EΘΝΙΚΟΣ ΔΡΥΜΟΣ ΣΑΜΑΡΙΑΣ αγγλικα 1Α -...

1

EΘΝΙΚΟΣ ΔΡΥΜΟΣ ΣΑΜΑΡΙΑΣ αγγλικα 1Α

2

EΘΝΙΚΟΣ ΔΡΥΜΟΣ ΣΑΜΑΡΙΑΣ αγγλικα 1B

HELLENIC REPUBLIC EUROPEAN UNION

EROF

CO-FUNDED BY THE EUROPEAN UNION

MINISTRY OF THE ENVIRONMENT

3

s h e l t e r f o r l i f e d e n o f f r e e d o m

GORGETHE

SAMARIAOF

4

Republication or reproduction of this work in whole or in part in any way, as well as its translation, adaptation or use in any way for any reproduction of a work of literature or art is forbidden in accordance with Law 2121/1993 and the Berne and Paris Inter-national Conventions, as ratified by law 100/1995. In addition, the reproduction of the layout, cover and general appearance of the book, through photocopies, electronic or any other means is forbidden, in accordance with article 51 of Law 2121/1993.

ISBN: 978-960-98552-2-8

© Copyright 2008SAMARIA NATIONAL PARK MANAGEMENT BODY PREFECTURAL ADMINISTRATION OF CHANIA

5

SAMARIA NATIONAL PARK MANAGEMENT BODY PREFECTURAL ADMINISTRATION OF CHANIA

CHANIA 2008

s h e l t e r f o r l i f e d e n o f f r e e d o m

GORGETHE

SAMARIAOF

6

EDITOR: Emmy Papavasileiou, Department of Culture, Sport and Youth, Prefectural Administration of ChaniaEDITORIAL COMMITTEE:Emmy PapavasileiouHariklia KargiolakiAthanasia ZotouArgyro Chaniotaki-SmyrlakiCONTRIBUTORS:PART I: The natural environmentHariklia Kargiolaki, Director of Chania Forestry Service, Vice President of the Samaria National Park Management Body, DPhil Forestry (Oxford University)Paraskevi Nousia, Chania Forestry Service, MSc ForestryAntonis Barnias, Samaria National Park Management Body, MSc ForestryHelen Karpathaki, Chania Forestry Service, Economist, Graduate of the National Centre for Public Administration and Local Government Irene Vlazaki, Architect NTUA, Landscape architectAthanasia Zotou, Philologist, MSc Philosophy, Head of the Department of Culture, Sport and Youth, Prefectural Administration of Chania PART ΙΙ: The Manmade EnvironmentVanna Niniou-Kindeli, Archaeologist, 25th Ephorate of Prehistoric and Classical AntiquitiesKaterina Tzanetaki, Archaeologist, 25th Ephorate of Prehistoric and Classical AntiquitiesMichalis Andrianakis, Archaeologist, Director of the 28th Ephorate of Byzantine AntiquitiesAimilia Kladou-Bletsa, Architectural engineerArgyro Chaniotaki-Smyrlaki, Graduate in Social Sciences, D.É.A. in International and European Studies, Université Lille 2. Emmy Papavasileiou, Civil engineer, D.É.A. Géographie de l’ Aménagement, Paris X (Nanterre) PART ΙΙΙ: Protection and Management of Samaria National ParkHariklia KargiolakiORAL HISTORIES: Eftychis Marakakis, Kostoula Marakaki, Eleni Kokolaki, Ioannis Kaloyerakis, Filitsa Mantaka, Mathios Stavroudakis, Giorgos Tzatzimakis, Athena Y. Tzatzimaki, Aristea Koundouraki, Evangelia T. Stavroudaki.SELECTION OF RIZITIKA AND MANTINADES: Stamatis Apostolakis, Teacher, Folklorist

TEXT EDITING (Greek): Giorgos Loupasis, Philologist, Athanasia Zotou ENGLISH TRANSLATION: Despina ChristodoulouCOPY EDITING (english edition): Caroline CooperMAP DESIGN: Irene VlazakiMAP DRAWING AND G. MANOUSAKIS LITERARY TEXT,COVER DESIGN: Sophia Vlazaki, Painter and iconographer PHOTOGRAPHS: Manolis Manousakas, Vasilis Kotrotsos, Anastasios Sakoulis, Giorgos Ekkekakis, Kostas Gyparis, Kaloyerakis family, Sophia Pratsoli, Eftychis Marakakis, Irene and Sophia Vlazaki, Theano, Fotini and Angela Boraki, Alkis Pentarakis, Manolis Manolioudakis, Theano Boraki-Mavridaki, Christos Aretakis, Alkibiades Geskou, Lykourgos Manousakis, Apostolos Trichas, Ilias Iliades, Stefanos Alexandrou, Vanna Niniou-Kindeli, Katerinia Tzanakaki, Michalis Andrianakis, Aimilia Kladou-Bletsa, F. Angeliki-Fantaki, Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Chania (MAICh), Greek Mountaineering Club of Chania, Aeroclub of Chania, 25th Ephorate of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquitie, 28th Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities, Hellenic Post Philately Section, Forestry Service, M.Toubis SA.FINANCIAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE SUPPORT: Kostas Tyrovolas, Anastasios Diamantakis, Athanasia Zotou, Emmy Papavasileiou - Chania Prefectural AdministrationAntonis Barnias, Elpida Peroulaki - Samaria National Park Management BodySECRETARIAL SUPPORT: Despina Kapadoukaki, Maria Psaroudaki, Maria Karvoulaki - Chania Prefectural AdministrationTEXT FORMATITING BIBLIOGRAPHY: Roula OikonomakiBOOK DESIGN: Evi DamiriPRINTING - PRODUCTION: M. Toubis SA.PUBLICATION: Samaria National Park Management Body and Chania Prefectural Administration, co-funded by the European Union

PAPER USED FOR THE BOOK AND COVER: Environmentaly friendly paper certified by the FSC Council

Publication profile

7

We protect what we love,

we love what we understand.

Jacques-Yves Cousteau

8

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10PROLOGUE BY THE PREFECT OF CHANIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12PROLOGUE BY THE PRESIDENT OF THE SAMARIA NATIONAL PARK MANAGEMENT BODY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13INTRODUCTORY NOTES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

IntroductionChania: Land of gorges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Part ΙTHE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

INTRODUCTIONThe Gorge of Samaria: A profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Greece’s most important gorge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23Size and location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

CHAPTER 1. GEOLOGY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251. Madares, or the Lefka Ori . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252. The creation of the mountains, many years ago…. . . . . . . . . . . . . 263. Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294. Creation of the gorges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325. The springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

CHAPTER 2. BIODIVERSITY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

1. The Landscape. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36The landscape of Samaria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36The landscape of Samaria from the perspective of the architectural landscape. . . 40

2. The Ecosystems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413. The flora of the Gorge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Trees of the Gorge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44Flowers of the Gorge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45Medicinal and aromatic plants of the Gorge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46Endemic, rare and threatened plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

4. The fauna of the Lefka Ori and Gorge of Samaria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52Invertebrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52Amphibians and reptiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52Birds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53Mammals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

CHAPTER 3. AGRIMI: THE WILD GOAT OF CRETE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591. The agrimi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

Origin and evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60Mating and reproduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60Biotope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61Population and dangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

2. The agrimi in myth, prehistory and history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623. Protection of the agrimi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Early attempts at protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63Post-war international and Greek interest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64Drastic protection measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64The honour protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64The question of the EDA parliamentarians. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65Foundation of the Samaria National Park as a measure for protecting the agrimi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Part ΙΙ THE MANMADE ENVIRONMENT

INTRODUCTIONHumans and Samaria: A unique relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

CHAPTER 1. THE EARLIEST TRACES OF A HUMAN PRESENCEIN THE GORGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

1. From the Prehistoric era until the Roman years. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73The city of Kaino. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73The ancient sanctuary of Samaria Park . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74Ancient Tarra (Ayia Roumeli). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

2. From the Early christian period until Venetian rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80The churches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

3. Through the yearas of Turkish rule (1645-1898) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89Turkish fortresses (kules) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

CHAPTER 2. PERMANENT HABITATION IN MODERN TIMES . . . . . 931. Towns and villages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

Samaria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94Ayia Roumeli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

Contents

9

2. Habitation: Structural details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1023. The population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064. Access and passage through the Gorge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1085. Samaria gorge: Toponyms and microtoponyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

Toponyms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111Microtoponyms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

6. Occupations of the people . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1147. Social life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1218. The last families of Samaria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

CHAPTER 3. THE ROLE OF SAMARIA GORGE IN HISTORY . . . . . 1291. Venetian rule (1204-1669) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1292. Turkish rule (1669-1898) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

The Revolution of Daskaloyiannis (1770) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130The Revolution of 1821 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131The Revolution of 1866 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

3. After the union of Crete with Greece (1913) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135The 1938 movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135Samaria during the Second World War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136Occupation and Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136The Civil War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

CHAPTER 4. THE GORGE AND THE WILD GOAT IN LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

1. Folk poetry: Rizitika and Mantinades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1412. The wild goat in poetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1423. The Gorge in prose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

CHAPTER 5. THE GORGE AS A NATURE ANDTOURISM DESTINATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

1. Samaria Gorge: A tourism attraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 2. Extracts from traveller’s accounts from the 15th to the 21st centuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1693. Tourism as an organised activity in the Gorge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

Early studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180Contemporary tourism development in the region of the National Park and Ayia Roumeli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

Part ΙΙΙPROTECTION AND MANAGEMENT OF SAMARIA NATIONAL PARK

INTRODUCTIONThe declaration of Samaria as a National Park . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

CHAPTER 1. INTERNATIONAL RECOGNITION OF SAMARIA. . . . 195

CHAPTER 2. MANAGEMENT OF SAMARIA NATIONAL PARK UNTIL TODAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

1. Existing dangers and ways of dealing with them . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1972. Recreational services for visitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2003. Environmental education services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2014. Protecting biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2025. The most impostant protected species (plants and animals) of Samaria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2036. Studies and works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

CHAPTER 3. THE SAMARIA NATIONAL PARK MANAGEMENT BODY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

1. Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2062. The situation today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2073. Prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209RULE AND REGULATIONS OF THE SAMARIA NATIONAL PARK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

SOURCES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2131. BOOKS AND ARTICLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2132. STUDIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2153. SERVICE ARCHIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

10

The Prefect and Prefectural Administration of Chania, the President and the Board of Directors of the Samaria National Park Management Board, and the Editorial Team of this volume would like to thank publicly all those contributors and citizens whose voluntary offerings made this publication possible.

More specifically, we warmly thank: Argyro Chaniotaki-Smyrlaki of the Editorial Team for her voluntary participation in the Team’s work, all the authors and, in particular, philologist Giorgos Loupasis for editing the Greek texts.

We would also like to thank Aimilia Kladou-Bletsa, Dimitris Nikolakakis, Ar-gyro Kokovli, Marakakis, Theano Mavridaki, Yiannis Kaloyerakis and Yiannis Strongylakis for their invaluable contribution in locating bibliographical sources and rare photographs.

For their oral histories: Eftychis Marakakis, whose profound knowledge of the region provided the basis for the following research, and the older residents of Samaria Yiannis D. Kaloyerakis, Kostoula Marakaki, Eleni Kokolaki and Aristea Koundouraki, for their invaluable interviews. For this same reason, we would like to thank Mathios Stavroudakis, President of the Municipal District of Ayia Rou-meli, Giorgos and Athena Tzatzimakis, and Evangelia T. Stavroudaki, residents of Ayia Roumeli. In addition, Filitsa Mantaka, for her invaluable contribution.

For research in the archives of Ayia Roumeli Primary School, we thank the teacher Evangelia M. Stavroudaki, as well as the young pupils Michalis Smyr-lakis and Nikos Kotrotsos for their contribution in tracking down information.

Kiki Karathanasi-Manousaki, for generously giving us the rights to reprint the chapter “The passage through the Gorge” from the work of her unforgettable late husband Giorgis Manousakis, The Travelogue of Sfakia, as well as the first edition of his unpublished poem “The snowy mountains”. All the authors, contemporary and earlier, literary and otherwise, from whose writings we have taken extracts, which contextualise and enrich, in an accompanying commentary, the main text. Giorgos Ekkekakis and Kostas Gyparis for providing us with rare material from their personal archives.

Acknowledgements

11

Manolis Manousakas; Vasilis Kotrotsos; Anastasios Sakoulis; Alkibiades Gesko; Vasilis Hadjivarsanis; the Damoulis Kaloyerakis family; Theano, Fotini and An-gela Boraki; Theano Boraki-Mavridaki; Sophia Pratsoli; Eftychis Marakakis, Alkis Pentarakis, Manolis Manolioudakis, Christos Aretakis, Michalis Andri-anakis; Lykourgos Manousakis, as well as Vanna Niniou-Kindeli and Katerinia Tzanakaki for providing us with photographs from their personal collections. The Greek Mountaineering Club of Chania, the Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Chania (MAICh), the 25th Ephorate of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities, the 28th Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities, the KYDON channel, the Aeroclub of Chania and the Angelakis-Fantakis photography studio for permission to use photographs from their archives, as well as the Eleftherios K. Venizelos Nation-al Research Foundation for permission to photograph the painting Gingilos by Dimitris Kokotsis. Loula Ganadaki, Kiki Karthanasai, Iphigenia Agrafioti, Geor-gia Tzatzimaki, Niki Markaki and Artemesia Skoumbaki from the Port Authority and Magda Vlachomitrou from the Statistical Service. Aphrodite Maravelaki from the Chania GNTO office, Gina Kalligeri and Parisati Tsouktouridou of Hellenic Post, and Michalis Marketakis from the Technical Services Department, Panayi-otis Kaloyerakis from the Social Welfare Department for their help in locating information and printed matter. Petros Lyberakis and Evangelia M. Stavroudaki for the creative reading of the texts and their comments.

We also would like to thank warmly the staff at the Chania Public Library, the Technical Chamber of Greece-West Crete Division Library, the Library of the Hellenic Parliament, and the Vikelia Municipal Library of Heraklion.

Finally, we would especially like to thank Irene and Sophia Vlazaki, for their ex-cellent work in designing the map and in illustrating The A-Z of Samaria, Despina Christodoulou for successfully translating this book into English, and the staff at Μichalis Toubis SA for producing an excellent and professional publication.

Chania, August 2008

12

The Prefecture of Chania has the great fortune of possessing an especially rich natural heritage, which, along with its cultural and intellectual wealth, is the most valuable thing we can bequeath to our children. We know that we must protect it. Even so, we cannot claim that we have done all that we should have. The Lefka Ori – the White Mountains – and Samaria Gorge have a special place in the nature of Chania.

The creation of the National Park Management Body is an important step in the right direction. Its successful opera-tion is a venture that must be supported and achieved. It is for this reason that the Prefecture of Chania aims to sup-port the Management Body, providing it with its staff and administrative framework, so that it can take its first steps and capitalise upon the funds made available through EU programmes.

Within the framework of the Programme Contract, and on behalf of the Management Body, the Prefectural Admin-istration of Chania is currently implementing the following projects, funded by the “Environment” Operational Pro-gramme (EPPER) of the Ministry of the Environment, Physical Planning and Public Works:

■ “Daily fire risk assessment study for the Lefka Ori”■ “Study to observe the population and ecological needs of the Cretan wild goat in the Lefka Ori, with ensu-

ing management proposals” ■ Study and installation of permanent sample plots in the Lefka Ori for documenting changes in biodiversity

(flora and fauna)”, and■ The publication of two books so that the broader public, Greek and foreign, can learn about the Samaria

Gorge. These are a small book with the title The A-Z of Samaria and the present volume, The Gorge of Sa-maria: Shelter for Life – Den of Freedom.

Responsibility for creating this book lies with the Department of Culture, Sport and Youth, whilst the responsibility for all the tender competitions fell to the Programming Department. Many of our fellow citizens worked voluntarily in order to gather the information and produce this book, in addition to the Prefecture staff and other regional services, and their contribution has enriched the final result. Within the pages of these two books the “Farangas”, the Gorge, is showcased differently in each. The Gorge of Chania and the world, the past and the present, in its local and interna-tional dimensions, through its timelessness.

The purpose of this book is to get to know Samaria Gorge, its natural environment, the unique forms of wildlife that it is home to, its multi-faceted relationship with humans and their history, and its contribution to culture. Our purpose is to know the Gorge, so that we can protect it.

We hope that, in the future, Samaria National Park will become as we all dream it. A place where people and nature meet, typified by respect and love, mutual acceptance and harmonious co-existence.

The Prefect of ChaniaGrigoris Arhontakis

Prologue of the Prefect of Chania

13

Ρrologue President of the Samaria National Management Body

Today, more than ever, the need to save our natural environment has become urgent. This requires, on the one hand, the active and sincere participation of all of us, and on the other, the specialised scientific understanding of the problems of sensitive ecosystems, which will help us to combine the biodiversity, wealth, harmony and beauty of nature with modern technology, so as to achieve the sustainable development of our place’s heritage. Only in this way can we avoid causing irreparable damage and hand on to our children an environ-ment healthier than the one which we inherited.

It is upon these principles that this book, by the Samaria National Park Management Body, is based, a book which can provide a starting point for research by specialists, as well as a delightful and educational tour of the Gorge for readers and visitors.

The persistent, three-year collective effort to establish the Management Body now offers the world community its first publication, and we hope that other scientific studies will soon follow.

Morally, we feel justified in our choices.

The President Antonis Vas. Galanis

Agronomist


14

The Editorial Team1 responsible for the publication of this volume dedicated to the Gorge of Samaria, published as part of the EU “Environment” Operational Pro-gramme (EPPER), had the following significant challenges to overcome.

1. Defining the subject. The first thought was to focus on the Samaria National Park, specifically on the section that has already been established, i.e. its central core, in-dependent of the plans that exist for the future extension of the Park to cover the whole area of the Lefka Ori. The weakness of this definition, however, is that it does not include Ayia Roumeli, which is not only an integral part of the nature of Samaria Gorge, as it linked to its exit onto the sea, but is a vital element of a unified human geography.

For this reason, the GORGE OF SAMARIA was selected as the subject (and title) of this book, as this term is not binding, as is the administrative term of “National Park”. The subtitle “shelter for life – den of freedom” seeks to impart life in its biological meaning, which finds a refuge in Samaria, as well as the presence of humans on a spiritual and cultural quest.

2. The wide range and complexity of the subject. In addition to the basic search for sources relating to Samaria (from ancient texts to modern studies), the Gorge covers countless fields of specialist knowledge, making it impossible for a single author to write the whole book. We thus invited scholars who have conducted research on the region to write sections relating to their specialities, so as to ensure the quality and accuracy of the book. This resulted in a slight disparity in style – which we have at-tempted to minimise – as well as in terminology, which we have attempted to make more accessible to a wider audience with explanations and commentary.

The Chania Forestry Service had scientific responsibility for the sections on the natu-ral environment of Samaria, its protection and management (Parts I and III), whilst the sections on the manmade environment (Part II) and editing of the book were undertaken by the Department of Culture, Sport and Youth of the Chania Prefectural Administration.

Introductory notes

1 The Editorial Team was established by the Working Group of the Chania Prefectural Administration, the Chania Forestry Service, and the National Park Management Body. The Working Group which is responsible for imple-menting various actions relating to the National park, within the framework of the Contract Programme for col-laboration.

EΘΝΙΚΟΣ ΔΡΥΜΟΣ ΣΑΜΑΡΙΑΣ αγγλικα 2Β

15

3. The lack of research or studies in certain areas (whilst in others, such as development issues, technical infrastruc-ture, etc. there was sufficient). Thus, in certain chapters on the natural environment, data relating to the whole of the Lefka Ori is used, as studies have not yet been carried out exclusively on the Gorge. In many chapters of Part II (Manmade Environment) oral histories collected from the region’s last inhabitants have been used, given the lack of historical and anthropological studies. Another difficulty was created by the discrepancy and even contradiction between official data, data collected in studies and reality (e.g. population censuses), which may lead to the wrong conclusions. The same is the case for the details provided by works already published on the Gorge. We simply note these discrepancies, as well as the unverified information.

The texts on areas that have not been researched scientifically were written by staff of the Chania Prefectural Ad-ministration’s Department of Culture, as well as volunteers and external collaborators, with less stress on sources, so that readers can come to their own conclusions. The language of the sources – texts from earlier centuries – has been preserved, with the syntax and spelling of the original author. In addition, inaccurate information given in travellers’ accounts has not been corrected, so as to preserve the authenticity of the text.

Within the limited and limiting frameworks of time, administration and procedure, efforts were made so that any weaknesses and lacunae be negligible. This book is not the conclusion of systematic research and study, nor does it seek to provide a full documentation of all data connected to the Gorge. This does not mean, however, that it is simply a presentation of material, without its own identity and viewpoint.

The purpose of this book is to provide the wider public, Greek and non-Greek, with detailed information on all those features that make the Samaria Gorge unique, because when we come to know it we shall love it and protect it – that is the motto of this volume. In order to raise the awareness of the younger generations and “hasty” readers, we have also produced a briefer illustrated book, The A-Z of Samaria. The illustrations make it accessible and enjoyable even to the youngest readers. The paper used in the two books is ecological, as a book about the Gorge must, first of all, be environmentally-friendly.

This publication would not have been possible without the contribution of a large number of people, who offered their assistance voluntarily and helped us in many ways. We thank them warmly.

The Editorial Team will feel that it has accomplished its task if this book provides stimulation for further research and studies and, above all, work of quality. Through these, the Prefecture of Chania, its authorities and citizens shall show that they are aware of the importance of the Gorge for the Prefecture, and the necessity of respecting and protecting it. The Gorge of Samaria can show us the way to restore our damaged relationship with nature and the natural environment.

Chania, July 2008

The Editorial TeamEmmy Papavasileiou

Hariklia KargiolakiAthanasia Zotou

Argyro Chaniotaki-Smyrlaki

16

Sunset in the Gorge of Samaria (Chania Forestry Service archives)

17

INTRODUCTION

19

C H A N I A , L A N D O F G O R G E S

Satellite photographs of the earth, Europe,

Crete and Chania (taken from the internet)

The Prefecture of Chania has been characterised by many, justifiably, as the “land of gorges”, given that dozens intersect it. Small and large, they have marked the surface of the earth in a north to south orientation. In some places they are deep and precipitous, whereas elsewhere they are already eroding, simply forming a pass or a stream between low-lying rocks.

The gorges of Crete have always provided a refuge in which various animals as well as plants find protection and food. They were and are oases where water is usually available, located far from the pressures exerted by a constant human presence. As such, some of Crete’s most important forests have survived in the gorges, whilst birds and several other animals build their nests in safety, in the steep rocks. Rare birds of prey at the top of the food chain nest here, even if their domains stretch over much larger areas.

The difficulties in communications and the consequent isolation led to the emergence of several endemic plants and animals in the Gorge. Some even managed to survive and evolve in extreme conditions, with little space and almost a complete lack of water. These are the so-called “chasmophytes”, plants which grow in the small cracks of usually verti-cal rocks. Most of these species are valuable varieties, especially hardy plants, several of which do not grow anywhere else in the world.

The gorges also have a significant cultural value. Chapels, ancient temples, oracles and sanctuaries all located at the same site are yet more evidence for human presence. The gorges of Chania have played an important role during major moments of local history.

Each of the gorges of Samaria has its own particularities: in some forests dominate, in others water or climbing plants that hang from trees, whilst elsewhere the image pre-sented for the visitor is of precipitous, almost naked, rocks. The gorge of Ayia Irene, the Sfakiano, those of Imvros, Aradaina, Eliyias, Trypiti, Klados, Diktamos, Therisos, Seri-karios, Sasalos, Prasse, Kapnis, Ilingas, Asfendos, Kallikratis, Borianon and Katholikos, are just some of the many gorges of Chania. But none has the fame, the glamour and the grandeur of one, the “faranga” of Samaria!

Text:Hariklia Kargiolaki

20

Part ΙMountain peaks in the Gorge (photo: V. Kotrotsos)

21

THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

22

Fig 1: Portes, engraving by Antonio Schranz, 1837 (from Τravels in Crete by R. Pashley)

23

I N T R O D U C T I O N

T H E G O R G E O F S A M A R I A :A P R O F I L E

Greece’s most important gorge

“There is one farangas! All the others are farangia!” proclaims Sfakianos – and of course he means the Gorge, the “farangas”, of Samaria, whose uniqueness has been recognised not only in Greece but around the world. The glamour of Sa-maria has spread within and beyond the country’s borders. It has been declared a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve (1981) – a recognition granted internationally for sites which innovate and demonstrate approaches to conservation and sustainable development. It is also the only area in Greece to have received the Diploma of Protected Areas from the Council of Europe (1979). Both above distinctions are initially awarded after an on-the-spot inspection, with further inspections of the correct management of the region at regular intervals.

Samaria’s international distinctions include the title of Biogenetic Reserve (from the Council of Europe), an area protected by the Barcelona Convention, as well as an Important Bird Area of Greece. As such, at present, it is the region of Greece with the most and most important international distinctions and titles.

Samaria was declared a National Park in 1962. Moreover, it has been awarded the National Diploma for nature protection (1971), declared a place of especial natural beauty (1973), a Wildlife Refuge and belongs to the EU’s Natura 2000 network of protected areas. The Samaria National Park Management Body was created in the past few years (2002).

Size and location

The area of the National Park is today 48.480 square kilometres, and covers a spe-cially protected area, i.e. the core. The law establishing the Samaria National Park Management Body defines a larger area, which the Body is to manage. This larger area shall be defined with the conclusion of a Special Environmental Study (SES) for the National Park, evaluating a broader zone than the currently existing one and making proposals on its expansion.


Fig. 2: Directions board at the entranceto Samaria (photo I. Vlazaki)

PA

RT

Ι |

TH

E N

AT

UR

AL

EN

VI

RO

NM

EN

T

24

It shall also propose distinguishing zones based on different levels of protection, in such a way so that the Gorge, along with the most important area of the Lefka Ori, will belong to the core area of full protection, whilst in the areas where humans have developed settlements and the natural environment works in collaboration with the continuous human presence, the zones shall include a gradual “lifting” of protection, and their inclusion into an area of model development activities, always with respect for nature and its components.

The Gorge of Samaria is located in the Lefka Ori mountain range, whilst the route along the borders of the National Park is 12,800 metres long. The distance from the south entrance to the coastal village of Ayia Roumeli is a further 3,200 metres. For the first kilometres beyond Xyloskalo (north entrance), the path through the Gorge is particularly steep, continuing either parallel to or crossing the river several times, until coming to the old village of Samaria, set in a pine and cypress tree forest. After Samaria village follows the most imposing section of the route, passing through the almost vertical, extremely tall rocks. These narrow passes are called Portes (“doors”), and are a characteristic feature of gorges. At Samaria, the Portes or Sideroportes (“iron doors”) are located 11.5 km from Xyloskalo. They are only 3 metres wide, whilst the sheer vertical cliffs on both sides reach up to around 100 metres.

Fig. 3: Omalos mountain range (Aeroclub of Chania)

25

C H A P T E R 1

G E O L O G Y

1. Madares, or The Lefka Ori

The Gorge of Samaria is one of the gorges that cross the Lefka Ori from the north, terminating at the sea and forming a distinct landscape in southwest Crete. Thanks to the particular conditions that prevail in these gorges, special climatic and soil microenvironments are created. The profound relief of the land and the continu-ous changes in the landscape result in a variety of ecosystems, which attract global interest from both nature lovers and scientists. The Gorge of Samaria is a refuge for people and other organisms that seek protection in its seclusion.

SNOWY MOUNTAINS

The peaks of Madarashine pure white.

They towered up to the sky, the snowthey made into a mirrorso that the sun can seein their whitenessits face

Giorgis Manousakis (unpublished, undated)


This poem was found amongst the poet’s papers, undated, and has been donated for publication here by his widow.

Fig. 4: The Lefka Ori (Aeroclub of Chania)


PA

RT

Ι |

TH

E N

AT

UR

AL

EN

VI

RO

NM

EN

T

26

The Madares,1 or Lefka Ori, is a mountain range in the Prefecture of Chania, with a west to east orientation, ending in the Libyan Sea and covering almost 40% of the Prefecture’s total area. They cover the whole of the Province of Samaria, and parts of the Provinces of Selinos, Apokoronos and Kydonia. It is the most impos-ing mountain range in size and area in Crete, with many tall peaks and gorges. The areas with an altitude of over 800 m cover an area of almost 591.40 sq km (14% of which has an altitude of over 2000 m). The greatest height in the Lefka Ori is 2,453 m, and this is the peak of Pachnes, located near the centre of the range.

The peaks appear white throughout almost all seasons of the year, and for this reason were named the Lefka Ori, i.e. the White Mountains. In the winter they are pure white from the snow, whilst in other seasons they again appear white due to the greyish-white rock that sticks out amongst the vegetation along the horizon. The Lefka Ori mountain range is characterised by exceptional contrasts and land-scapes with unique characteristics. Forests, caves, gorges, streams, the almost bare Alpine zone above the forest and the crops near the small villages, bond together to form a unique whole. The wider region is more mountainous and infertile than the rest of Crete, with shallow, poor, rocky and steep land. Numerous mountain peaks spread out over the north, whilst in the south the range, with exceptionally steep gradients, descends and plunges into the Libyan Sea. The most important charac-teristic of the region’s relief is the many gorges that cross mainly the south side of the Lefka Ori, with a north-south orientation. The gorges of Ayia Irene, Trypiti, Klados, Samaria, Eliyias, Aradaina, Kavis, Sfakiano, Imvros, Kapnis, etc. are just some of those which you will find in the wider region of East Selinos and Sfakia.

1 Madares, or the Lefka Ori. The word derives from the ancient adjective “madaros” (

CH

AP

TE

R Ι |

GE

OL

OG

Y

27

Table 1: Time chart of the geological history of Crete until human habitation (designed by A. Barnias)

PHANEROZOIC PERIOD

ENVIRONMENT HUMANS

CE

NO

ZO

IC P

ER

IOD

QUARTERNARY PERIOD

1.81 million years ago

Holocene12,000 years ago until today

Νeolithic Age 7000-4800 B.C.

Quarternary (Early and Late Infusion)

First permanent settlements of inhabitants. They begin to grow wheat. Goats, sheep, oxen and pigs are imported.

Mesolithic period in continental Greece. Hunters and fishers visit the island.

Pleistocene

Late 128,000-12,000 years ago

Last ice age, 60,000 to 13,000 years ago. Glaciers in the Cretan mountains over 18,000 years ago.

Late Palaeolithic cultures in continental Greece. Discovery of Crete.

Middle 700,000-128,000 years ago

Ice ages alternating with mid-Pleistocene eras. A particular fauna has already settled in this area.

Early 1.81 - 0.7 million years ago

Crete begins to acquire something approximating to his present coastline.

TRIASSIC PERIOD23 million years ago – 1.81 million years

ago

Pleiocene6.3 million – 1.81 million years ago

The Mediterranean is transformed into dry land approximately 5 million years ago, during which it subsides again in part and becomes a salt lake around 5.5 million years ago.

Miocene 23 – 6.3 million years ago

Marls, psammites and Niocene conglomerates

New subsidence of parts of Crete 1.2 million years ago. Evolution of endemic plants.

PALEOGENE PERIOD

66 million years ago – 23 million years

ago

Plattenkalk limestone

The first large mammals appear. Birds and mammals evolve. The continents start to acquire their present form. Rise of the Cretan mountain ranges from the sea 30 million years ago.

ME

SO

ZO

IC

PE

RIO

D

CRETACEOUS PERIOD

145 million years ago – 66 million years

ago

Plattenkalk limestone

Crystallised limestone

Dolomite

Mountains begin to be formed and rise from the sea.

PA

RT

Ι |

TH

E N

AT

UR

AL

EN

VI

RO

NM

EN

T

28

Fig. 5: The Gorge of Samaria (photo: V. Kotrotsos)

CH

AP

TE

R Ι |

GE

OL

OG

Y

29

3 Op. cit., p. 19.

The ocean bed gradually rose at the end of the so-called Cretaceous period (70 million years ago), ending in around the Miocene period (25-10 million years ago). After their rise from the ocean bed, Crete, the Cyclades and mainland Greece formed a unified mainland mass, the Aigaias, for millions of years. Towards the end of the Micoene period, the continent broke up and parts of it sunk. On Crete, only its tallest mountain peaks remained above sea level. This sinking continued through the Pliocene period (3-4 million years ago). At the end of the Pliocene and beginning of the Pleistocene period (2 million years ago), greater upheavals and movements resulted in the tension and the uplift and subsiding of sections of the earth’s crust, creating trenches which resulted in the complete separation of Crete from the rest of Greece.

The great forces active during the geological periods and until today have resulted in the uplift of some areas, the subsiding of others and the creation of numer-ous cracks.3 The mountain massifs and seas were created by tectonic movements, whilst the erosion and weathering of the rocks, as well as the human influence over the centuries, have created Crete’s finely detailed morphology.

3. Rocks

The core of the mountain range is comprised primarily of limestone (marble, lime-stone and dolomites). Limestone in the plattenkalk form dominates, whilst above it, at certain points along the mountain range, there are very small layers of flysch. In addition to the plattenkalk limestone of the Lefka Ori, there are also recrystal-lised limestone on Trypali and schists of the phyllite-quartzite group.

■ Plattenkalk limestone is the dominant rock in the mountain range, forming the ridge of the whole island. It was used for many years on the island as a building material.

■ Another characteristic rock is the stromatolite dolomite, a band of dark rock with strips of iron deposits, created by organisms within the stroma-tolites who live on water and without oxygen. Sections of these rocks are to be found inside the Samaria Gorge, particularly in the upper and west part, forming the boulders in the stream bed.

■ At the peak of Gingilos, yellowish schist with a thin layer of psammite cov-ers the stromatolite dolomite.

Plattenkalk limestone has a char-acteristic blue-green colour, with white strips or pieces of flint, which, according to researchers (Manolis Manoutsoglou, personal communi-cation) are sponges that lived on the seabed when it was still relatively low. The fossils of these sponges are today found embedded in the rocks! Plattenkalk limestone was created from these fossils at great depths and came to the surface after tec-tonic plate movements millions of years ago.

Trypali limestone: characteristic white limestone (marble) at the peak of the Lefka Ori which covers the plattenkalk or the agglomerated limestone with holes encountered from Lakkoi as far as Omalos.

Stromatolite, which absorbs the dis-solved oxides of iron and which free oxygen into the atmosphere, played a decisive role in the initial appearance of oxygen in the earth’s atmosphere two billion years ago! The first oxygen of the earth from organisms that have now become boulders at Samaria.

PA

RT

Ι |

TH

E N

AT

UR

AL

EN

VI

RO

NM

EN

T

30

The route through Samaria Gorge starts from the rocks of Trypali at Xyloskalo, at the lower rocks of the plattenkalk limestone group. In ad-dition to the platenkalk limestones, we encounter the schists of Gingi-los and the stromatolite dolomite at the end of the steps. The rocks from about the halfway point of the Gorge until the exit at Ayia Roumeli are made up only of plattenkalk limestone.4

4 Har. Y. Fasoulas, “The Geology of the Lefka Ori” in Fourogatos, 54, July 2004.

Figs. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10: Geological formations in Samaria Gorge (Chania Forestry Service Archive)

CH

AP

TE

R Ι |

GE

OL

OG

Y

31

PA

RT

Ι |

TH

E N

AT

UR

AL

EN

VI

RO

NM

EN

T

32

4. Creation of the gorges

Gorges are usually considered to have resulted from erosion. Large volumes of water eroded the rocks of the seabed and narrow streams are cre-ated when the eroded material is swept away. We do not know if this theory holds for Crete, as the volume of water does not appear to have been so great, and are thus unable to explain the existence of large numbers of gorges, one next to the other, such as those found in southern Crete near Sfakia. The secret of their formation has not been decodi-fied. A number of process led to the creation of these gorges.5 After the rocks were formed within the sea, they were compressed, folded and uplifted, creating mountain ranges. It is believed that when the island was uplifted, the pressure exercised caused the rocks to break in many places, form-ing cracks. The water followed, cutting through the rocks. In the mid Pleistocene period, during which the sea level rose, the water in the streams did not cut through but deposited material on the gorge banks, creating raised areas, such as around Samaria village and at the exit of the Gorge. It ap-pears that at the end of the last mid-Pleistocene era, the outflowing water deposited stones starting at Portes and reaching as far as the coast. During the last uplifting of the land (fall of the sea level) the water was forced to cut through the depos-its again and to form a smaller gorge, around six metres deep and one metre wide, as can clearly be seen past the kiosk at the Gorge exit.6

5 Rackham and Moody, pp. 36-8. 6 See Fasoulas.

Fig. 11: Geological formations in Samaria Gorge (photo: V. Kotrotsos)

33

5. The springs

The Lefka Ori, the main rock of which is limestone, represent a typical karst landscape, with characteristic formations of sinkholes or dolines (funnel-shaped de-pressions that terminate below the earth as cracks and springs). They are the largest water collector in the Pre-fecture of Chania and supply the underground water table with the water needs for a large part of the Pre-

fecture. It is calculated that precipitation levels (rain) exceed 3,000 mm a year in the highest areas. The melting of the snow is delayed in the mountains, and at great altitudes there is often snow until mid-June. The waters from rain and melting snow are driven underground either towards the south coasts, where they appear in the form of underwater springs, or to the north coasts, where they appear in the form of freshwater springs (Ayia, Stylos, Armenoi, etc.). The tran-sient concentration of water in dolines and mountain ranges creates seasonal ponds, which are areas of particular ecological value and thus protected. The seasonal action of mountain streams (as they are transformed into streams) adds aesthetic value and diversity to the mountain landscape. The Gorge of Samaria is crossed by an unnamed river that appears and briefly disappears, to suddenly gush further down once more. The river is fed by scattered sources located in its drainage basin and which are known by various names:7

■ Lenoseli, on the east side of Gingilos.■ Lousopo, west of Volakia peak.■ Potistira, approximately 900 m north of the Gorge.■ Miatouli and Vroula, sources which in the past supplied the upper village

of Samaria with water.■ Perdika, Keroutsiko and Kefalovrysia, from where the community of Ayia

Roumeli draws its water supply even today.

The karst landscape is the result of the slightly acid rain, which creates cracks or openings in the limestone, forming springs, underwater channels and caves.

Fig. 12: River in the Samaria Gorge (photo: V. Kotrotsos)

Fig. 13: Waterfall in the Gorge of Samaria (Chania

Forestry Service archive)

7 E. Manoutsoglou, E. Spyridonos, D. Mariolakos, K. Tzanakaki, H. Kargiolaki, T. Markopoulos and I. Mariola-kos, “The springs of the ancient city of Tarra, located in the Lefka Ori (Samaria Gorge) National Park, Crete,” in The undying water, November 1999, pp. 18-21.

35

C H A P T E R 2

B I O D I V E R S I T Y

After the summit and signing of the Rio Convention8 in 1992 the term “biodiver-sity” ceased being simply a title used in the biological sciences: it entered political discourse and became widely used. We can distinguish four different levels of bio-diversity, each with a different meaning, although in practice they are all integral parts of a unified whole.

■ The first level is that of “genetic biodiversity”. Genetic biodiversity sig-nifies the range of inherited factors of a particular species. The greater this range, the greater the chances of survival of a species in relation to external difficulties and pressures, such as epidemics, climatic adversi-ties, lack of food, etc.

■ The second level of biodiversity is that of “species diversity”, flora and fauna (plants and animals). This biodiversity is expressed through the number of different plant and animal species found in a specific area.

■ The third level of biodiversity is known as ecosystem or plant com-munity diversity, indicating the ecosystems that are found in a spe-cific area.

■ The fourth level is that of landscape diversity, indicating the number or range of types of landscape to be found in an area or country. Arti-ficial as well as natural landscapes also make up the composition of a landscape, such as crops and human settlements..

Despite distinguishing biodiversity into various levels, its protection must be ap-proached in a uniform fashion. Protection of each level depends upon the protec-tion of the previous or following level. It must be emphasised that biodiversity on all its levels, about which so much is said but so little done, is vital for the rational and sustainable management of natural resources, and, as such, for the survival of humanity.

8 The Rio Treaty, or Convention on Biological Diversity was adopted at the United Nations Earth Summit in Rio in 1992, and is a watershed for global environmental policy. It was incorporated into Greek legislation with Law 2204/94/Government Gazette 59/A.

Crete is one of the most important regions globally for its rich biodiver-sity.* When researching its organ-isms, we find that its geographical position at the crossroads of three continents is reflected in its species. Most species, flora in particular, are found in the rest of Europe, whilst we also encounter Asian and Afri-can species, indicating the island’s association with and isolation from the three continents during earlier geological periods. Its geological evolution after breaking away and the existence of large mountain chains which are isolated by being surrounded by lowlands and the sea, as well as the presence of a wide range of climate conditions, particu-larly microclimates, contribute to a rich biodiversity. The biodiversity of Crete does not compare with those in parts of Central Europe, where the ice age during earlier geological periods allowed only few species of survive.

Text:Hariklia Kargiolaki Paraskevi NousiaHelen Karpathaki

* N.J. Turland, L. Chilton, and JR Press, Flora of the Cretan Area: Annotated Checklist and Atlas, London 1993, HMSO.

Fig 14: Panoramic view of Samaria Gorge (M. Toubis SA)

PA

RT

Ι |

TH

E N

AT

UR

AL

EN

VI

RO

NM

EN

T

36

1. The landscape

Terms

Landscape is understood as either a natural ele-ment or a symbolic entity. It is an exceptionally complex and multi-levelled concept of major sig-nificance and social recognition, which acts as a bearer of multiple concepts, symbolisms, emotional associations and history. Landscape has been defined in many ways, according to the various points of view. This is partly due to its diverse natural and symbolic/conceptual aspects, al-though it cannot be divided into characteristic features, but must be considered as a complex whole which is far greater than the sum of its parts (holism).9 One par-ticular feature of the landscape is that it constitutes a dynamic entity, the content of which is transformed in time and space, whilst each person can understand the landscape in a different way, according to their state of mind at different moments in time. Landscape’s natural, cultural/social and visual aspects do not only coexist and combine as though links in a chain, but are fully homogenised, creating an indivisible whole, which influences and is influenced, shapes and is shaped.

9 M. Antrop, “Background concepts for integrated landscape analysis”, in Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 77, 2000, pp. 17-28.10 Update of the Special Environmental Study of the Lefka Ori, Phase I, Contractor: OIKOM-Meletitiki Perivalontos Ltd, Crete Region, Department of the Envi-

ronment and Public Planning, Athens 2008, p. 47.

The Council of Europe, in The European Landscape Convention, defines this multi-faceted concept as *“an area, as perceived by people, whose character is the result of the action and interaction of natural and/or human factors.”. This generalised defi-nition covers the landscape of Samaria and the Lefka Ori to a very great degree.

Text:Antonis Barnias

* Council of Europe, “The European Landscape Convention”, in the Formal and Explanatory Report, Strasbourg 2000.

The landscape of Samaria

The broader area of Samaria constitutes a clearly established and spatially defined territory. Within this area one encounters a diversity of landscape features with particular characteristics of ecological and cultural value, some of which are:10

In Greek legislation the corre-sponding term is outlined in article 2, paragraph 16 on Law 1650/1986 on the protection of the environ-ment: Landscape: Every dynamic total of organic and non-organic environmental factors and elements which on their own or by interacting within a specific space create a visual experience.

The European Landscape Convention (also known as the Florence Convention) was signed on 20/10/2000 and came into force on 1/3/2004. Greece has so far signed the Convention but not ratified it.*

* For more information see www.coe.int

■ The Gorge.■ The village in the centre of the Gorge, with the old

crops of the people.■ The chapels, which are often found on the same

site as ancient temples.

■ The castle above Samaria, at the Gorge exit.■ The ruins of the ancient city of Tarra.■ The Gorge’s special biodiversity.

Both the Gorge and the broader Samaria region are powerful symbols. The occasional passer by through the Samaria landscape can powerfully comprehend its wild forms. He or she is consumed by a sense of freedom, feels awe in front of the coexistence of such an inhospitable landscape with the presence of humans, senses the dominance of nature over man, and comprehends his or her inability to control the forces of nature. The local population feels a powerful

37

sense of pride, strengthening the sense of the landscape which is deeply rooted within them, and constantly hammering out their character within the presence of such an imposing landscape.

Just as people’s characters are the result of social, cultural, intellectual, psychologi-cal, aesthetic and economic factors, and this synthesis provides a comprehensible image of their personalities, so the landscape of Samaria is the comprehensible sum of factors and values, which are attributed to it by people.11

Fig. 15: 1st kilometre on the footpath of the Samaria National Park

(photo: V. Kotrotsos)

11 E.A. Maria and A. Barnias, “A Comparative Approach of the Meaning of Landscape and its Legal Aspects in the European Landscape Convention”, in Proc. of the International Conference ‘Protection and Restoration of the Environment VIII´, Chania – Crete – Greece July 3-7, 2006.


CH

AP

TE

R 2

| B

IO

DI

VE

RS

IT

Y

PA

RT

Ι |

TH

E N

AT

UR

AL

EN

VI

RO

NM

EN

T

38

The most important characteristic, however, of the landscape of Samaria is the intense interaction between humans and nature. This relationship exists both in today’s presence of humans as observers/walkers and in the historical imprint that the inhabitants of Samaria have left on this space. The traditional habitations of village, oil press, vines, preserved chapels declare the powerful relationship that the inhabitants of Samaria had with this place and with what it provided them. This relationship contains an understanding that may constitute an early expression of the much-discussed concept of sustainability: in contrast with today’s meaning, the inhabitants of Samaria built their lives around the core of “nature” thus shap-ing, organising and satisfying their needs on the basis of that which the place of-fered. With respect for nature’s offerings, humans excluded any form of excessive exploitation, as they had early on realised that preserving the physiognomy of the landscape, either functionally or visually, was the key to their survival. Fig. 17: Samaria Gorge


Fig. 16: Mountain ridge in Samaria (photo E. Pratsolis)

EΘΝΙΚΟΣ ΔΡΥΜΟΣ ΣΑΜΑΡΙΑΣ αγγλικα 4Β

39

Fig. 19: A little before Portes (photo S. Vlazaki)Fig. 18: Balcony in the Gorge of Samaria (photo V. Kotsotsos)

CH

AP

TE

R 2

| B

IO

DI

VE

RS

IT

Y

PA

RT

Ι |

TH

E N

AT

UR

AL

EN

VI

RO

NM

EN

T

40

The landscape of Samaria from the perspective of the architectural landscape

Reading the landscape of Samaria from the perspective of the architectural land-scape and with the help of a morphological and environmental analysis will result in uncovering its uniqueness, identifying the valuable elements that comprise it, and, more generally, the creation and attribution of its identity. It also helps, how-ever, in identifying vulnerable areas that require protection (areas with a high concentration of tourists, areas of fire risk, etc.; fig. 20), as well as those worthy of showcasing and further development (abandoned crops, protected species of flora and fauna, natural formations, etc.). The creation of units and the defini-tion of individual landscapes contribute to this analysis, with criteria arising from the natural relief, the cultural heritage, old uses of land, as well as visual studies (documenting the visitor’s visual perspective from a particular spot or collection of spots, such as a route; fig. 21).

Fig. 20: Physical relief orientation map of areas exposed to adverse winds.

Fig. 21: Visual studies from pre-existing points on the main route where the areas deemed suitable for being showcased are identified within the boundaries of the Gorge, yet which are not visible (the non-visible areas are indicated in white and the points in red). The “closure” of the Gorge unity (the closed visual perspective) can also be observed, with its limits correlating with the mountain peaks that surround it.

Another important parameter is humans and the way in which they understand the landscape. As soon as the walker starts the descent into the Gorge of Samaria, the sense of time changes dramatically. The environment, along with nature’s elements, are his “rivals”, constantly pressuring him to proceed faster, so as to be able to free himself from the promise he gave when he decided to cross the gorge. And this happens even when conditions permit a more relaxed “descent” (without too many people, without time constraints and with sufficient lighting). The crossing of the Gorge itself as an exclusive goal is at the root of these feelings. A study of certain new visual points and routes of various difficulties and interests (which will not necessarily cross the whole length of the Gorge) can organise the pace of the descent and ascent of the Gorge, and create in the walker a greater feeling of security and familiarity with the imposing landscape that surrounds him. The realisation of the above and any other goals for the showcasing and protection of the Gorge demands methods of intervening which will act most of all with respect for the landscape, with the use of tools offered by a collaboration of landscape architecture with other sciences.

Text:Irene Vlazaki

41

Ecosystem* is a term used “to de-scribe a discrete unit that consists of living and non-living parts, inter-acting to form a stable system.” It is, therefore, a natural unit that is com-prised of living organisms (plants and animals) and the non-living envi-ronment within which they live (light, water, air, etc.). An ecosystem can be a forest, a lake, etc.

2. The Ecosystems

The particular relief of the Gorge and its altitude gradation create natural environ-ments, each of which has its own environmental characteristics, i.e. its own non-living environment. These, in combination with the effect of human activities, some of which continue to be practiced until today, contribute to the creation of an especially rich mosaic of ecosystems. Of the characteristic ecosystems encoun-tered in the Gorge, there are some in particular which give the overall tone to the vegetation and are the ones that the visitor shall clearly remember when he looks back on his descent into the gorge.

Looking onto the Gorge from Xyloskalo, we can see that the dark green colour of the cypress tree (Cupressus sempervirens) forest dominates. These trees are found at an altitude of approximately 500-1400 metres and, as we descend, merge with forests of Turkish pine (Pinus brutia), which at some points form unadulterated clusters. The ecosystems lo-cated along the first kilometres are, due to the steep slopes, less disturbed than those located near Samaria village, where hu-man influence is clear. Isolated olive trees as well as olive groves can be seen from Ayios Nikola-os downwards. Vines and other cultivations can be found in the characteristic terraces, creating a special environment near the village. On the footpath, we shall even encounter holm and other oaks (Quercus spp.), which form clusters at points of the Gorge, sometimes along with Cretan maple (Acer sempervirens, 900-1200 m altitude).

Unexploited caves at points along the Gorge create superb ecosystems with typical organ-isms, some of which are unique and endemic. Looking at the peaks opposite the footpath at

Text:Hariklia KargiolakiParaskevi NousiaHelen Karpathaki

* M. Allaby, Oxford Dictionary of Ecology, 1994, Oxford University Press, p. 136.

Fig. 22: Samaria ecosystems (T. Borakia-Mavridakis collection)

CH

AP

TE

R 2

| B

IO

DI

VE

RS

IT

Y

PA

RT

Ι |

TH

E N

AT

UR

AL

EN

VI

RO

NM

EN

T

42

an altitude of 1300-2400 m, we see the now Alpine plain, as environmental condi-tions become just about bearable for the organisms. The vegetation here is partic-ular, the forest has ended, and mountain desert conditions prevail. Few organisms are able to survive in these clear areas, and these are now unique and endemic! The extreme environment in combination with over-grazing, has resulted in the adaptation and evolution of resistant organisms, endemic and often unique to the region. Thorny bushes, plants with dense leaves and thick hair, or plants which grow literally stuck to the earth, looking as though they are crawling, exist here.

Yet another characteristic ecosystem in the Gorge is the relatively stable limestone debris or scree (deposits of loose broken rocks, groups of rocks that rolled together) (fig. 10). We en-counter the scree next to us as we go down the footpath, and also see it opposite the entrances to Xyloskalo and Lenoseli, where it glistens with the characteristic colour of limestone.

Brushwood also appears on the surface of the sea, up to 1100 m. Most are comprised of vari-ous aromatic plants, and the slightest touch to most of the plants alongside the footpath releas-es aromas of various strengths and types.

The water, which appears from one point on-wards, creates the conditions for characteristic riverside vegetation, such as plane trees (Plata-nus orientalis), chaste trees (Vitex agnus castus) and oleanders (Nerium oleander). These give the landscape its characteristic colour, indicat-ing the existence of water.

Finally, particular plant organisms manage to survive on the vertical slopes of the Gorge, cre-ating certain ecosystems of exceptionally resil-ient organisms, the “chasmophytes”.

Fig. 23: Cypress tree (Cupressus sempervirens var. horizontalis) in the Gorge (photo: V. Kotrotsos)

43

3. The flora of the Gorge

The importance of the Lefka Ori for the biodiversity of Greece and the world has been recognised internationally.12 The region’s flora is characterised not only by the wide range of plant species, but also by the presence of many endemic species. The isolation offered by the Gorge has contributed to the creation of such forms. There are no precise numbers for the plant species of the Gorge, as a full catalogue has not yet been compiled given the particular conditions of the area (inaccessi-ble, adverse weather conditions, etc.).

The latest studies make mention of 17213 endemic Greek taxa (= classification units, i.e. species and sub-species) in the region of the Lefka Ori. More specifi-cally, 23 are found only in the Lefka Ori, 96 are endemic to Crete, 12 are endemic to Crete and Karpathos and, finally, 172 are endemic to Greece. Of these, 15 are stenotype endemic species exclusive to the area in which they grow, and which have found refuge, survived, and evolved only here, not existing anywhere else in the world! Many of these endemic species are rare and believed to be endangered, and for this reason are protected by national and international regulations.

12 Α. Strid, “Phytogeographical Aspects of the Greek Mountain Flora”, in Frag Floristica Geobot Suppl. 2, 1993, p. 411-33. 13 OIKOM Update, p. 47.

Endemism*: The situation in which a species or other taxo-nomic group is restricted to a particular geographic region, owing to factors such as isolation or response to soil or climatic conditions.” Such a species (plant or animal) is called an endemic species of that region. Species found exclusively in one relatively small area are known as stenotope endemic species.

Fig. 24: Cluster of Turkish pines (Pinus brutia) in the Gorge


Text:Hariklia KargiolakiParaskevi NousiaHelen Karpathaki

* Allaby, p. 141.

CH

AP

TE

R 2

| B

IO

DI

VE

RS

IT

Y

PA

RT

Ι |

TH

E N

AT

UR

AL

EN

VI

RO

NM

EN

T

44

Trees of the Gorge

CypressThe cypress tree of Samaria is not the thin, tall cypress which we often encoun-ter in the rest of Greece. The Cretan variety has outspread branches, which are almost vertical (Cupressus sempervirens var. horizontalis). At Ayios Nikolaos we can find one of the most imposing clusters of cypresses, with giant, ancient trees. It is said that in 1989 one of these was 35 m tall, with a circumference of 7.11 m and a diameter of 2.3 m, whilst the rings of another indicated that it was at least 500 years old.14 Since antiquity, the wood of the cypress tree has been used in shipbuilding, and it is even said that the columns of the palace at Knossos were made from the cypress.

Pine In Samaria, just as in the rest of Crete, a type of Turkish pine (Pinus brutia) grows that is different from the pine found in the rest of Greece. It forms forests ei-ther purely of pine or along with the cypress tree. Turkish pine tree forests were usually traditionally lumbered for woodwork and firewood. They were also often used for extracting resin by cutting into the bark and collecting the resin in spe-cially placed containers. The signs of old resin collection are apparent even today. The temperature conditions for wood in the Gorge, in combination with the un-touched surface of the earth, means that many dry pine needles containing resin gather on the ground, significantly increasing the fire risk during summer.

Kermes oakThe Kermes oak (Quercus coccifera) varies in form analogous to the environment in which it grows. It can crawl on the ground in conditions of intense grazing, or grow into a magnificent tree. The Kermes oak is a tree that can tolerate difficult conditions, even growing in rock cracks. It can be found at various locations in Samaria, such as Prinari.

Cretan maple The Cretan maple (Acer sempervirens) grows at very tall locations (800-1700 m) in the Gorge, and reaches the boundaries of the forest, whilst it is also found in clusters on its own or with the cypress and Kermes oak trees. Due to long-term grazing, Cretan maples have a bushy shape, whilst their height reaches up to five metres and their crown is either umbrella-shaped or spherical. Rare endemic spe-cies can be found under the Cretan maple, the so-called understory.

14 Rackham and Moody, p. 84.

Εικ. 26: Turkish pine (Pinus brutia) in the Gorge (Chania Forestry Service)

Fig. 25: Cretan maple (Acer sempervirens)in the Gorge (Chania Forestry Service)

45

CarobThe carob (Ceratonia siliqua) is a legume tree that is self-sowed or planted. There are carobs near the village of Samaria. In the old days, the seeds were collected and used as animal feed, and in difficult eras even eaten by the people, who would make flour from it.

Lentisk The lentisk (Pistacia lentiscus) is usually a bush, but it can also evolve into a small tree. It produces an unpleasant tasting resin and grows at middle and low alti-tudes. It is considered a medicinal plant.

Myrtle The myrtle (Myrtus communis) is a plant encountered at various points in the Gorge. Its medicinal qualities have been known since antiquity. Dioscurides used it for illnesses of the bladder, and for spider and scorpion bites.

Flowers of the Gorge

Samaria, and especially the clearings such as that at Ayios Nikolaos, is home to many species of wild flowers, creating a feast of colours for most seasons of the year:

■ the Cretan white peony (Paeonia clusii), beautiful, with brilliant white, petals, yellow stems and a red pestle, linking its name to the ancient divine physician, Paeonias,

■ the imposing dark purple, almost black, drakontia (Drancunculus spp.) with its characteristic unpleasant smell, an invitation to pollinating insects,

■ pinky-purple marjoram (Origanum microphyllum) with its wonderful aroma and medicinal qualities,

■ red, purple and white anemones (Anemone sp.), ■ white asphodels (Asphodelus sp.), ■ yellow agarathus (Phlomis fruticosa), ■ endemic pink ebony (Ebenus cretica), which hangs from the sheer slopes of the

Gorge (its flowers are used to fill pillows), ■ the also endemic purple Petromarula pinnata, which we find in the rock cracks,■ irises in the spring, ■ the snow crocus (Crocus sieberi) of the mountain, which appears with the snow,

giving a sense of life under its white sheet,■ the orchid (Cephalanthera cucullata), found near Ayios Nikolaos, one of the pro-

tected species of Samaria,

and many others which live in harmony with the rest of the flora and fauna.

Fig. 28: Endemic mauve Petromarula pinnata in the Gorge (MAICh)

Fig. 27: Cephalanthera cucullata in the Gorge (MAICh)

CH

AP

TE

R 2

| B

IO

DI

VE

RS

IT

Y

PA

RT

Ι |

TH

E N

AT

UR

AL

EN

VI

RO

NM

EN

T

46

Medicinal and aromatic plants of the Gorge

It is difficult to distinguish this category from the previous one, given that all the aromatic plants are beautiful flowers. A walk in Samaria is accompanied by fragrances and aromas. Thyme, savory, ladania, oregano and marjoram remind us of their presence, especially when their glands, which contain volatile essential oils, are crushed (by our steps, as we trample on the bushes, or when we take them in our hands). The essential oils give us special aromas and tastes as seasonings in food, and also have medicinal qualities. Most aromatic herbs belong to the mentha or mint (Labiatae) family, whilst one theory says that its essential oils provide a resistance mechanism so that the plants can survive over-grazing. They are valuable plants for beekeeping.

Fig. 29: Oleander (Nerium oleander) in the Gorge (Chania Forestry Service)

■ Sage (Salvia fruticosa and Salvia pomifera), a honey plant, the dried leaves of which are used to make the “Greek tea” which is served in all coffee houses. Attention, however: this warming, stimulating and restorative drink should be avoided by people with hypertension or an excitable character.

■ Malotera or Mountain Tea (Sideritis syriaca subsp. syriaca). Found at the entrance to the Gorge. A stimulating, palliative, restorative, peptic drink, good for the blood vessels.

■ Thyme (Corridothymus capitatus), which grows from the sea up to the Alpine zone and is used for toothache, coughs, bronchitis, hair loss and as a deodorant. The honey of bees who harvest its pollen is considered one of the most select varieties.

■ Pink savory (Satureja thymbra), the drink of which improves hearing difficulties and heals the larynx, whilst it is used as a spice in cooking, with significant antioxidant properties. Used greatly by the Romans.

■ Marjoram (Origanum microphyllum) is good for headaches, neuroses, hemiplegia, dizziness, epilepsy, memory loss, colds and anorexia. Lo-cals combine it with malotera to make a traditional tea.

■ The ladania or angisaros (Cistus communis) is the plant that pro-duces the ladano, a type of resin that is used today still in perfumery and soap making. The ancients used it as incense and in various oint-ments. Dioscurides mentions that ladano was collected on the feet and beards of goats, where it “sits” as they graze, and is kneaded to take its final form. Today it is collected on leather strips that are passed over the ladania plant (especially in the region of Sisses in Rethymno).

Theophrastus, father of Botany, wrote in the 4th

century BC: Dittany is a plant that grows only in Crete… it is rare as the place where it is produced is small and the goats graze on it because they like it. It is also said that the story with the arrow is true, that if those struck by an arrow eat it they eject the arrow.

Theophrastus, On Plants, 9, 16, 1.

47

Other plants ascribed as medicinal from the time of Dioscurides, the greatest doctor of antiquity, are the carob (Ceratonia siliqua), lentisk (Pistacia lentiscus), agarathus (Phlomis triloba), chaste tree (Vitex agnus castus) and the oleander (Nerium oleander).

The “great centaurean” of Cheiron, teacher of Asclepius and tutor of Achilles, was used as a great medicine for wounds. In the Gorge there is an endemic centaurea (Centaurea redempta).

The most celebrated of Cretan herbs, dittany or erontas (Origanum dictamnus), has not been located on the Samaria footpath. It perhaps exists in one of the gorg-es that contribute to the central one, and has not been located as the area is inac-cessible. It has small, round leaves with a hairy surface, a particular aroma and bunches with pink buds.

Fig. 30: Malotera (Sideritis syriaca) in the Gorge (MAICh)

Fig. 31: Pink savory (Satureja thymbra) in the Gorge (MAICh)

Fig. 32: Dittany (Origanum dictamnus) (M. Toubis SA archive)

CH

AP

TE

R 2

| B

IO

DI

VE

RS

IT

Y

PA

RT

Ι |

TH

E N

AT

UR

AL

EN

VI

RO

NM

EN

T

48

15 H. Fournaraki, P. Gotsiou and P. Galani, “Flora, fauna, endemic, endangered, rare and protected species,” in the OIKOM Update, pp. 83-99.

Endemic, rare andthreatened plants

In the Lefka Ori National Park15 and specifically the Samaria Gorge, the visitor can encounter rare and threat-ened plants of the Greek flora, such as orchids Cephalanthera cucullata (threatened), most impressive when they blossom toward the end of May near Ayios Nikolaos, and the Orchis prisca (vulnerable) near Xyloskalo, which blooms earlier. There are also

the impressive cliff plants, the Cam-panula laciniata (rare), endemic to the islands of the South Aegean and Crete, the Helichrysum heldreichii (vulnerable), endemic only to the gorges south of the Lefka Ori, as is the species Eryngium ternatum. The Sesleria doerfleri and the Euphorbia sultan-hassei, which we encounter after Samaria village, are rare species, known only from the gorges of West Crete. The Samaria National Park plays host to a total of 12 endangered

species, according to the Red Book of Endangered Plants of Greece. The visitor can encounter some of these species on the route from Xyloskalo to Gingilo, such as the Bupleurum kakiskalae, Onobrychis sphaciotica and Centaurea baldacii. The first is protected by Greek and international law, and in the area where it grows you shall see special information boards put up by the Chania Forestry Service on the microreserve set up for the protection of the plant.

49

Fig. 33: Campanula laciniata (MAICh)

Fig. 34: Bupleurum kakiskalae in the Samaria National Park Park

(photo: A. Sakoulis)

Fig. 35: Mullein of Sfakia (Euphorbia sultan-hassei)

(MAICh)

Fig. 36: Helichrysum heldreichii in the Gorge (MAICh)


CH

AP

TE

R 2

| B

IO

DI

VE

RS

IT

Y

PA

RT

Ι |

TH

E N

AT

UR

AL

EN

VI

RO

NM

EN

T

50

EΘΝΙΚΟΣ ΔΡΥΜΟΣ ΣΑΜΑΡΙΑΣ αγγλικα 5B

51

In the wider region of Omalos and a few metres from the entrance to the National Park (garden of the Samaria National Park Information Centre at Xyloskalo), the walker will come across one of the world’s rarest trees,16 the Zelkova abelicea, which is considered to be a living fossil. It can take the form of a large tree with a rough and grainy bark, which resembles the elm. It produces plenty of sucker growth. Because of the flexibility of its branches, even this exceptionally rare tree is used to make traditional walking sticks (katsounes). This tree is under threat from over-grazing as well as the manufacture of these walking sticks, which are sold illegally to tourists. Such walking sticks should definitely not be purchased. Traditional walking sticks are also made from olive tree17 and holm oak wood, which are just as impressive and usable.

There are many other endemic plants in the Samaria Gorge, such as the Ebenus cretica, Inula candida subsp. candida, Centaurea argentea subsp. macrothysana, Securigera globosa, Ricotia cretica, Galium fruticosum and Verbascum spinosum.

The great value of preserving all these endemic organisms lies in the fact that they comprise a unique gene pool. If they are lost then this is forever, without the possibility of bringing them back, as they are products of the long-term evolution of organisms which have perhaps been lost good. The majority have evolved so as to be able to survive in very idiosyncratic and difficult environments. Research into their products and their survival meth-ods may be the key to discovering new natural products and methods, cru-cial in fighting current and future diseases. This is a natural resource that we do not have the right to lose. The creation and management of the Na-tional Park must contribute to their protection and preservation!!!

Fig. 37: Oregano (Drancunculus vulgare) (photo: H. Kargiolaki)

Fig. 38: Paeonia (Paeonia clusii) (www.natura.pblogs.gr)

Fig. 39: Cretan ebony (Ebenus cretica) (MAICh)

16 Rackham and Moody, p. 96-8.17 Ch. Fournaraki et al., pp. 83-99.

Fig. 40: Abelicea (Zelkova abelicea) (Chania Forestry Service archive)

Fig. 41: Ricotia cretica (MAICh)

Fig. 42: Galium fruticosum (MAICh)

Fig. 43: Verbascum spinosum (MAICh)

CH

AP

TE

R 2

| B

IO

DI

VE

RS

IT

Y

PA

RT

Ι |

TH

E N

AT

UR

AL

EN

VI

RO

NM

EN

T

52

4. The fauna of the Lefka Ori and Gorge of Samaria

The animals and birds of the Lefka Ori and the Samaria Gorge, the subject of this chapter, consist of the non-domesticated wild fauna which lives in the region. Isolated islands, such as Crete, present a particular form of zoological evolution,18 in which we distinguish the presence of strange animals and the complete ab-sence of other species. Crete has never had indigenous wild cattle, wild boars and other wild animals, such as the wolf or fox, whilst the most aggressive animal is the wildcat.

Fig. 44: Butterfly in Samaria(photo: A. Sakoulis)

Fig. 45: Dragonfly in the Lefka Ori(photo: A. Sakoulis)

18 Rackham and Moody, pp. 63-73.19 OIKOM Update, p. 100.


Paraskevi NousiaHelen Karpathaki

Invertebrates

Studies looking exclusively at the Gorge have not been conducted, and so we shall discuss the more general situation in the Lefka Ori. The most important characteristic of the invertebrates19 is the high levels of endemism apparent in Crete in general and the Lefka Ori in particular. The higher we get, so the number of species declines (800m:150, 1200m:119, 1600m:94, 2000m:59).

■ Terrestrial molluscs present an increased level of endemism which reaches almost 33% of the species in the southwest are of the Lefka Ori. The moun-tains of Crete are refuges for terrestrial snails.

■ Arthropods are another group encountered in the Lefka Ori. Some of these, the beetle for example, have a particularly high level of endemism approach-ing 40% of their species. Analyses of beetles and terrestrial molluscs show that Crete is isolated from other parts of the South Aegean.

■ Three species of scorpion have been found in the Lefka Ori, specifically Cretan (Euscorpius carpathicus, Mesobuthus gibbosus and Iurus dufoureius). Although scorpions prefer dry land and warm conditions, in the Lefka Ori they can be found at altitudes as high as 2000 m. Moreover, although there are around 244 species of spider on the island, only 102 species have been recognised in the Lefka Ori.

■ As for orthoptera (grasshoppers, crickets, etc.), 25 species have been iden-tified in the Samaria National Park and surrounding region, of which the Eupholidoptera cretica, E. latens and E. pallipes are endemic to the Lefka Ori. Three further species are endemic to Crete.

Amphibians and reptiles

Three species of amphibians and 11 species of reptiles have been documented in the Lefka Ori. The three species of amphibians are common to continental Greece. The relatively low number of species is due to the infrequency of surface water in the Lefka Ori.

53

Birds

There are 199 bird species in the Lefka Ori, whose environmental needs can be satisfied by the local habitats. The majority of these (108 species, primarily waders, forest birds and species that live in meadows) pass through here every spring and autumn during their annual migration, as Crete is located on the migration routes of birds crossing the Mediterranean along a broad f

EΘΝΙΚΟΣ ΔΡΥΜΟΣ ΣΑΜΑΡΙΑΣ αγγλικα 1Α -...

Documents

Transcript of EΘΝΙΚΟΣ ΔΡΥΜΟΣ ΣΑΜΑΡΙΑΣ αγγλικα 1Α -...