The em-peror with a nimbus or halo could possibly represent em-peror Leo VI theWise or his son Constantine VII Porphy-rogenitus bowing down before Christ Pantocrator, seatedon a jeweled throne, giving His blessing and holding inHis left hand an open book.[70] The text on the bookreads as follows: “Peace be with you. I am the lightof the world”. (John 20:19; 20:26; 8:12) On each sideof Christ’s shoulders is a circular medallion: on His leftthe Archangel Gabriel, holding a staff, on His right HisMother Mary.[71]

3.5.4 Southwestern entrance mosaic

The southwestern entrance mosaic, situated in the tym-panum of the southwestern entrance, dates from the reignof Basil II.[72] It was rediscovered during the restorationsof 1849 by Fossati. The Virgin sits on a throne without

Southwestern entrance mosaic

a back, her feet resting on a pedestal, embellished withprecious stones. The Child Christ sits on her lap, givingHis blessing and holding a scroll in His left hand. Onher left side stands emperor Constantine in ceremonialattire, presenting a model of the city to Mary. The in-scription next to him says: “Great emperor Constantineof the Saints”. On her right side stands emperor JustinianI, offering a model of the Hagia Sophia. The medallionson both sides of the Virgin’s head carry the monogramsMP and ΘY, an abbreviation of "Mētēr" and "Theou",meaning “Mother of God”.[73]

3.5.5 Apse mosaics

Apse mosaic of the Virgin and Child

The Virgin and Child mosaic was the first of the post-

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10 3 NOTABLE ELEMENTS AND DECORATIONS

iconoclastic mosaics. It was inaugurated on 29 March867 by Patriarch Photius and the emperors Michael IIIand Basil I. This mosaic is situated in a high location onthe half dome of the apse. Mary is sitting on a thronewithout a back, holding the Child Jesus on her lap. Herfeet rest on a pedestal. Both the pedestal and the throneare adorned with precious stones. The portraits of thearchangels Gabriel and Michael (largely destroyed) in thebema of the arch also date from the 9th century. Themosaics are set against the original golden backgroundof the 6th century. These mosaics were believed to bea reconstruction of the mosaics of the 6th century thatwere previously destroyed during the iconoclastic era bythe Byzantines of that time, as represented in the inaugu-ral sermon by the patriarch Photios. However, no recordof figural decoration of Hagia Sophia exists before thistime.[74]

3.5.6 Emperor Alexander mosaic

The Emperor Alexander mosaic is not easy to find for thefirst-time visitor, located in the second floor in a dark cor-ner of the ceiling. It depicts Emperor Alexander in fullregalia, holding a scroll in his right hand and a globus cru-ciger in his left. A drawing by Fossati showed that themo-saic survived until 1849, and that Thomas Whittemore,founder of the Byzantine Institute of America who wasgranted permission to preserve the mosaics, assumed thatit had been destroyed in the earthquake of 1894. Eightyears after his death, the mosaic was discovered in 1958largely through the researches of Robert Van Nice. Un-like most of the other mosaics in Hagia Sophia, whichhad been covered over by ordinary plaster, the Alexan-der mosaic was simply painted over and reflected the sur-rounding mosaic patterns and thus was well hidden. Itwas duly cleaned by the Byzantine Institute’s successor toWhittemore, Paul A. Underwood.[75][76]

3.5.7 Empress Zoe mosaic

The Empress Zoe mosaic

The Empress Zoemosaic on the eastern wall of the south-ern gallery date from the 11th century. Christ Panto-crator, clad in the dark blue robe (as is the custom inByzantine art), is seated in the middle against a goldenbackground, giving His blessing with the right hand andholding the Bible in His left hand. On either side ofHis head are the monograms IC and XC, meaning Iē-sous Khristos. He is flanked by Constantine IX Mono-machus and Empress Zoe, both in ceremonial costumes.He is offering a purse, as symbol of the donation hemade to the church, while she is holding a scroll, sym-bol of the donations she made. The inscription over thehead of the emperor says: “Constantine, pious emperorin Christ the God, king of the Romans, Monomachus”.The inscription over the head of the empress reads as fol-lows: “Zoë, the very pious Augusta”. The previous headshave been scraped off and replaced by the three presentones. Perhaps the earlier mosaic showed her first husbandRomanus III Argyrus or her second husband Michael IV.Another theory is that this mosaic were made for an ear-lier emperor and empress, with their heads changed intothe present ones.[77]

3.5.8 Comnenus mosaic

The Comnenus mosaic

The Comnenusmosaic, also located on the eastern wall ofthe southern gallery, dates from 1122. The Virgin Maryis standing in the middle, depicted, as usual in Byzantineart, in a dark blue gown. She holds the Child Christ onher lap. He gives His blessing with His right hand whileholding a scroll in His left hand. On her right side standsemperor John II Comnenus, represented in a garb embel-lished with precious stones. He holds a purse, symbol ofan imperial donation to the church. Empress Irene standson the left side of the Virgin, wearing ceremonial gar-ments and offering a document. Their eldest son AlexiusComnenus is represented on an adjacent pilaster. He isshown as a beardless youth, probably representing his ap-pearance at his coronation aged seventeen. In this panelone can already see a difference with the Empress Zoemosaic that is one century older. There is a more realisticexpression in the portraits instead of an idealized repre-sentation. The empress is shown with plaited blond hair,rosy cheeks and grey eyes, revealing her Hungarian de-scent. The emperor is depicted in a dignified manner.[78]

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3.5.9 Deësis mosaic

The Deësis mosaic

The Deësis mosaic (Δέησις, “Entreaty”) probably datesfrom 1261. It was commissioned to mark the end of 57years of Roman Catholic use and the return to the Or-thodox faith. It is the third panel situated in the imperialenclosure of the upper galleries. It is widely consideredthe finest in Hagia Sophia, because of the softness of thefeatures, the humane expressions and the tones of the mo-saic. The style is close to that of the Italian painters of thelate 13th or early 14th century, such as Duccio. In thispanel the Virgin Mary and John the Baptist (Ioannes Pro-dromos), both shown in three-quarters profile, are implor-ing the intercession of Christ Pantocrator for humanity onJudgment Day. The bottom part of this mosaic is badlydeteriorated.[79] This mosaic is considered as the begin-ning of the Renaissance in Byzantine pictorial art.[80]

3.5.10 Northern tympanum mosaics

The northern tympanum mosaics feature various saints.They have been able to survive due to the very high andunreachable location. They depict Saints John Chrysos-tom and Ignatius the Younger standing, clothed in whiterobes with crosses, and holding richly jeweled HolyBibles. The names of each saint is given around the stat-ues in Greek, in order to enable an identification for thevisitor. The other mosaics in the other tympana havenot survived probably due to the frequent earthquakesas opposed to any deliberate destruction by the Ottomanconquerors.[81]

4 Other burials• Mustafa I, in the courtyard

5 Gallery• Mosaics with geometric pattern decorate the upperimperial gallery

• Detail of Deësis mosaic

• Mosaic in the northern tympanon depicting SaintJohn Chrysostom

• Drawing by the Fossati brother depicting some mo-saics

• Another drawing by the Fossati brothers depictingmosaic of six patriarchs in the southern tympanon

• One of the mighty stone columns with metal clasps

• Interior of the Hagia Sophia by John Singer Sargent,1891

• Detail of relief on the Marble Door.

• Interior view of the Hagia Sophia, showing Islamicelements on the top of the main dome.

• Haghia Sofia from Adriaan Reland (1676-1718):Verhandeling van de godsdienst der Mahometaanen,1719

• Hagia Sophia during its time as a mosque. Illustra-tion byGaspare Fossati and Louis Haghe from 1852.

• Interior panorama of the Hagia Sophia

• Circa 1900 photograph, from its time as a mosque.

• The face of the Hexapterygon (six-winged angel)on the north east pendentive (upper left), discov-ered but covered again by Gaspare Fossati duringits restoration, is visible again.

• Imperial Gate

• 19th-century marker of the tomb of Enrico Dan-dolo, the Doge of Venice who commanded the Sackof Constantinople in 1204, inside the Hagia Sophia

6 See also

• Oldest churches in the world

• List of megalithic sites

• Conversion of non-Muslim places of worship intomosques

• Pendentive—Architectural element

• List of Byzantine inventions

• History of Roman and Byzantine domes

Related buildings:

• Church of the Holy Apostles—the second most im-portant church of Constantinople

• Hagia Irene—neighbouring church

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12 7 REFERENCES

• Little Hagia Sophia—a 6th-century Byzantinechurch, now mosque, that might have been built bythe same architects as Hagia Sophia

• Chora Church—Byzantine church in Istanbul no-table for its well preserved Paleologan mosaics, nowa museum too

• Pammakaristos Church: its parekklesion—also amuseum—is decorated with beautiful mosaics

• Haseki Hürrem Sultan Hamamı—bath commis-sioned by Roxelana for the Hagia Sophia community

• Caferağa Medresseh—former Koranic school nextto Hagia Sophia

• Soğukçeşme Sokağı—historical street between theHagia Sophia and Topkapı Palace

• Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kiev

• Saint Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod

• Saint Sophia Cathedral in Polotsk

• Hagia Sophia Church (Sofia)

• Basilica of the National Shrine of the ImmaculateConception

• Franciscan Monastery (Washington, DC)

• Saint Clement Catholic Church, Chicago—the de-signer was said to have been influenced by the HagiaSophia

• Ukrainian Catholic Archeparchy of Philadelphia—the article shows the cathedral, resembling the HagiaSophia

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[41] Boyar & Fleet (2010), p. 145

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[69] The Hagia Sophia - by Mount Holyoke College

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[72] Lorenzo Riccardi, Observations on Basil II as Patron ofthe Arts, in Actual Problems of Theory and History ofArt, I, Collection of articles. Materials of the Confer-ence of Young Specialists (St. Petersburg State Univer-sity, 1–5 December 2010), St. Petersburg 2011 (ISBN978-5-288-05174-6), pp. 39-45; Lorenzo Riccardi, Al-cune riflessioni sul mosaico del vestibolo sud-ovest dellaSanta Sofia di Costantinopoli, in Vie per Bisanzio. VIIICongresso Nazionale dell’Associazione Italiana di StudiBizantini (Venezia 25-28 novembre 2009), a cura di Anto-nio Rigo, Andrea Babuin e Michele Trizio, Bari, Edizionidi Pagina 2012 (ISBN 978-88-7470-229-9), pp. 357-371.

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[74] Hagia Sophia. “Apse Mosaic - Hagia Sophia”. hagia-sophia.com.

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14 9 FURTHER READING

[75] Lord Kinross. “Hagia Sophia: A History of Constantino-ple.” Newsweek, 1972, pp. 132–133.

[76] Hagia Sophia. “Emperor Alexander - Hagia Sophia”. ha-giasophia.com.

[77] Hagia Sophia. “Empress Zoe - Hagia Sophia”. hagia-sophia.com.

[78] Hagia Sophia. “Comnenus - Hagia Sophia”. hagia-sophia.com.

[79] Parry, K., The Blackwell Companion to Eastern Christian-ity, John Wiley & Sons, 2010. p. 379.

[80] Hagia Sophia. “Deesis - Hagia Sophia”. hagiasophia.com.

[81] Hagia Sophia. “North Tympanum - Hagia Sophia”. ha-giasophia.com.

8 Bibliography

• Boyran, Ebru; Fleet, Kate (2010). A social Historyof Ottoman Istanbul. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-versity Press. ISBN 978-0-521-19955-1.

• Brubaker, Leslie; Haldon, John (2011). Byzan-tium in the Iconoclast era (ca 680–850). Cam-bridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-43093-7.

• Hagia Sophia Church , also known as Church ofHoly Wisdom.

• Hagia Sophia. . Accessed 23 Sept 2014.

• Hoffman, Volker (1999). Die Hagia Sophia in Istan-bul (in German). Bern: Lang. ISBN 3-906762-81-5.

• Janin, Raymond (1953). La Géographie Ecclésias-tique de l'Empire Byzantin. 1. Part: Le Siège de Con-stantinople et le Patriarcat Oecuménique. 3rd Vol. :Les Églises et les Monastères. Paris: Institut Françaisd'Etudes Byzantines.

• Mainstone, Rowland J. (1997). Hagia Sophia: Ar-chitecture, Structure, and Liturgy of Justinian’s GreatChurch (reprint edition). W W Norton & Co Inc.ISBN 0-500-27945-4..

• Mamboury, Ernest (1953). The Tourists’ Istanbul.Istanbul: Çituri Biraderler Basımevi.

• Müller-Wiener, Wolfgang (1977). Bildlexikon zurTopographie Istanbuls: Byzantion, Konstantinupo-lis, Istanbul bis zum Beginn d. 17 Jh (in German).Tübingen: Wasmuth. ISBN 978-3-8030-1022-3.

• Necipoĝlu, Gulru (2005). The Age of Sinan: Ar-chitectural Culture in the Ottoman Empire. London:Reaktion Books. ISBN 978-1-86189-244-7.

• Ronchey, Silvia; Braccini, Tommaso (2010). Il ro-manzo di Costantinopoli. Guida letteraria alla Romad'Oriente (in Italian). Torino: Einaudi. ISBN 978-88-06-18921-1.

• Runciman, Steven (1965). The Fall of Constantino-ple, 1453. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.p. 145. ISBN 0-521-39832-0.

• Turner, J. (1996). Grove Dictionary of Art. Oxford:Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-517068-7.

9 Further reading

• Alchermes, Joseph D. (2005). “Art and Architec-ture in the Age of Justinian”. In Maas, Michael.The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Justinian.Cambridge: Cambridge U.P. pp. 343–375. ISBN978-0-521-52071-3.

• Balfour, John Patrick Douglas (1972). HagiaSophia. W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-88225-014-4.

• Cimok, Fatih (2004). Hagia Sophia. Milet Publish-ing Ltd. ISBN 978-975-7199-61-8.

• Doumato, Lamia (1980). The Byzantine church ofHagia Sophia: Selected references. Vance Bibliogra-phies. ASIN B0006E2O2M.

• Goriansky, Lev Vladimir (1933). Haghia Sophia:analysis of the architecture, art and spirit behindthe shrine in Constantinople dedicated to HagiaSophia. American School of Philosophy. ASINB0008C47EA.

• Harris, Jonathan, Constantinople: Capital of Byzan-tium. Hambledon/Continuum (2007). ISBN 978-1-84725-179-4

• Howland Swift, Emerson (1937). The bronze doorsof the gate of the horologium at Hagia Sophia. Uni-versity of Chicago. ASIN B000889GIG.

• Kahler, Heinz (1967). Haghia Sophia. Praeger.ASIN B0008C47EA.

• Kinross, Lord (1972). Hagia Sophia, Wonders ofMan. Newsweek. ASIN B000K5QN9W.

• Kleinbauer, W. Eugene; Anthony White (2007).Hagia Sophia. London: Scala Publishers. ISBN978-1-85759-308-2.

• Kleinbauer, W. Eugene (2000). Saint Sophia atConstantinople: Singulariter in Mundo (Monograph(Frederic Lindley Morgan Chair of Architectural De-sign), No. 5.). William L. Bauhan. ISBN 978-0-87233-123-5.

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15

• Krautheimer, Richard (1984). Early Christian andByzantine Architecture. New Haven, CT: Yale Uni-versity Press. ISBN 978-0-300-05294-7.

• Mainstone, R. J. (1997). Hagia Sophia: Archi-tecture, Structure, and Liturgy of Justinian’s GreatChurch. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-27945-8.

• Mainstone, Rowland J. (1988). Hagia Sophia. Ar-chitecture, structure and liturgy of Justinian’s greatchurch. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-34098-6.

• Mango, Cyril; Ahmed Ertuğ (1997). Hagia Sophia.A vision for empires. Istanbul.

• Mark, R.; Çakmaktitle, AS. (1992). Hagia Sophiafrom the Age of Justinian to the Present. PrincetonArchitectural. ISBN 978-1-878271-11-2.

• Nelson, Robert S. (2004). Hagia Sophia, 1850–1950: Holy Wisdom Modern Monument. Chicago:University Of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-57171-3.

• Özkul, T. A. (2007). Structural characteristics ofHagia Sophia: I-A finite element formulation forstatic analysis. Elsevier.

• Scharf, Joachim:Der Kaiser in Proskynese. Be-merkungen zur Deutung des Kaisermosaiks imNarthex der Hagia Sophia von Konstantinopel.In: Festschrift Percy Ernst Schramm zu seinemsiebzigsten Geburtstag von Schülern und Freundenzugeeignet, Wiesbaden 1964, S. 27–35.

• Swainson, Harold (2005). The Church of SanctaSophia Constantinople: A Study of Byzantine Build-ing. Boston, MA: Adamant Media Corporation.ISBN 978-1-4021-8345-4.

• Yucel, Erdem (2005). Hagia Sophia. Scala Publish-ers. ISBN 978-1-85759-250-4.

• Weitzmann, Kurt, ed., Age of spirituality: late an-tique and early Christian art, third to seventh century,no. 592, 1979, Metropolitan Museum of Art, NewYork, ISBN 978-0-87099-179-0

9.1 Articles

• Bordewich, Fergus M., “A Monumental Struggle toPreserve Hagia Sophia”, Smithsonianmagazine, De-cember 2008

9.2 Mosaics

• Hagia Sophia, hagiasophia.com: Mosaics.

• MacDonald, William Lloyd (1951). The uncoveringof Byzantine mosaics in Hagia Sophia. Archaeolog-ical Institute of America. ASIN B0007GZTKS.

• Mango, Cyril (1972). The mosaics of St. Sophiaat Istanbul: The church fathers in the north Tympa-num. Dumbarton Oaks Center for Byzantine Stud-ies. ASIN B0007CAVA0.

• Mango, Cyril (1968). The Apse mosaics of St.Sophia at Istanbul: Report on work carried out in1964. Johnson Reprints. ASIN B0007G5RBY.

• Mango, Cyril; Heinz Kahler (1967). Hagia Sophia:With a Chapter on the Mosaics. Praeger. ASINB0000CO5IL.

• Teteriatnikov, Natalia B. (1998). Mosaics of Ha-gia Sophia, Istanbul: The Fossati Restoration andthe Work of the Byzantine Institute. DumbartonOaks Research Library and Collection. ISBN 978-0-88402-264-0.

• Riccardi, Lorenzo (2012). Alcune riflessioni sulmosaico del vestibolo sud-ovest della Santa Sofia diCostantinopoli, in Vie per Bisanzio. VIII CongressoNazionale dell’Associazione Italiana di Studi Bizan-tini (Venezia 25-28 novembre 2009), a cura di Anto-nio Rigo, Andrea Babuin e Michele Trizio. Bari. pp.357–371. ISBN 978-88-7470-229-9. Retrieved 30September 2014.

• Yücel, Erdem (1988). The mosaics of Hagia Sophia.Efe Turizm. ASIN B0007CBGYA.

10 External links• Hagia Sophia Museum

• Contemporary description by Procopius, Buildings(De Aedificiis), published in 561.

• Aya Sofya Photo Gallery by Dick Osseman

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16 11 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

11 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

11.1 Text• Hagia Sophia Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagia_Sophia?oldid=702861730 Contributors: MichaelTinkler, Wesley, LA2, Vig-

naux, Panairjdde~enwiki, Hotlorp, Hephaestos, Olivier, Leandrod, Michael Hardy, Tim Starling, DopefishJustin, Gabbe, Ixfd64, Delirium,Egil, DavidWBrooks, Anders Feder, Snoyes, CatherineMunro, Andres, Alex756, GCarty, Raven in Orbit, JASpencer, Seth ze, RodC, AdamBishop, Dysprosia, Tpbradbury, Tempshill, Dogface, Shizhao, Topbanana, Warofdreams, Wetman, Adam Carr, PuzzletChung, Dimadick,Twice25, Gentgeen, Robbot, Paranoid, The Phoenix, ChrisO~enwiki, Mirv, Rorro, Sevenstones, Radomil, Tanuki Z, Hadal, Profoss, KentWang, Aggelophoros, Guy Peters, Oobopshark, Davidcannon, Ancheta Wis, JamesMLane, DocWatson42, Levork, Tom harrison, Meur-sault2004, Lupin, Zigger, Michael Devore, Syed Atif Nazir, Alibaba, Dsmdgold, Gilgamesh~enwiki, BigBen212, Fak119, Stevietheman,Popefauvexxiii, Gdr, Antandrus, JoJan, Jossi, OwenBlacker, Kuralyov, Huaiwei, Neutrality, Oknazevad, Robin klein, Lacrimosus, An-ders94, Oskar Sigvardsson, D6, Gimmick Account, Lectiodifficilior, Econrad, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Aynali, EliasAlucard,Leandros, Xezbeth, Dbachmann, Michael Zimmermann, Nard the Bard, Bender235, Brian0918, Aranel, El C, Mairi, CeeGee, RobNS,TMC1982, Jpgordon, Bobo192, NetBot, Eliasbizannes, Acarvin, Nk, Pschemp, Polylerus, Espoo, Jumbuck, StormRider, Quintucket, Alan-sohn, Pinar, Ryanmcdaniel, Gssq, Blkshrt, SonPraises, Jvano~enwiki, Ksnow, Oneliner, Wtmitchell, Blahedo, Kahraman, Fdedio, Skyring,BDD, Ghirlandajo, Avram Fawcett, Deror avi, Preost, Angr, Alvis, Qaddosh, Hbdragon88, Wikiklrsc, Pufferfish101, GregorB, Zzyzx11,Kralizec!, Opie, Dosseman, Kbdank71, NebY, Melesse, Saperaud~enwiki, Rjwilmsi, CristianChirita, Gryffindor, PinchasC, Vegaswikian,Funnyhat, Ghepeu, Bhadani, Yamamoto Ichiro, Titoxd, Anurup, Old Moonraker, Winhunter, Twipley, Gurch, RobyWayne, Ahunt, Valen-tinian, Yce, Chobot, Michaelritchie200, Gdrbot, Bgwhite, Hall Monitor, Gwernol, Wjfox2005, YurikBot, Oldwindybear, CARPEDIEM,JWB, Hairy Dude, [email protected], PetrosGreek, Anonymous editor, Conscious, Pigman, Eupator, Pvasiliadis, Shell Kinney,Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, Pseudomonas, Macukali, Wimt, Aetil, Draeco, Zeno of Elea, NawlinWiki, BrainyBroad, Jaxl,Mmccalpin, Rupert Clayton, Josep Llauradó~enwiki, Martin Gühmann, Bubaloo, SquidDNA, Jpbowen, Moe Epsilon, Mikademus, DavidPierce, Semperf, Zwobot, BOT-Superzerocool, Sandman1142, Rallette, Zarboki, Wknight94, Alarob, Theda, Cybjorg, Babakgh, TBad-ger, Fram, Whobot, Argos’Dad, Mjroots, Asterion, SkerHawx, Cmglee, Hellmitre, DVD R W, Yahnatan, Tadorne, Myrabella, SmackBot,Impaciente, Gunebakan, Herostratus, Kimon, Pgk, Od Mishehu, KocjoBot~enwiki, Jfurr1981, Danskim, Voice of Reason, ZS, Alsandro,Bertilvidet, Khepidjemwa'atnefru, Gilliam, Hmains, The paccagnellan, Nestore, Bigfun, MK8, G.dallorto, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Victorgrigas, Rickythesk8r, Enfantsduparadis, DHN-bot~enwiki, Cassivs, Sgt Pinback, Wilybadger, Can't sleep, clown will eatme, Cplakidas, Alphathon, OrphanBot, MJCdetroit, MarshallBagramyan, Karma Heretic, Calledman, Khoikhoi, Jmlk17, Pepsidrinka, Ta-pered, Savidan, Iblardi, LoveMonkey, WoodElf, Wybot, KeithB, Bdiscoe, CountZ, Pilotguy, Kukini, Ohconfucius, SashatoBot, Lambiam,LtPowers, Vriullop, Gloriamarie, Lugalbanda, C0pernicus, Kuru, Kucbel, Kipala, Sonikwlf, Mr. Lefty, IronGargoyle, Mr Stephen, God-frey Daniel, Neddyseagoon, Dr.K., Swampyank, Hectorian, Bad germ, Hu12, Metb82, Iridescent, Alessandro57, Jodpurr, Bookworm15,CapitalR, Illyria05, Emote, InfernoXV, Samnuva, Scotthieger, SkyWalker, Paulmlieberman, CmdrObot, Van helsing, Denizz, Baiji, Dynz-moar, Arco de Rayne, Fabrib, R9tgokunks, CMG, Jmillernet, Cydebot, Jazz19, Thenewmans2006, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Bollwee-vil, RenamedUser2, Kilhan, Amandajm, Ninja Joey, Falcanary, Wikipidian, Christian75, DumbBOT, DBaba, Sirmylesnagopaleentheda,Nicephorus, Uspn, Mattisse, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Barticus88, Ataturk63, Kablammo, Mojo Hand, Digibrown, Pjvpjv, Marek69, Missvain,John254, Philippe, 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Escape Orbit, Vonones,Francvs, Myrvin, Athenean, Invertzoo, Bartlees, Martarius, Sfan00 IMG, ClueBot, Erol.fazlioglu, Smart Viral, GorillaWarfare, Seslirehber,The Thing That Should Not Be, Postmortemjapan, Plastikspork, Miklog, Sevilledade, Dscharf, Mild Bill Hiccup, Dmvward, Shinpah1, Bo-ing! said Zebedee, Wikijens, Blanchardb, Ample123321, Piledhigheranddeeper, Pras, Airsoftpro0, SamuelTheGhost, Takeaway, Excirial,A3camero, Jotterbot, M.O.X, Razorflame, Elizium23, Phso2, Thingg, Sage Sophia, Johnuniq, Templarion, Darkicebot, Alchemist Jack,Libya82, Wednesday Next, XLinkBot, BodhisattvaBot, Mavigogun, Ost316, Avoided, SilvonenBot, Thatguyflint, K pax6, Surtsicna, Kb-dankbot, Addbot, Razr Nation, Transpoman, Sasaleyte~enwiki, Tcncv, Ronhjones, Fieldday-sunday, Download, Favonian, LinkFA-Bot,Ondewelle, Issyl0, Tide rolls, BrianKnez, Lightbot, Zorrobot, Alpalfour, Amateur55, Alfie66, Angrysockhop, Cody7777777, Legobot,Luckas-bot, Yobot, TaBOT-zerem, Culture editor, Jimidriver, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Brougham96, Jblim407, Eric-Wester, Tem-podivalse, Szajci, AnomieBOT, Mnewhous, GnuCivodul, Zacherystaylor, Materialscientist, Citci, Citation bot, Bob Burkhardt, Apple-bees1995, Editor Yazar, PIL1987, Neurolysis, ,24أحمد.غامدي. 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11.2 Images 17

rice Flesier, ROFI44WIK, Merlaysamuel, Stealthf0rce, Byzres, Qbli2mHd, HueSatLum, Maxronnersjo, E4024, Dexbot, Martinangel2,Ohff, Musicnotes117, Mogism, Viewmont Viking, Makanpagi, Hilmorel, Revelationpuzzle, TwoTwoHello, Lugia2453, Waltereg, Stilbes,WilliamDigiCol, Landolfotralle, Sec855, Railroadwiki, Vasi31, Yclee0206, Stauracius, Theserpentine2121, Jerry Pepsi, Lfdder, Rybec,Ahmet Gürsakal, Oxr033, UgogNizdast, Evensteven, Zenibus, Hansmuller, Finnusertop, Someone not using his real name, Neubauer95476,Noteswork, Clock 12:13, NickGeorge1993, Behind the lie, Coolkidz151, Trinacrialucente, Nathanbloos, Melcous, Monkbot, Filedelinker-bot, Sssredg, RJANKA, Fitz2013, BethNaught, Histedit, DrBesteAcar, Womans enema, Florenc12, Laryomaima, Donkhanl, JudeccaXIII,SecretJournalsofCongress, AFS.786, E.M.Gregory, Datboy132002, Baconmanv2, Samowan, Mattpopovich, SoulFire147, AMartinho3,Turkeyandholiday, Coons3232, KasparBot, Westfield2015, Byzantinearts2015, Jatink12, Greek Strategos, Sevt V, Gmegnet, Giooo95,Thecosmicwarrior and Anonymous: 905

11.2 Images• File:38-manasses-chronicle.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/38-manasses-chronicle.jpg License:

Public domain Contributors: Scanned from book “Miniatures from the Manasses Chronicle”, Ivan Duichev, “Bulgarski hudojnik” Pub-lishing house, Sofia, 1962 Original artist: Original: Constantine Manasses

• File:Allah-green.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Allah-green.svg License: Public domain Contribu-tors: Converted to SVG from Image:Islam.png, originally from en:Image:Ift32.gif, uploaded to the English Wikipedia by Mr100percent on4 February 2003. Originally described as “Copied from Public Domain artwork”. Original artist: ?

• File:Apse_mosaic_Hagia_Sophia_Virgin_and_Child.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/Apse_mosaic_Hagia_Sophia_Virgin_and_Child.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Photograph: Myrabella

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• File:Hagia-Sophia-Grundriss.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Hagia-Sophia-Grundriss.jpg Li-cense: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Hagia-Sophia-Laengsschnitt.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Hagia-Sophia-Laengsschnitt.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Wilhelm Lübke / Max Semrau: Grundriß der Kunstgeschichte. 14. Auflage. Paul Neff Ver-lag, Esslingen, 1908; German Wikipedia, original upload 28. Aug 2004 by Rainer Zenz Original artist: ?

• File:Hagia_Sophia_Imperial_Gate_mosaic_2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Hagia_Sophia_Imperial_Gate_mosaic_2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This file was derived from Hagia Sophia Imperial Gate mosaic.jpg:<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hagia_Sophia_Imperial_Gate_mosaic.jpg' class='image'><img alt='Hagia Sophia Im-perial Gate mosaic.jpg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Hagia_Sophia_Imperial_Gate_mosaic.jpg/50px-Hagia_Sophia_Imperial_Gate_mosaic.jpg' width='50' height='40' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Hagia_Sophia_Imperial_Gate_mosaic.jpg/75px-Hagia_Sophia_Imperial_Gate_mosaic.jpg 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Hagia_Sophia_Imperial_Gate_mosaic.jpg/100px-Hagia_Sophia_Imperial_Gate_mosaic.jpg 2x'data-file-width='3488' data-file-height='2808' /></a>Original artist: Hagia_Sophia_Imperial_Gate_mosaic.jpg: Photograph: Myrabella

• File:Hagia_Sophia_Interior_Dome.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Hagia_Sophia_Interior_Dome.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work (Original text: self-made) Original artist: Matthew Badger bad_germ

Page 18: HagiaSophia - Freeturkey.free.fr/english/ayasofya.pdfof Hagia Sophia continue to require significant stabil-ityimprovement,restorationandconservation.[46]Haghia Sophiaiscurrently(2014)thesecondmostvisitedmu-seum

18 11 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Hagia_Sophia_Southwestern_entrance_mosaics_2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Hagia_Sophia_Southwestern_entrance_mosaics_2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This file was derived from Hagia Sophia South-western entrance mosaics.jpg: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hagia_Sophia_Southwestern_entrance_mosaics.jpg'class='image'><img alt='Hagia Sophia Southwestern entrance mosaics.jpg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Hagia_Sophia_Southwestern_entrance_mosaics.jpg/50px-Hagia_Sophia_Southwestern_entrance_mosaics.jpg' width='50'height='37' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Hagia_Sophia_Southwestern_entrance_mosaics.jpg/75px-Hagia_Sophia_Southwestern_entrance_mosaics.jpg 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Hagia_Sophia_Southwestern_entrance_mosaics.jpg/100px-Hagia_Sophia_Southwestern_entrance_mosaics.jpg 2x' data-file-width='3860'data-file-height='2826' /></a>Original artist: File:Hagia_Sophia_Southwestern_entrance_mosaics.jpg: Photograph: Myrabella

• File:Hagia_Sophia_Theodosius_2007_002.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Hagia_Sophia_Theodosius_2007_002.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Gryffindor

• File:Hagia_Sophia_Theodosius_2007_007.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Hagia_Sophia_Theodosius_2007_007.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Gryffindor

• File:Hagia_Sophia_Theodosius_2007_010.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Hagia_Sophia_Theodosius_2007_010.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Gryffindor

• File:Istanbul.Hagia_Sophia005.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Istanbul.Hagia_Sophia005.jpg Li-cense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work (own photo) Original artist: Georges Jansoone JoJan

• File:Istanbul.Hagia_Sophia009.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Istanbul.Hagia_Sophia009.jpg Li-cense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work (own photo) Original artist: Georges Jansoone JoJan

• File:Istanbul.Hagia_Sophia052.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Istanbul.Hagia_Sophia052.jpg Li-cense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work (own photo) Original artist: Georges Jansoone JoJan

• File:Istanbul.Hagia_Sophia055.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Istanbul.Hagia_Sophia055.jpg Li-cense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work (own photo) Original artist: Georges Jansoone JoJan

• File:Istanbul_001.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Istanbul_001.JPG License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Con-tributors: Own work Original artist: Vikiçizer

• File:Istanbul_036_(6498284165).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Istanbul_036_%286498284165%29.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Istanbul 036 Original artist: Steve Evans from Citizen of the World

• File:Le_24feb_a_11h23_-_Ste_Sophie_(1280x1280).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Le_24feb_a_11h23_-_Ste_Sophie_%281280x1280%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Tranxen

• File:Location_map_Istanbul.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Location_map_Istanbul.png License:CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: openstreetmap.org Original artist: OpenStreetMap contributors, Dr. Blofeld

• File:Marble_door_Hagia_Sophia_2007_003.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/Marble_door_Hagia_Sophia_2007_003.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Gryffindor

• File:Marble_jar_Hagia_Sophia_2007_001.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Marble_jar_Hagia_Sophia_2007_001.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Gryffindor

• File:P_parthenon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/P_parthenon.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0Contrib-utors: ? Original artist: ?

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• File:Searchtool.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/61/Searchtool.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ?• File:USVA_headstone_emb-05.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/USVA_headstone_emb-05.svg Li-cense: Public domain Contributors: http://www.cem.va.gov/hmm/emblems.asp Original artist: Traced by User:Dogsgomoo, VA original

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