M

Maltose

Maltose (/ ̍ m ɔː l t oʊ s /  or also known asmaltobiose or malt sugar, is a disaccharide formed from two units of glucose joined with an α(1→4) bond, formed from a condensation reaction. The isomer isomaltose  has two glucose molecules linked

through an α(1→6) bond. Maltose is the second member of an important biochemical series of glucose chains. Maltose is the disaccharide produced when amylase breaks downstarch. It is found in germinating seeds such as barley as they break down their starch stores to use for food. It is also produced when glucose is caramelized. Maltose was discovered by Ireland's Cornelius O’Sullivanin 1872[5] and its name comes from malt, from Old

Maltose

α-Maltose

English mealt, of Germanic origin, and the suffix –ose, a suffix forming names of sugars and other carbohydrates.

Maltose is a biomolecule that belongs to the group of

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carbohydrates within the division into three groups, which are divided into essential elements: carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. Carbohydrates are composed by O, H, C, and are defined as polyhydroxyaldehydes or polyhydroxyketones.

It is generally divided into monosaccharides, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides depending on the number of residues. Maltose is a disaccharide formed by the union of two glucose units (monosaccharide). The two are classified as hexoses because each one is composed of six carbons. The two glucoses which compose maltose are cyclized in piran form and are joined by an O-glycosidic bond through one of the firstglucose carbon and fourth carbon of the second glucose, indicated as (1 → 4). The link is characterized as α due to the -OH position of the anomeric carbon in the opposite plane of CH2OH radical (the carbon is the number 6).Due to O-glycosidic link, maltose is a disaccharide that can reduce Fehling's reagent. Furthermore, maltose can be obtained by hydrolysis of glycogen or starch, polymers of linked maltoses in position α (1 → 4) and branching in position α (1 → 6). These are very abundant and form a large number of branches. Amylase enzymes produce maltose and limit dextrin. These can be further degraded by maltase enzyme to hydrolyze maltoses as glucoses and they are ready to be degrade and obtain energy in form of ATP.

Maltose has the ability to reduce the Fehling’s solution, due to its free aldehyde. The aldehyde group is oxidized giving a positive result, which means that the maltose is a reducing sugar. Maltose in aqueous solution exhibit mutarotation, due to its anomeric carbon which can form α and β isomers. In aqueous solution, it is shown a balanced way between α and β forms. It has a sweet taste. Lu and Sharkey – in 2006 – said that maltose was the main carbon form exported from chloroplasts at night.

MANTLE

The mantle is a part of a terrestrial planet or other rocky body large enough to have differentiation by density. The interior of

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the Earth, similar to the other terrestrial planets, is chemically divided into layers. The mantle is a layer between the crust and the outer core. Earth's mantle is a silicate rocky shell about 2,900 km (1,800 mi) thick that constitutes about 84% of Earth's volume. It is predominantly solid but in geological time it behaves like very viscous liquid. The mantle encloses the hot core rich in iron and nickel, which occupies about 15% of Earth's volume.

Past episodes of melting and volcanism at the shallower levels of the mantle have produced a thin crust of crystallized melt products near the surface, upon which we live.[4] Information

about structure and composition of the mantle either result from geophysical investigation or from direct geoscientific analyses on Earth mantle derived xenoliths and on mantle exposed by mid-oceanic ridge spreading.

The Structure of the Earth

Two main zones are distinguished in the upper mantle: the inner asthenosphere composed of plastic flowing rock about 200 km thick,and the lowermost part of the lithosphere composed of

rigid rock about 50 to 120 km thick. A thin crust, the upper

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part of the lithosphere, surrounds the mantle and is about 5 to 75 km thick.

In some places under the ocean the mantle is actually exposed on the surface of the Earth. There are also a few places on land where mantle rock has been pushed to the surface by tectonic activity, most notably the Tablelands region of Gros Morne National Park in the Canadian province of Newfoundland.

The mantle is divided into sections which are based upon results from seismology. These layers (and their thicknesses/depths) are the following: the upper mantle (starting at the Moho, or base of the crust around 7 to 35 km downward to 410 km),the transition zone (410–660 km), the lower mantle (660–2891 km), and anomalous core–mantle boundary with a variable thickness (on average ~200 km thick).

The top of the mantle is defined by a sudden increase in seismic velocity, which was first noted by Andrija Mohorovičić in 1909; this boundary is now referred to as the "Mohorovičić discontinuity" or "Moho". The uppermost mantle plus overlying crust are relatively rigid and form the lithosphere, an irregular layer with a maximum thickness of perhaps 200 km, below the lithosphere the upper mantle becomes notably more plastic. In some regions below the lithosphere, the seismic velocity is reduced; this so-called low-velocity zone (LVZ) extends down to a depth of several hundred km.

Inge Lehmann discovered a seismic discontinuity at about 220 km depth; although this discontinuity has been found in other studies, it is not known whether the discontinuity is ubiquitous. The transition zone is an area of great complexity; it physically separates the upper and lower mantle. Very little is known about the lower mantle apart from that it appears to be relatively seismically homogeneous. The D" layers at the core–mantle boundary separates the mantle from the core.

MOMENTUM

In classical

mechanics, linear momentum or translational

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momentum (pl. momenta; SI unitkg m/s, or equivalently, N s) is the product of the mass and velocity of an object. For example, a

heavy truck moving fast has a large momentum—it takes a large

and prolonged force to get the truck up to this speed, and

it takes a large and prolonged force to bring it to a stop afterwards. If the truck were lighter or moving more slowly, then it would have less momentum.

Like velocity, linear momentum is a vector quantity, possessing a direction as well as a magnitude: Linear momentum is also a conserved quantity, meaning that if a closed system is not affected by external forces, its total linear momentum cannot change. In classical mechanics, conservation of linear momentum is implied by Newton's laws; but it also holds in special relativity (with a modified formula) and, with appropriate definitions, a (generalized) linear momentum conservation law holds in electrodynamics, mechanics, quantum, and general relativity.

Momentum has a direction as well as magnitude. Quantities that have both a magnitude and a direction are known as vector quantities. Because momentum has a direction, it can be used to predict the resulting direction of objects after they collide, as well as their speeds. Below, the basic properties of momentum are

Billiard balls possesses momentum.

described in one dimension. The vector equations are almost identical to the scalar equations (see multiple dimensions).

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MUDSLIDE

A mudslide is the most rapid (up to 80 km/h, or 50 mph) and fluid type of downhill mass wasting. It is a rapid movement of a large mass of mud formed from loose dirt and water. Similar phenomena include mudflow, mud stream, debris flow (e.g. in high mountains), jökulhlaup, and lahar (from volcanoes). These terms cover a broad variety in water content (from loamy mud, to almost liquid, and even steam); material (wet soil, sandy sediments and/or silt, dirt, rock, debris, volcanic ash, small plants, and even trees); length; total mass; and velocity.

Heavy rainfall, snowmelt, or high levels of water flowing through cracked bedrock may trigger a movement of soil or sediments. Floods, debris- and mud flows may also occur when strong rains on hill or mountain slopes cause

Mailbox caught in a mudslide

extensive erosion and/or what is known as "channel scour". The 2006 Sidoarjo mud flow may have been caused by rogue drilling.

Some broad mudflows are rather viscous and therefore slow; others begin very quickly and continue like an avalanche. If large enough they can devastate villages and country sides. They are composed of at least 50% silt and clay-sized materials and up to 30% water. Mudflows are common even in

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the hills around Los Angeles where they have destroyed many homes built on hillsides without sufficient support.

The point where a muddy material begins to flow depends on its grain and the water content. Fine grainy material or soil has a smaller friction angle than a coarse sediment or a debris flow, but falling rock pieces can trigger a material flow, too. On December 14, 1999 in Vargas, Venezuela, a mudslide known as The Vargas tragedy, which significantly altered more than 60 kilometers (37 mi) of its coastline, was triggered due to heavy rainfall and caused estimated damages of USD $1.79 to $3.5 billion, a death toll considered to be between 10,000 and 30,000, 85,000 people evacuated and led to the complete collapse of the state's infrastructure.

When a mudslide occurs it is given four named areas, the 'main scarp', in bigger mudslides the 'upper and lower shelves' and the 'toe'. The main scarp will be the original area of incidence; the toe is the last affected area(s). The upper and lower shelves are located wherever a large dip (due to mountain or natural drop) in the mudslides path. Due to this a mudslide can have many shelves.

Myelin

Myelin is a dielectric(electrically insulating) material that forms a layer, the myelin sheath, usually around only the axon of a neuron. It is essential for the proper functioning of the nervous system. It is an outgrowth of a type of glial cell. The production of the myelin sheath is called myelination. In humans, the production of myelin begins in the 14th week of fetal development, although little myelin exists in the brain at the

time of birth. During infancy, myelination occurs quickly and continues through the adolescent stages of life.

Schwann cells supply the myelin for peripheral neurons, whereas oligodendrocytes, specifically of the inter fascicular type, myelinate the axons of have also arisen by parallel evolution in some invertebrates, although they are quite

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different from vertebrate myelin at the molecular level. Myelin was discovered in 1854 by Rudolf Virchow.

Myelin is made up by different cell types, and varies in chemical composition and configuration, but performs the same insulating function. Myelinated axons are white in appearance, hence the "white matter" of the brain. The fat helps to insulate the axons from electrically charged atoms and molecules. These charged particles (ions) are found in the fluid surrounding the entire nervous system. Under a microscope, myelin looks like strings of sausages. Myelin is also a part of the maturation process leading to a child's fast development, including crawling and walking in the first year.

Myelin is about 40% water; the dry mass is about 70–85% lipids and about 15–30% proteins. Some of the proteins are myelin basic protein, myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein, and proteolipid protein. The primary lipid of myelin is a glycolipid called galactocerebroside. The intertwining

Myelin Sheath Formation

hydrocarbon chains of sphingomyelin serve to strengthen the myelin sheath.

The main purpose of a myelin layer (or sheath) is to increase the speed at which impulses propagate along the myelinated fiber.

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NNeon

Neon is a chemical element with symbol Ne and atomic number 10.

Chemical Symbol of Neon

Appearance and Properties of NeoncColorless gas exhibiting an orange-red glow when placed in a high voltage electric field

Spectral lines of neon in the visible region

General properties

Name, symbol, number neon, Ne, 10

Pronunciation /ˈniːɒn/

Element category noble gases

Group, period, block18 (noble gases), 2, p

Standard atomic weight 20.1797(6)

Electron configuration[He] 2s2 2p6

2, 8

Atomic properties

Oxidation states 1[6], 0

Ionization energies(more)

1st: 2080.7 kJ·mol−1

2nd: 3952.3 kJ·mol−1

3rd: 6122 kJ·mol−1

Covalent radius 58 pm

Van der Waals radius 154 pm

It is in group 18 (noble gases) of the periodic table. Neon is a colorless, odorless, inert monatomic gas under standard conditions, with about two-thirds the density of air.

It was discovered (along with krypton and xenon) in 1898 as one of the three residual rare inert elements remaining in dry air, after nitrogen, oxygen, argon and carbon dioxide are removed.

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Neon was the second of these three rare gases to be discovered, and was immediately recognized as a new element from its bright red emission spectrum. The name neon is derived from the Greek word, νέον, neuter singular form of νέος [neos], meaning new. Neon is chemically inert and forms no uncharged chemical compounds.

Neon is a very common element in the universe and solar system (it is fifth in cosmic abundance after hydrogen, helium, oxygen and carbon), but, it is very rare on Earth.

Neon gives a distinct reddish-orange glow when used in either low-voltage neon glow lamps or in high-voltage discharge tubes or neon advertising signs. Neon is used in a few plasma tube and refrigerant applications but has few other commercial uses.

Newton, Isaac

Sir Isaac Newton (25 December 1642 – 20 March 1727) was an English physicist and mathematician who is widely regarded as one of the most influential scientists of all time and as a key figure in the scientific revolution.

His book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica ("Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy"), first published in 1687, laid the foundations for most of classical mechanics.

Newton also made seminal contributions to optics and shares credit with Gottfried Leibniz for the invention of the infinitesimal calculus.

Newton's Principia formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation that dominated scientists' view of the physical universe for the next three centuries. It also demonstrated that the motion of objects on the Earth and that of celestial bodies

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could be described by the same principles.

Newton built the first practical reflecting telescope and developed a theory of colour based on the observation that a prism decomposes white light into the many colours of the visible spectrum. He also formulated an empirical law of cooling and studied the speed of sound.

Neptunium

Neptunium is a chemical element with the symbol Np and atomic number 93. A radioactive actinide metal, neptunium is the first transuranic element. Its position in the periodic table just after uranium, named after the planet Uranus, led to its being named after Neptune, the next planet beyond Uranus. A neptunium atom has 93 protons and 93 electrons, of which seven are valence electrons. Neptunium metal is silvery and tarnishes

Godfrey Kneller's 1689 portrait of Isaac Newton

(age 46)

Appearance and Properties of Neptunium

Silvery-metallic

General propertiesName, symbol, number

neptunium, Np, 93

Element category

actinide

Group, period, block

n/a, 7, f

Standard atomic weight

(237)

Electron configuration

[Rn] 5f4 6d1 7s2

2, 8, 18, 32, 22, 9, 2

Discovery Edwin McMillan and Philip H. Abelson (1940)

Physical properties

Density (near r.t.)

(alpha) 20.45[1] g·cm−3

Density (near r.t.)

(accepted standard value) 19.38 g·cm−3

Melting point 912 K1182 °F 639 °C, ,

Boiling point 7545 4174 °C, 4447 K, (extrapolated) °F

when exposed to air. The element normally exhibits five oxidation states, ranging from +3 to +7.

In the 1870s, Dmitri Mendeleev first predicted the existence of neptunium, and many false claims of its discovery were made over the years. Most neptunium is produced by bombarding uranium with neutrons in

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nuclear reactors; neptunium is also generated as a by-product in conventional nuclear reactors.

Neodymium

Neodymium is a chemical element with the symbol Nd and atomic number 60. It is a soft silvery metal that tarnishes in air. Neodymium was discovered in 1885 by the Austrian chemist Carl Auer von Welsbach. It is present in significant quantities in the ore minerals monazite and bastnäsite. Neodymium is not found naturally in metallic form or unmixed with other lanthanides, and it is usually refined for general use. Although neodymium is classed as a "rare earth", it is a fairly common element, no rarer than cobalt, nickel, and copper, and is widely distributed in the Earth's crust.

Neodymium compounds were first commercially used as glass dyes in 1927, and they remain a popular additive in glasses. The color of neodymium compounds—due to the Nd3+ ion—is often a

Appearance and Properties of Neodymiun

Silvery-white

General propertiesName, symbol, number

neodymium, Nd, 60

Element category lanthanide

Group, period, block

n/a, 6, f

Standard atomic weight

144.242

Electron configuration

[Xe] 4f4 6s2

2, 8, 18, 22, 8, 2

Discovery Carl Auer von Welsbach (1885)

Physical properties

Phase solid

Liquid density at m.p.

6.89 g·cm−3

Melting point1297 K1875 °F 1024 °C, ,

Boiling point 5565 °F 3074 °C, 3347 K,

Heat of fusion 7.14 kJ·mol−1

reddish-purple but it changes with the type of lighting, with the type of lighting, duefluorescent effects.

Some neodymium-doped glasses are also used in lasers that emit infrared light with wavelengths between 1047 and 1062 nanometers.

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These have been used in extremely high power applications, such as experiments in inertial confinement fusion.Neodymium is also used with various other substrate crystals, such as yttrium aluminum garnet in the Nd:YAG laser. This laser usually emits infrared waves at a wavelength of about 1064 nanometers.

Niobium

Niobium,formerly columbium, is a chemical element with the symbol Nb (formerly Cb) and atomic number 41. It is a soft, grey, ductile transition metal, which is often found in the pyrochlore mineral, the main commercial source for niobium, and columbite. The name comes from Greek mythology: Niobe, daughter of Tantalus.

The English chemist Charles Hatchett reported a new element similar to tantalum in 1801 and named it columbium. In 1809, the English chemist William Hyde Wollaston wrongly concluded that tantalum and columbium were identical. The German chemist Heinrich Rose

Appearance and Properties of Niobium

gray metallic, bluish when oxidized

General propertiesName, symbol, number niobium, Nb, 41

Element category transition metal

Group, period, block 5, 5, d

Standard atomic weight

92.90637(2)

Electron configuration

[Kr] 4d4 5s1

2, 8, 18, 12, 1

Physical properties

Phase solid

Density (near r.t.) 8.57 g·cm−3

Melting point2750 K4491 °F 2477 °C, ,

Boiling point 8571 °F 4744 °C, 5017 K,

Heat of fusion 30 kJ·mol−1

Heat of vaporization 689.9 kJ·mol−1

Molar heat capacity 24.60 J·mol−1·K−1

determined in 1846 that tantalum ores contain a second element, which he named niobium. In 1864 and 1865, a series of scientific findings clarified that niobium and columbium were the same

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element (as distinguished from tantalum), and for a century both names were used interchangeably. Niobium was officially adopted as the name of the element in 1949, but the name columbium remains in current use in metallurgy in the United States.

Brazil is the leading producer of niobium and ferroniobium, an alloy of niobium and iron. Niobium is used mostly in alloys, the largest part in special steel such as that used in gas pipelines.

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O

Ocean

An ocean (from Ancient Greek Ὠκεανός (Okeanos); the World Ocean of classical antiquity[1]) is a body of saline water that composes much of a planet's hydrosphere. On Earth, an ocean is one or all of the major divisions of the planet's World Ocean – which are, in descending order of area, the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Southern (Antarctic), and Arctic Oceans. The word sea is often used interchangeably with "ocean" in American English but, strictly speaking, a sea is a body of saline water (generally a division of the World Ocean) that land partly or fully encloses.

Earth is the only planet that is known to have an ocean (or any large amounts of open liquid water). Saline water covers approximately 72% of the planet's surface (~3.6x108 km2) and is

Representation of ocean.

customarily divided into several principal oceans and smaller seas, with the ocean covering approximately 71% of the Earth's

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surface. The ocean contains 97% of the Earth's water, and oceanographers have stated that only 5% of the World Ocean has been explored. The total volume is approximately 1.3 billion cubic kilometres (310 million cu mi) with an average depth of 3,682 metres (12,080 ft).The ocean principally comprises Earth's hydrosphere and therefore is integral to all known life, forms part of the carbon cycle, and influences climate and weather patterns. It is the habitat of 230,000 known species, although much of the ocean's depths remain unexplored, and over two million marine species are estimated to exist. The origin of Earth's oceans remains unknown; oceans are believed to have formed in the Hadean period and may have been the impetus for the emergence of life.

Ohm’s Law

Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to the potential difference across the two points. Introducing the constant of proportionality, the resistance, one arrives at the usual mathematical equation that

describes this relationship: where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the potential difference measured across the conductor in units ofvolts, and R is the resistance of the conductor in units of ohms. More specifically, Ohm's law states that the R in this relation is

V, I, and R, the parameters of Ohm's law.

constant, independent of the current. The law was named after the German physicist Georg Ohm, who, in a treatise published in 1827, described measurements of applied voltage and current

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through simple electrical circuits containing various lengths of wire. He presented a slightly more complex equation than the one above (see History section below) to explain his experimental results. The above equation is the modern form of Ohm's law.

In physics, the term Ohm's law is also used to refer to various generalizations of the law originally formulated by Ohm. The

simplest example of this is:

where J is the current density at a given location in a resistive material, E is the electric field at that location, and σ is a material dependent parameter called the conductivity. This reformulation of Ohm's law is due to Gustav Kirchhoff.

Onnes,Heike Kamerlingh

Heike Kamerlingh Onnes (21 September 1853 – 21 February 1926) was a Dutch physicist and Nobel laureate pioneered refrigeration techniques and used these to explore how materials behave when cooled to nearly absolute zero. He was the first toliquefy helium. His production of extreme cryogenic temperatures led to his discovery of superconductivity in 1911: for certain materials, electrical

resistance abruptly vanishes at very low temperatures.

Kamerlingh Onnes was born in Groningen, Netherlands. His father, Harm Kamerlingh Onnes, was a brickworks owner. His mother was

Anna Gerdina Coers of Arnhem. Heike Kamerlingh Onnes

In 1870, Kamerlingh Onnes attended the University of Groningen. He studied under Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff at

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The University of Heidelberg from 1871 to 1873. Again at Groningen, he obtained his masters in 1878 and a doctorate in 1879. His thesis was "Nieuwe bewijzen voor de aswenteling der aarde" (tr. New proofs of the rotation of the earth). From 1878 to 1882 he was assistant to Johannes Bosscha, the director of the TU Delft (then Delft Polytechnic), for whom he substituted as lecturer in 1881 and 1882

He was married to Maria Adriana Wilhelmina Elisabeth Bijleveld (m. 1887) and had one child, named Albert. His brother Menso Kamerlingh Onnes (1860–1925) was a fairly well known painter (and father of another painter, Harm Kamerlingh Onnes), while his sister Jenny married another famous painter, Floris Verster (1861–1927).

Ørsted ,Hans Christian

Hans Christian Ørsted, often rendered Oersted in English; 14 August 1777 – 9 March 1851) was a Danish physicist and chemist who discovered that electric currents create magnetic fields, an important aspect ofelectromagnetism. He shaped post-Kantian philosophy and advances in science throughout the late 19th century.

In 1824, Ørsted founded Selskabet for Naturlærens Udbredelse (SNU), a society to disseminate knowledge of the natural sciences. He was also the founder of predecessor

organizations which eventually became the Danish Meteorological Institute and the Danish Patent and Trademark Office.

Ørsted was the first modern thinker to explicitly describe and name the thought experiment.

A leader of the so-called Danish Golden Age, Ørsted was a close friend of Hans Christian Andersen and the brother of politician

Danish physicist & chemist

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and jurist Anders Sandøe Ørsted, who eventually served as Danish prime minister (1853–54). The oersted (Oe), the cgs unit of magnetic H-field strength, is named after him.

Ørsted was born in Rudkøbing. As a young boy Ørsted developed his interest in science while working for his father, who owned a pharmacy. He and his brother Anders received most of their early education through self-study at home, going to Copenhagen in 1793 to take entrance exams for theUniversity of Copenhagen, where both brothers excelled academically. By 1796 Ørsted had been awarded honors for his papers in both aesthetics and physics. He earned his doctorate in 1799 for a dissertation based on the works of Kant entitled "The Architectonics of Natural Metaphysics".

0smosis

Osmosis is the spontaneous net movement of solvent molecules through a partially permeable membrane into a region of higher solute concentration, in the direction that tends to equalize the solute concentrations on the two sides. It may also be used to describe a physical process in which any solvent moves, without input of

energy, across a semipermeable membrane (permeable to the solvent, but not the solute) separating two solutions of different

concentrations. Although osmosis does not require input of energy, it does use kinetic energy and can be made to do work.

The osmotic pressure is defined to be the pressure required to maintain an equilibrium, with no net movement of solvent. Osmotic pressure is a colligative property, meaning that the

One frame of a computer simulation of osmosis

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osmotic pressure depends on the molar concentration of the solute but not on its identity.Osmosis is an essential aspect in biological systems, as biological membranes are semipermeable.

In general, these membranes are impermeable to large and polar molecules, such as ions, proteins, and polysaccharides, while being permeable to non-polar and/orhydrophobic molecules like lipids as well as to small molecules like oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, nitric oxide, etc. Permeability depends on solubility, charge, or chemistry, as well as solute size.

Water molecules travel through the plasma membrane, tonoplast membrane (vacuole) or protoplast by diffusing across the phospholipid bilayer via aquaporins (small transmembrane proteins similar to those in facilitated diffusion and in creating ion channels). Osmosis provides the primary means by which water is transported into and out of cells. The turgor pressure of a cell is largely maintained by osmosis across the cell membrane between the cell interior and its relatively hypotonic environment.

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P

Paradigm shift

In 1962, Thomas Kuhn wrote The Structure of Scientific Revolution, and fathered, defined and popularized the concept of "paradigm shift" Kuhn argues that scientific advancement is not evolutionary, but rather is a "series of peaceful interludes punctuated by intellectually violent revolutions",

and in those revolutions "one conceptual world view is replaced by another".

Think of a Paradigm Shift as a change from one way of thinking to another. It's a revolution, a transformation, a sort of metamorphosis. It just does not happen, but rather it is driven by agents of change.

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Kuhn used the duck-rabbit optical illusion to demonstrate the way in which a paradigm shift could cause one to see the same information in an entirely different way.

For example, agriculture changed early primitive society. The primitive Indians existed for centuries roaming the earth constantly hunting and gathering for seasonal foods and water. However, by 2000 B.C., Middle America was a landscape of very small villages, each surrounded by patchy fields of corn and other vegetables.Agents of change helped create a paradigm-shift moving scientific theory from the Plolemaic system (the earth at the center of the universe) to the Copernican system (the sun at the center of the universe), and moving from Newtonian physics to Relativity and Quantum Physics. Both movements eventually changed the world view. These transformations were gradual as old beliefs were replaced by the new paradigms creating "a new gestalt" (p. 112).Likewise, the printing press, the making of books and the use of vernacular language inevitable changed the culture of a people and had a direct affect on the scientific revo ution. Johann Gutenberg's invention in the 1440's of movable type was an agent of change. With the invention of the printing press, books became readily available, smaller and easier to handle and cheap to purchase. Masses of people acquired direct access to the scriputures. Attitudes began to change as people were relieved from church domination.Similarly, agents of change are driving a new paradigm shift today. The signs are all around us. For example, the introduction of the personal computer and the internet have impacted both personal and business environments, and is a catalyst for a Paradigm Shift. We are shifting from a mechanistic, manufacturing, industrial society to an organic, service based, information centered society, and increases in technology will continue to impact globally. Change is inevitable. It's the only true constant.In conclusion, for millions of years we have been evolving and will continue to do so. Change is difficult. Human Beings resist change; however, the process has been set in motion long ago and we will continue to co-create our own experience. Kuhn states that "awareness is prerequisite to all acceptable changes of theory" (p. 67). It all begins in the mind of the person. What we perceive, whether normal or metanormal, conscious or unconscious, are subject to the limitations and distortions produced by our inherited and socially conditional nature. However, we are not restricted by this for we can change. We are moving at an accelerated rate of speed and our state of consciousness is transforming and transcending. Many are awakening as our conscious awareness expands.

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Photovoltaics

Photovoltaics (PV) is a method of generating electrical power by converting solar radiation into direct current

electricity using semiconductors that exhibit the photovoltaic effect. Photovoltaic power generation employs solar panels composed of a number of solar cells containing a photovoltaic material. Materials presently used for photovoltaics include monocrystalline silicon,polycrystalline silicon, amorphous silicon, cadmium telluride, and copper indium gallium selenide/sulfide. Due to the increased demand for renewable energy sources, the manufacturing of solar cells and photovoltaic arrays has advanced considerably in recent years.Solar photovoltaics is a sustainable energy source. By the end of 2011, a total of 71.1 GW had been installed, sufficient to generate 85 TWh/year. And by end of 2012, the 100 GW installed capacity milestone was achieved. Solar photovoltaics is now, after hydro and wind power, the third most important renewable energy source in terms of globally installed capacity. More than 100 countries use solar PV. Installations may be ground-mounted (and sometimes integrated with farming and grazing) or built into the roof or walls of a building (either building-integrated photovoltaics or simply rooftop.Driven by advances in technology and increases in manufacturing scale and sophistication, the cost of photovoltaics has declined steadily since the first solar cells were manufactured, and the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) from PV is competitive with conventional electricity sources in an expanding list of geographic regions. Net metering and financial incentives, such as preferential feed-in tariffs for solar-generated electricity,

Solar cells produce electricity directly from sunlight.

have supported solar PV installations in many countries. With current technology, photovoltaics recoup the energy needed to

113manufacture them in 3 to 4 years. Anticipated technology would reduce time needed to recoup the energy to 1 to 2 years. Photovoltaics are best known as a method for generating electric power by using solar cells to convert energy from the sun into a flow of electrons. The photovoltaic effect refers to photons of light exciting electrons into a higher state of energy, allowing them to act as charge carriers for an electric current. The photovoltaic effect was first observed by Alexandre-Edmond Becquerel in 1839. The term photovoltaic denotes the unbiased operating mode of a photodiode in which current through the device is entirely due to the transduced light energy. Virtually all photovoltaic devices are some type of photodiode.Solar cells produce direct current electricity from sun light which can be used to power equipment or to recharge a battery. The first practical application of photovoltaics was to power orbiting satellites and other spacecraft, but today the majority of photovoltaic modules are used for grid connected power generation. In this case an inverter is required to convert the DC to AC. There is a smaller market for off-grid power for remote dwellings, boats,recreational vehicles, electric cars, roadside emergency telephones, remote sensing, and cathodic protection of pipelines.Photovoltaic power generation employs solar panels composed of a number of solar cells containing a photovoltaic material. Materials presently used for photovoltaics include monocrystalline silicon,polycrystalline silicon, amorphous silicon, cadmium telluride, and copper indium gallium selenide/sulfide. Copper solar cables connect modules (module cable), arrays (array cable), and sub-fields. Because of the growing demand for renewable energy sources, the manufacturing of solar cells and photovoltaic arrays has advanced considerably in recent years. Cells require protection from the environment and are usually packaged tightly behind a glass sheet. When more power is required than a single cell can deliver, cells are electrically connected together to form photovoltaic modules, or solar panels. A single module is enough to power an emergency telephone, but for a house or a power plant the modules must be arranged in multiples as arrays.Photovoltaic power capacity is measured as maximum power output under standardized test conditions (STC) in "Wp" (Watts peak).

The actual power output at a particular point in time may be less than or greater than this standardized, or "rated," value,

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depending on geographical location, time of day, weather conditions, and other factors. Solar photovoltaic array capacity factors are typically under 25%, which is lower than many other industrial sources of electricity.

Pheromones

A pheromone (from Greek φέρω phero "to bear" and hormone, from Greek ὁρμή "impetus") is a secreted or excreted chemical factor that triggers a social response in members of the same species. Pheromones are chemicals capable of acting outside the body of the secreting individual to impact the behavior of the receiving individual. There are alarm pheromones, food trail pheromones, sex pheromones, and many others that affect behavior or physiology. Pheromones are used from basic unicellular prokaryotes to complex multicellular eukaryotes. Their use among insects has been particularly well documented. In addition, some vertebrates and plants communicate by using pheromones.The term "pheromone" was introduced by Peter Karlson and Martin Lüscher in 1959, based on the Greek word pherein (to transport) and hormone (to stimulate). They are also sometimes classified as ecto-hormones. They were researched earlier by various

Fanning honeybee exposes Nasonovgland (white-at tip of abdomen) releasing pheromone to entice swarm into an empty hive

scientists, including Jean-Henri Fabre, Joseph A. Lintner, Adolph Butenandt, and ethologist Karl von Frisch who called them various names like "alarm substances." These chemical messengers are transported outside of the body and effect neuro circuits, including the autonomous nervous system with hormone or cytokine mediated physiological changes, inflammatory signaling,immune system changes and/or behavioral change in the recipient. They proposed the term to describe chemical signals

115from conspecifics that elicit innate behaviors soon after the German Biochemist Adolf Butenandt had characterized the first such chemical, bombykol, a chemically well-characterized pheromone released by the female silkworm to attract mates. There are physical limits on the practical size of organisms employing pheromones, because at small sizes pheromone diffuses away from the source organism faster than it can be produced, and a sensible concentration accumulates too slowly to be useful. For this reason, bacteria are too small to use pheromones as sex attractants on an individual basis. However, they do use them to determine the local population density of similar organisms and control behaviors that take more time to execute (e.g. pheromones are used in quorum sensing or to promote natural competence for transformation, i.e. sexual gene transfer). In similar manner, the simple animals rotifers are, it appears, also too small for females to lay down a useful trail, but in the slightly larger copepods the female leaves a trail that the male can follow.

Polymer

A polymer / ̍ p ɒ l ɨ m ər / is a large molecule, or  macromolecule, composed of many repeated subunits, known as monomers. Because of their broad range of properties, both synthetic and natural polymers play an essential and ubiquitous role in everyday life. Polymers range from familiar synthetic  plastics such as polystyrene (or styrofoam) to natural  biopolymers such as DNAand proteins that are fundamental to biological structure and function. Polymers, both natural and synthetic, are created via polymerization of many monomers. Their consequently largemolecular mass relative to small molecule  compounds

produces unique physical properties, including  toughness, viscoelasticity, and a tendency to form  glasses and semicrystalline structures rather than crystals.The term "polymer" derives from the ancient Greek word πολύς (polus, meaning "many, much") and μέρος (meros, meaning "parts"), and refers to a molecule whose structure is composed of multiple repeating units, from which originates

116a characteristic of high relative molecular mass and attendant properties. The units composing polymers derive, actually or conceptually, from molecules of low relative molecular mass. The term was coined in 1833 by Jöns Jacob Berzelius, though with a definition distinct from the modern IUPAC definition.[8] [9]  The modern concept of polymers as covalently bonded macromolecular structures was proposed in 1920 by Hermann Staudinger, who spent the next decade finding experimental evidence for this hypothesis. Polymers are studied in the fields of  biophysics  and macromolecular science, and polymer science(which includes polymer chemistry and polymer physics). Historically, products arising from the linkage of repeating units by covalent chemical bonds have been the primary focus of polymer science; emerging important areas of the science now focus on non-covalent links. Polyisoprene of latex rubber and the polystyrene  of styrofoam are examples of polymeric natural/biological and synthetic polymers, respectively. In biological contexts, essentially all biological macromolecules i.e.,proteins (polyamides) , nucleic acids (polynucleotides),

and polysaccharides—are purely polymeric, or are composed in large part of polymeric components—e.g., isoprenylated/lipid-modified glycoproteins, where small lipidic molecule and oligosaccharide modifications occur on the polyamide backbone of the protein.

Projectile motion

Appearance of real linear polymer chains as recorded using an atomic force microscope on a surface, under liquid medium. Chaincontour length for this polymer is ~204 nm; thickness is ~0.4 nm.

Projectile is defined as, any body thrown with some initial velocity, which is then allowed to move under the action of

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gravity alone, without being propelled by any engine or fuel. The path followed by a projectile is called its trajectory. A projectile moves at a constant speed in the horizontal direction while experiencing a constant acceleration of 9.8 m/s2downwards in the vertical direction. To be consistent, we define the up or upwards direction to be the positive direction. Therefore the acceleration

of gravity is, -9.8 m/s2.

The speed in the horizontal direction is 'vx' and this speed doesn't change. The equation which predicts the position at any

time in the horizontal direction is simply,          Because gravity has a downward pull, the vertical velocity changes constantly. The equation that predicts the vertical

velocity at any time 'vy' isThe 'Voy' is simply the original velocity in the vertical or y-direction. To calculate the position in the y-direction, the full distance formula must be used. 'Yo', represents the original position in the y-direction.

Acceleration for projectiles near the Earth's surface is -9.8 m/s2. We don't re-write the equation with a negative sign.  Rather, we use the negative acceleration value when solving problems.

Parabolic Water Tragectory

When a projectile is launched horizontally  a ball rolls off a table, a car runs off the edge of a cliff, etc.  Here the original y-velocity is zero. For example, if the projectile drops 10 meters, you can set the Yo = 0 and Yf = -10 m. Or, you can set Yo = 10 m and Yf = 0. Either works out the same.

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Q

Quantum

Quantum physics is a branch of science that deals with discrete, indivisible units of energy called quanta as described by the Quantum Theory. There are five main ideas represented in Quantum Theory:

1. Energy is not continuous, but comes in small but discrete units.

2. The elementary particles behave both like particles and like waves.

3. The movement of these particles is inherently random.4. It is physically impossible to know both the position and

the momentum of a particle at the same time. The more precisely one is known, the less precise the measurement of the other is

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5. The atomic world is nothing like the world we live in. 

While at a glance this may seem like just another strange theory, it contains many clues as to the fundamental nature of the universe and is more important then even relativity in the grand scheme of things (if any one thing at that level could be said to be more important then anything else). Furthermore, it describes the nature of the universe as being much different then the world we see. As Niels Bohr said, "Anyone who is not shocked by quantum theory has not understood it."

Quartz

Quartz is the second most abundant mineral in the Earth's continental crust, after feldspar. It is made up of a continuous framework of SiO4 silicon–oxygen tetrahedra, with each oxygen being shared between two tetrahedra, giving an overall

formula SiO2.

There are many different varieties of quartz, several of which are semi-precious gemstones.

Especially in Europe and the Middle East, varieties of quartz

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have been since antiquity the most commonly used minerals in the making of jewelry and hardstone carvings.

The word "quartz" is derived from the German word "Quarz" and its Middle High German ancestor "twarc", which probably originated in Slavic (cf. Czech tvrdý ("hard"), Polish twardy ("hard").

Quartz belongs to the trigonal crystal system. The ideal crystal shape is a six-sided prism terminating with six-sided pyramids at each end. In nature quartz crystals are often twinned, distorted, or so intergrown with adjacent crystals of quartz or other minerals as to only show part of this shape, or to lack obvious crystal faces altogether and appear massive. Well-formed crystals typically form in a 'bed' that has unconstrained growth into a void; usually the crystals are attached at the other end to a matrix and only one termination pyramid is present. However doubly-terminated crystals do occur where they develop freely without attachment, for instance within gypsum. A quartz geode is such a situation where the void is approximately spherical in shape, lined with a bed of crystals pointing inward. α-quartz crystallizes in the trigonal crystal system, space group P3121 and P3221 respectively. β-quartz belongs to the hexagonal system, space group P6222 and P6422, respectively. These space groups are truly chiral (they each belong to the 11 enantiomorphism pairs). Both α-quartz and β-quartz are examples of chiral crystal structures composed of achiral building blocks (SiO4 tetrahedra in the present case). The transformation between α- and β-quartz only involves a comparatively minor rotation of the tetrahedra with respect to one another, without change in the way they are linked.

Quartzite

Quartzite (from German Quarzit) is a hard, non-foliated metamorphic rock which was originally pure quartzsandstone. Sandstone is converted into quartzite

through heating and pressure usually related to tectonic compression within orogenic belts. Pure quartzite is usually

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white to grey, though quartzites often occur in various shades of pink and red due to varying amounts of iron oxide (Fe2O3). Other colors, such as yellow, green, blue and orange, are due to other mineral impurities.

When sandstone is cemented to quartzite, the individual quartz grains

recrystallize along with the former cementing material to form an interlocking mosaic of quartz crystals. Most or all of the original texture and sedimentary structures of the sandstone are erased by the metamorphism. The grainy, sandpaper-like surface becomes glassy in appearance. Minor amounts of former cementing materials, iron oxide, silica, carbonate and clay, often migrate during recrystallization and metamorphosis. This causes streaks and lenses to form within the quartzite.

Orthoquartzite is a very pure quartz sandstone composed of usually well rounded quartz grains cemented bysilica. Orthoquartzite is often 99% SiO2 with only very minor amounts of iron oxide and trace resistant minerals such as zircon, rutile and magnetite. Although few fossils are normally present, the original texture and sedimentary structures are preserved.

The term is also traditionally used for quartz-cemented quartz arenites, and both usages are found in the literature. The typical distinction between the two (since each is a gradation into the other) is a metamorphic quartzite is so highly cemented, diagenetically altered, and metamorphosized so that it will fracture and break across grain boundaries, not around them. Quartzite is very resistant to chemical weathering and often forms ridges and resistant hilltops. The nearly pure silica content of the rock provides little for soil, therefore, the quartzite ridges are often bare or covered only with a very thin layer of soil and (if any) little vegetation.

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Quartzite

Because of its hardness and angular shape, crushed quartzite is often used as ballast. Quartzite is a decorative stone and may be used to cover walls, as roofing tiles, as flooring, and stair steps. Crushed quartzite is sometimes used in road construction. High purity quartzite is used to produce ferrosilicon, industrial silica sand, silicon and silicon carbide. During the Stone Age quartzite was used, in addition to flint, quartz, and other lithic raw materials, for making stone tools.

Quasars and QSOs

These objects were named Quasistellar Radio Sources (meaning "star-like radio sources") which was soon contracted to quasars. Later, it was found that many similar objects did not emit radio waves. These were

termed Quasistellar Objects or QSOs. Now, all of these are often termed quasars (Only about 1% of the quasars discovered to date have detectable radio emission).

Here are some Hubble Space Telescope quasar images, and the following figure shows the quasar 3C273, which was the first quasar discovered and is also the quasar with the greatest apparent brightness. It will be discussed further below.

The quasars were deemed to be strange new phenomena, and initially there was considerable speculation that new laws of physics might have to be invented to account for the amount of energy that they produced.

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Quasars

The quasar 3C273. Left image shows the quasar and the jet. Right image superposes on this contours of radio frequency intensity. The sharp radial lines from the quasar are optical spike artifacts because of its brightness

However, subsequent research has shown that the quasars are closely related to the active galaxies that have been studied at closer distances. We now believe quasars and active galaxies to be related phenomena, and that their energy output can be explained using the theory of general relativity. In that sense, the quasars are certainly strange, but perhaps are not completely new phenomena.

The quasars are thought to be powered by supermassive rotating black holes at their centers. Because they are the most luminous objects known in the universe, they are the objects that have been observed at the greatest distances from us. The most distant are so far away that the light we see coming from them was produced when the Universe was only one tenth of its present age.

The present belief is that quasars are actually closely related to active galaxies such as Seyfert Galaxies or BL Lac objects in that they are very active galaxies with bright nuclei powered by enormous rotating black holes. However, because the quasars are at such large distances, it is difficult to see anything other than the bright nucleus of the active galaxy in their case.

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Quine, Willard Van Orman

W. V. O. Quine (1908-2000) did not conceive of philosophy as an activity separate from the general province of empirical science. His interest in science is not best described as a philosophy of science but as a set of reflections on the nature of science that is pursued with the same empirical spirit that animates scientific inquiry.

Quine’s philosophy should then be seen as a systematic attempt to understand science from within the resources of science itself. This project investigates both the epistemological and ontological

dimensions of scientific theorizing. Quine’s epistemological concern is to examine our successful acquisition of scientific theories, while his ontological interests focus on the further logical regimentation of that theory. He thus advocates what is more famously known as ‘naturalized epistemology’, which consists of his attempt to provide an improved scientific explanation of how we have developed elaborate scientific theories on the basis of meager sensory input. Quine further argues that the most general features of reality can be examined through the use of formal logic by clarifying what objects we must acknowledge as real given our acceptance of an overarching systematic view of the world. In pursuing these issues, Quine reformulates and thus transforms these philosophical concerns according to those standards of clarity, empirical adequacy, and utility that he takes as central to the explanatory power of empirical science. While few philosophers have adopted Quine’s strict standards or accepted the details of his respective positions, the general empirical reconfiguration of philosophy and philosophy of science recommended by his naturalism has been very influential.

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Willard Van Orman Quine

R

Reproduction

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Reproduction (or procreation) is the biological process by which new "offspring" individual organisms are produced from their "parents". Reproduction is a fundamental feature of all known life; each individual organism exists as the result of reproduction. The known methods of reproduction are broadly grouped into two main types: sexual and asexual.

In asexual reproduction, an individual can reproduce without involvement with another individual of that species. The division of a bacterial cell into two daughter cells is an example of asexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction is not, however, limited to single-celled organisms. Most plants have the ability to reproduce asexually and the ant species Mycocepurus smithii is thought to reproduce entirely by asexual means.

Sexual reproduction typically requires the involvement of two individuals or gametes, one each from opposite type of sex. The propagation of organisms can also occur through cloning.

Asexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction is the process by which an organism creates a genetically similar or identical copy of itself without a contribution of genetic material from another individual. Bacteria divide asexually via binary fission; viruses take control of host cells to produce more viruses; Hydras (invertebrates of the order Hydro idea) and yeasts are able to reproduce by budding. These organisms often do not possess different sexes, and they are capable of "splitting" themselves into two or more individuals. On the other hand, some of these species that are capable of reproducing asexually, like hydra, yeast (Mating of yeasts) and jellyfish, may also reproduce sexually. For instance, most plants are capable of vegetative reproduction—reproduction without seeds or spores—but can also reproduce sexually.

Likewise, bacteria may exchange genetic information by conjugation. Other ways of asexual reproduction include parthenogenesis, fragmentation and spore formation that involves only mitosis. Parthenogenesis (from the Greek παρθένος parthenos, "virgin", + γένεσις genesis, "creation") is the growth and development of embryo or seed without fertilization by a male. Parthenogenesis occurs naturally in some species, including lower plants (where it is called apomixis), invertebrates (e.g. water fleas, aphids, some bees and parasitic wasps).

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Sexual reproduction

Sexual reproduction is a biological process by which organisms create descendants that have a combination of genetic material contributed from two (usually) different members of the species. (Self-fertilization requires only one organism.) Each of two parent organisms contributes half of the offspring's genetic makeup by creating haploid gametes. Most organisms form two different types of gametes. In these anisogamous species, the two sexes are referred to as male (producing sperm or microspores) and female (producing ova or megaspores). In isogamous species, the gametes are similar or identical in form (isogametes), but may have separable properties and then may be given other different names (isogamy). For example, in the green alga, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, there are so-called "plus" and "minus" gametes. A few types of organisms, such as ciliates, Paramecium aurelia, have more than two types of "sex", called syngens.

Reptile

Phylogentic classifications group mammal-like reptiles, like this Varanodon, with other synapsids, not with extant reptiles.

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Reptiles, the class Reptilia, are an evolutionary grade of animals, comprising today's  turtles,  crocodilians,  snakes, lizards, and tuatara, as well as many extinct groups. A reptile is any amniote (a tetrapod whose egg has an additional membrane,

originally to allow them to lay eggs on land) that is neither a mammal nor a bird. Unlike mammals, birds, and certain extinct reptiles, living reptiles have scales orscutes (rather than fur or feathers) and are cold-blooded. Advocates of phylogenetic nomenclature regard the traditional category 'Reptilia' to be invalid, as not all descendants of a common ancestor are included. However, in practice, these non-cladistic classifications, such as reptile, fish, and amphibian, remain in use by some biologists, especially in popular books written for a general audience. The historically combined study of reptiles and amphibians is called herpetology.

The earliest known reptiles originated around 340-335 million years ago during the Carboniferous period, having evolved from advancedreptile-like amphibians that became increasingly adapted to life on dry land. Some early examples include the lizard-like Hylonomus,Casineria and possibly Westlothiana, although the latter may be an advanced land-dwelling amphibian. In addition to the living reptiles, there are many diverse groups that are now extinct, in some cases due to mass extinction events. In particular, the K–Pg extinctionwiped out the pterosaurs, plesiosaurs, ornithischians, and sauropods, as well as many species of theropods (e.g. tyrannosaurs anddromaeosaurids), crocodyliforms, and squamates (e.g. mosasaurids).

Modern reptiles inhabit every continent with the exception of Antarctica. Several living subgroups are recognized:

Testudines (turtles, terrapins and tortoises): approximately 400 species

Sphenodontia (tuatara from New Zealand): 2 species Squamata (lizards, snakes, and worm lizards): over 9,600

species Crocodilia (crocodiles, gavials, caimans, and alligators): 25

species

Although they have scutes on their feet and lay eggs, birds have historically been excluded from the reptiles. They, therefore, do not appear on the list above. However, as some reptiles are more closely related to birds than they are to other reptiles —

129 crocodiles are more closely related to birds than they are to lizards — cladistic writers who prefer a more

unified (monophyletic) grouping usually also include the birds, which include over 10,000 species.

Rhenium

Rhenium is a chemical element with the symbol Re and atomic number 75. It is a silvery-white, heavy, third-row transition metal in group 7 of the periodic table. With an estimated average concentration of 1 part per billion (ppb), rhenium is one of the rarest elements in the Earth's crust. Discovered in 1925, rhenium was the last stable element to be discovered. It was named after

the river Rhine in Europe.

Nickel-based super alloys of rhenium are used in the

combustion chambers, turbine blades, and exhaust nozzles of jet engines. These alloys contain up to 6% rhenium, making jet engine construction the

largest single use for the element, with the chemical industry's catalytic uses being next-most important.

Rhenium (Latin: Rhenus meaning: "Rhine") was the last element to be discovered having a stable isotope (other new radioactive elements have been discovered in nature since then, such as neptunium and plutonium). The existence of a yet undiscovered

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element at this position in the periodic had been first predicted by Dmitry Mendeleev. Other calculated information was obtained by Henry Moseley in 1914. It is generally considered to have been discovered by Walter Noddack, Ida Tacke, and Otto

Rhenium

Berg in Germany. In 1925 they reported that they detected the element in platinum ore and in the mineral columbite. They also found rhenium in gadolinite and molybdenite. In 1928 they were able to extract 1 g of the element by processing 660 kg of molybdenite. It was estimated in 1968 that 75% of the rhenium metal in the United States was used for research and the

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development of refractory metal alloys. It took several years from that point on before the super alloys became widely used.

Rheumatoid arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune disease that results in a chronic, systemic inflammatory disorder that may affect many tissues and organs, but principally attacks flexible (synovial) joints. The process involves an inflammatory response of the capsule around the joints (synovium) secondary to swelling (turgescence) of synovial cells, excess synovial fluid, and the development of fibrous tissue (pannus) in the synovium. The pathology of the disease process often leads to the destruction of articular cartilage and ankylosis (fusion) of the joints. RA can also produce diffuse inflammation in the lungs, the membrane around the heart

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(pericardium), the membranes of the lung (pleura), and white of the eye (sclera), and also nodular lesions, mostcommonin subcutaneous tissue. Although the cause of RA is

Hand affected by rheumatoid arthritis

unknown, autoimmunity plays a big part, and RA is a systemic autoimmune disease. It is a clinical diagnosis made on the basis of symptoms, physical exam, radiographs (X-rays) and labs.

Rheumatic fever

Rheumatic fever is an inflammatory disease that occurs following a Streptococcus pyogenes infection, such as streptococcal pharyngitis. Believed to be caused by antibody cross-reactivity that can involve the heart, joints, skin, and brain, the illness typically develops two to three weeks after a streptococcal infection. Acute rheumatic fever commonly appears in children between the ages of 6 and 15, with only 20% of first-time attacks occurring in adults. The illness is so named because of its similarity in presentation to rheumatism.

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Skin with rheumatic fever.

SSaturated fat

Saturated fat is fat that consists of triglycerides containing only saturated fatty acids. Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds between the individual carbon atoms of the fatty acid chain. That is, the chain of carbon atoms is fully "saturated" with hydrogen atoms. There are many kinds of naturally occurring saturated fatty acids, which differ mainly in number of carbon atoms, from 3 carbons (propionic acid) to 36 (hexatriacontanoic acid).

Various fats contain different proportions of saturated and unsaturated fat. Examples of foods containing a high proportion of saturated fat include animal fats such as cream, cheese, butter, and ghee; suet, tallow, lard, and fatty meats; as well as certain vegetable products such as coconut oil, cottonseed oil, palm kernel oil, chocolate, and many prepared foods.

Schleiden, Matthias Jakob

Schleiden, Matthias Jakob (5 April 1804 – 23 June 1881) was a German botanist and co-founder of the cell theory, along

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with Theodor Schwann and Rudolf Virchow.

Born in Hamburg, Schleiden was educated at Heidelberg, then practiced law in Hamburg, but soon developed his love for the botany into a full-time pursuit. Schleiden preferred to study plant structure under the microscope. While a professor of botany at the University of Jena, he wrote Contributions to Phytogenesis (1838), in which he stated that the different parts of

the plant organism are composed of cells. Thus, Schleiden and Schwann became the first to formulate what was then an informal belief as a principle of biology equal in importance to the atomic theory of chemistry. He also recognized the importance of the cell nucleus, discovered in 1831 by the Scottish botanist Robert Brown, and sensed its connection with cell division.

Schleiden was one of the first German biologists to accept Charles Darwin's theory of evolution. He became professor of botany at the University of Dorpat in 1863. He concluded that all plant parts are made of cells and that an embryonic plant organism arises from the one cell. He died in Frankfurt am Main on 23 June 1881.

Sputnik 1

Sputnik 1 was the first artificial Earth satellite. It was a 58 cm (23 in) diameter polished metal sphere, with four external radio antennas to broadcast radio pulses. The Soviet Union launched it into an elliptical low Earth

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Matthias Jakob Schleiden

First man-made satellite to orbit the earth.

orbit on 4 October 1957. It was visible all around the Earth and

its radio pulses were detectable. The surprise success precipitated the American Sputnik crisis, began the Space Age and triggered the Space Race, a part of the larger Cold War. The launch ushered in new political, military, technological, and scientific developments.

Sputnik itself provided scientists with valuable information. The density of the upper atmosphere could be deduced from its drag on the orbit, and the propagation of its radio signals gave information about the ionosphere.

Sputnik 1 was launched during the International Geophysical Year from Site No.1/5, at the 5th Tyuratam range, in Kazakh SSR (now at the Baikonur Cosmodrome). The satellite travelled at about 29,000 kilometers per hour (18,000 mph), taking 96.2 minutes to complete each orbit. It transmitted on 20.005 and 40.002 MHz which were monitored by amateur radio operators throughout the world. The signals continued for 22 days until the transmitter batteries ran out on 26 October 1957. Sputnik 1 burned up on 4 January 1958, as it fell from orbit upon reentering Earth's atmosphere, after travelling about 70 million km (43.5 million miles) and spending 3 months in orbit.

Steroid

A steroid is a type of organic compound that contains a characteristic arrangement of

four cycloalkane rings that are joined to each other. Examples of steroids include the dietary lipid cholesterol, the sex

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Figure 1 Sputnik 1 was the first man-made object to orbit the Earth.

hormones estradiol and testosterone and the anti-inflammatory drug dexamethasone.

The core of steroids is composed of seventeen carbon atoms bonded together that take the form of four fused rings: three cyclohexane rings (designated as rings A, B and C in the figure to the right) and one cyclopentane ring (the D ring). The steroids vary by the functional groups attached to this four-ring core and by the oxidation state of the rings. Sterols are special forms of steroids, with a hydroxyl group at position-3 and a skeleton derived from cholestane.

Hundreds of distinct steroids are found in plants, animals and fungi. All steroids are made in cells either from the sterols lanosterol (animals and fungi, see below right) or from cycloartenol (plants). Both lanosterol and cycloartenol are derived from the cyclization of the triterpene squalene.

Storm surge

Storm surge is an offshore rise of water associated with a low pressure weather system, typically tropical cyclones and strong extra tropical cyclones. Storm surges are caused primarily by high winds pushing on the ocean's surface. The wind causes the water to

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pile up higher than the ordinary sea level. Low pressure at the center of a weather system also has a small secondary effect, as can the bathymetry of the body of water. It is this combined effect of low pressure and persistent wind over a shallow water body which is the most common cause of storm surge flooding problems. The term "storm surge" in casual (non-scientific) use is storm tide; that is, it refers to the rise of water associated with the storm, plus tide, wave run-up, and freshwater flooding. "Tidal surge" is incorrect since there is no such thing. When referring to storm surge height, it is important to clarify the usage, as well as the reference point. The U.S. National Hurricane Center defines storm surge as water height above predicted astronomical tide level, and storm tide as water height above NGVD-29, a 1929 benchmark of mean sea level. Most casualties during a tropical cyclone occur during the storm surge.

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INDEXMMaltose, pp.77-78

Mantle, pp.78-79

Momentum, pp.80-81

Mudslide, pp.81-82

Myelin, pp.82-83

NNeon, pp.84-85

Neodymium , p. 87

Neptunium, p.86

Newton, Isaac, pp.85-86

Niobium ,p.88

OOcean, pp.89-90

Ohm’s law, pp.90-91

Onnes, Heike Kamerlingh, p.91

Orsted, Hans Christian , p.92

Osmosis, p.93

PParadigm Shift, pp.94-95

Pheromones, pp.97-98

Photovoltaics, pp.95-97

Polymer, pp. 98-100

Projectile Motion, pp. 101-101

QQuantum, p.102

Quartz, pp.102-103

Quartzite, pp.104-105

Quasars and quo’s, pp.105-107

Quine, Willard Van Orman, p. 107

R Reproduction , pp.108-109

Reptiles, pp.109-111

Rhenium , pp.111-112

Rheumatoid arthritis, p.112

Rheumatic fever, p.112

SSaturated fat, p.113

Schleiden, Matthias Jakob, pp.113-114

Sputnik 1, pp.114-115

Steroid, pp.115-116

Storm surge, p. 116

Table of Contents

I. Title PageII. Acknowledgement

III. Maltose

Mantle

Momentum

Mudslide

Myelin

IV. Neon

Neodymium

Neptunium

Newton, Isaac

Niobium

V. Ocean

Ohm’s law

Onnes, Heike Kamerlingh

Orsted, Hans Christian

Osmosis

VI. Paradigm Shift

Pheromones

Photovoltaics

Polymer

Projectile Motion

VII. Quantum

Quartz

Quartzite

Quasars and quo’s

Quine, Willard Van Orman

VIII. Reproduction

Reptiles

Rhenium

Rheumatoid arthritis

Rheumatic fever

IX. Saturated fat

Schleiden, Matthias Jakob

Sputnik 1

Steroid

Stormsurge