Isaac Asimov

TO XPONIKOTN EITHMONIKN

ANAKAYEN

4.000.000 .X.

A : M N

E-BOOK

ANEITHMIAKE EKOEI KPHTHI E A

HPAKEIO 2011

T :

:

A :

E :

:

:

E:

Asimovs Chronology of Science and Discovery

1989-1996 Isaac Asimov Harper & Row Publishers

1992-96, ANEITHMIAKE EKOEI KPHTH

M, N

A

B A

B B (EK)

TYOKPETA KAZANAKH ABEE

: HMHTPH TZANH

ANEITHMIAKE EKOEI KPHTH IPYMA TEXNOOIA KAI EPEYNA

H K, T.. 1527, 711 10. T. 2810 391097, Fax: 2810 391085

A: 3, 10677. T. 210 3849020-23, Fax: 210 3301583e-mail: info@cup.gr

www.cup.gr

EIPA: EITHMH KAI ANPINO OITIMO

IEYYNTH EIPA: TEANO TPAXANA

ISBN 960-524-026-2

4.000.000 .X.E

2.000.000 .X.X

500.000 .X.T

200.000 .X.E Homo sapiens nean-derthalensis

30.000 .X.E Homo sapiens sapiens

20.000 .X.E

X

12.000 .X.E

8000 .X.E

7000 .X.X

6000 .X.X

E E

5000 .X.X

4000 .X.E

E

3600 .X.A

3500 .X.E

X E

3100 .X.T A

3000 .X.X

2800 .X.X

2650 .X.X

2500 .X.X

2340 .X.I

MIA MATIA E 4.000.000 XPONIA

EITHMONIKN ANAKAYEN

2000 .X.

1800 .X.A 60

K

A

1775 .X.

1550 .X.

1500 .X.E

1375 .X.Y

1200 .X.

1100 .X.O

1000 .X.E E

750 .X.X

700 .X.K

B

640 .X.I

X

585 .X. H

580 .X.T

520 .X.O

510 .X.

500 .X. A

X O A

480 .X.

440 .X.

420 .X.A

vi TO XPONIKO TN EITHMONIKN ANAKAYEN

400 .X.E

387 .X.I

350 .X.

T

320 .X.

312 .X.K

300 .X.A

280 .X. E H

K

270 .X.E

260 .X.

240 .X.E

K

214 .X.A M T

170 .X.A

150 .X.Y

134 .X.B

100 .X.E

85 .X.E

46 .X.K ,

25O

50 X-

105

140

H ITOPIA TN EITHMN MEXPI HMEPA vii

180M

250A

300

E

400K

537K

552A

600E

673E

700

750M

770X

810

850A

870 A K

874I I

900E

982A

1000A N

1025T

1050E

1054E

1066E

1071X

1137K

1180K E E

viii TO XPONIKO TN EITHMONIKN ANAKAYEN

1194A

1202E E

1228A E

1241X

1249E A E

1252 A

1269

1291E

1298E A

E E E

1300A

1304Z

1312 K N

1316E

1335E

1346E

1403E

1405O K I

1418A N M

1427A A N

1436X

1439B

1450E

1451K

1454T B

H ITOPIA TN EITHMN MEXPI HMEPA ix

1472

1487A A K E

1492A A

1495E

1497O I

1502A A NK

1504K

1513A N (E )

A

1519H I M

1523

1531H I

1535

1538

1541E M

1542E A

1543

K

A

1545O

B

1551 K

1552

1553E B

1555

x TO XPONIKO TN EITHMONIKN ANAKAYEN

1556T E E

1560I

1565A

1568 , ,

1572

1576O E

1577I

1578A N

1581M

E

1582Y H

1583T

1586X

1589

X

E

1590E

1591X

1592E

A

1596T A I B

1597

1600

1603M

1607I T

1608E

H ITOPIA TN EITHMN MEXPI HMEPA xi

1609

1610A A A H

1612A N A

1614 M

1616A K M

1620A

1621M

1622E

1624O

1627 P

1628

1633O I E

1635

1637

1640

1641X

1642 E E

A N E

1643 - ( )

xii TO XPONIKO TN EITHMONIKN ANAKAYEN

1645E

1648H A

1650E K B

1651O

1653A

1654A A

1656A K

E

1657M

1658A

1659A M

1660A A

1661O

1662O M

I B E( )

1664 M EK

1665A

M

1666A

1668 A

K

1669E A Y

H ITOPIA TN EITHMN MEXPI HMEPA xiii

1670A

1671A K

1672Y

1675Y K

1676

1678

1679E

1680 -

1681

1682

1683A

1684T

1685O

1686

1687 Principia(A) N

Y ,

1688K

1691

1693E

1698E

A

1699O

xiv TO XPONIKO TN EITHMONIKN ANAKAYEN

1700

1705O

X K

1706X

B

1707E

1709X

1710

1712E N

1713

1714E

1715 H

1718A

1722A N

1728E M A B K

1729O

1733E M E

1735M B

B

1736K

1737A

H ITOPIA TN EITHMN MEXPI HMEPA xv

1738

1739E B

1740A

1742E K

E

1744O

1745E A

1747A

1748M

1749

Y

1751A

A

1752E

A Y

1754E

1755O

1756Y

1758O X

X

1759M

1760M A T

1761M A

xvi TO XPONIKO TN EITHMONIKN ANAKAYEN

1762O

1763M

1764B

1765 ( )

1766M M

1768A

A A

1769B

E

1770A N M M

1771 () M

M

1772 E A

1773 A K

A

1774A

A ( )

1775

1776

1777X

1778A

A X

1779M

1780M

H ITOPIA TN EITHMN MEXPI HMEPA xvii

1781A O A T

B , - B E

1782A

1783M H A

1784

E A

E A

A

1785

E - - ( - )

1786H

1787A

K

1788H

1789A K

A

A

1790H B E A E

1791A

A K

1793E O NB

xviii TO XPONIKO TN EITHMONIKN ANAKAYEN

1794 A

1795A

1796M

K

1797A

X

1798Y

T M Y A

1799 M

M H A P

1800E - T A

E

A E

1801E Z

A ,

T

A A

A

1802A A

1803O E

A ,

1804X

E E M

1805A

1806A ,

H ITOPIA TN EITHMN MEXPI HMEPA xix

1807A T

1808A

1809Y T

1810E A

1811 A A

1812X

1813E A

1814A

1815 M

B

1816E

1817A

A ,

1818K

1819H T A

1820M

A A

X

1821 A Z

Y

1822M

xx TO XPONIKO TN EITHMONIKN ANAKAYEN

A A ()

A

1823A

O

A Y

E

1824E M

M H

A

A

1825O

A

1826

A

1827

K E M

T ,

M

1828

E ()

A

1829E N

1830E E

1831E

E E A

A O A

1832

H ITOPIA TN EITHMN MEXPI HMEPA xxi

1833A

1834E

A

1835

K K

1836A

E N

1837

H A

1838Y M O E M

1839E

E

A A A T

P A

1840T A

1841M

E E

K

1842 N

Y

1843M A

E ( ) A

H X

K

1844M

xxii TO XPONIKO TN EITHMONIKN ANAKAYEN

1845A A ( )

1846O A M

O A

K

1847

E

X E T

A

1848K

A N K

1849Y

T P K A

1850 M

1851A A K O

1852 T-T

A

E

1853Y H

E

1854H A ( M- ) A

1855 E

H ITOPIA TN EITHMN MEXPI HMEPA xxiii

E E

1856A

E E A N

A

1857E K

1858 A

T

M

1859 E E

K

1860A

E

A H A

1861A A M

A

1862

A A - N

N

E O

1863

A A

1864 N

1865 M

xxiv TO XPONIKO TN EITHMONIKN ANAKAYEN

K

Y A K

E M E M K

1866E

E A K

Y M

1867E

E

1868E

A A K-M

A

1869

A Y

T A

K

E

1870A T

1871

X

A

1872A T

T

1873 E O

A

1874A

O

H ITOPIA TN EITHMN MEXPI HMEPA xxv

1875M

E

1876K E

O

1877 Y E E

A

1878O

M

A

1879E

E A A ,

H

1880A N

K

A A E

O

M A

1881E

A E

1882M

M

B

A A

1883K X

E M A

E M Y

xxvi TO XPONIKO TN EITHMONIKN ANAKAYEN

1884

M X

A K K

E

1885 A

E B

E K

A

1886E

A A A A P A

1887A

M-M

M E

1888A

O E E K

1889 A - E M A

M E E E

1890 A I

E

X

1891A M

H ITOPIA TN EITHMN MEXPI HMEPA xxvii

B

1892A M E N

1893 A

T

E A

1894A

1895A X

A

H A A

E

1896A E ( )

A Z A T

1897A () H A T

H E K E

1898A A , Y A K

A A A M

K

1899A

X

E

1900

M

xxviii TO XPONIKO TN EITHMONIKN ANAKAYEN

A A

A O, A, B AB

E K H

A M K

A K

1901M

E A A

1902T

A , O

M B

M

A K-X

A A

E

1903 Y E

1904E ( ) A X

A A

1905 A T H M H

A E E

H ITOPIA TN EITHMN MEXPI HMEPA xxix

E E ( IQ)

1906E AM

E A T T

X

A H

1907E

A

A X

K M E

1908M , ,

E E

A

A E A X

1909

A

A E K

E M K B

1910

M

1911

T Y

A

A O K

K N

xxx TO XPONIKO TN EITHMONIKN ANAKAYEN

E

1912H K M N A

M X

O

K H

1913O

M

H E K

X

A N M A M A B E M-M

E

1914A Y X

M

M

K A A A

A Y

A

1915A

A A

1916E

E E

1917

A

X 2,54

A A

1918Y

H ITOPIA TN EITHMN MEXPI HMEPA xxxi

T

X M

1919E M M

1920M A N A A I

E ( ) Y

A

A

1921A

A

A D

A A

E

K P

1922H

T

A E A A E M

1923A ()

Y

A N-X Y - K

K N A

A E

1924A A M-A

A A

1925O

xxxii TO XPONIKO TN EITHMONIKN ANAKAYEN

O A Y E A A

1926A

A -N

E K H

1927 A

M

H

A

X

A

M N E

1928A

N- P E

A

1929Y

H E E

E A

A A A

E - E

1930A

M

E E

A K

H ITOPIA TN EITHMN MEXPI HMEPA xxxiii

E A A

1931 E A O A E E K X

1932A

E

A

A E

A A E

( )

1933E C M H

1934T Y

T Y

E A E

1935A -235

X E Y

A

A A A K P

1936 X

1937

A A T E

xxxiv TO XPONIKO TN EITHMONIKN ANAKAYEN

K A H

H

1938

A

E E

K

E E A

1939A

A A

Y K

A A A () Bacilus brevis

A ,

A DDT

E

1940A X

A E A E

1941A

T A

H H

1942E

H

1943A

LSD A E

H ITOPIA TN EITHMN MEXPI HMEPA xxxv

1944T DNA E

T 2,4-D

E V-2

1945 ( )

E A A M

1946E (ENIAC)

A

A

A

1947A

B -14

N K A

A A A

E H A

1948E

E ( LP)

K

M

A O

M A

X

M B E E

xxxvi TO XPONIKO TN EITHMONIKN ANAKAYEN

1949A A E

( )

A

A

1950

Y E T A

O -14

1951A K

A A

UNIVAC ( )

A A A

1952 ( )

A A -

E

DNA X

A M

A E o

E REM M ,

A K

1953E DNA

E

M E X

K

H ITOPIA TN EITHMN MEXPI HMEPA xxxvii

1954A

K

E A

K

K

K

T

K

1955Y E A

A A E

E

1956A

E Y A

A RNA

1957T ( ) K TM

M A X E

E E

1958A M A X A T

1959E

E

A

xxxviii TO XPONIKO TN EITHMONIKN ANAKAYEN

Homo habilis K

1960K

Y

O K A

E AMP

E

1961 A

A

A A Y

A

1962 A E

E A

A

H K

1963M A

X X A

1964A

A CPT -RNA

1965 E A

E

H ITOPIA TN EITHMN MEXPI HMEPA xxxix

E A

A

E

1966X

1967A

A A O

A

1968

A A T

1969O K

A

A A

A

E A

1970

M A DNA A

A K

A A A 13

1971X T Y

E

1972E

xl TO XPONIKO TN EITHMONIKN ANAKAYEN

B-12 A

M

E

T

E

E

1973B T

E

1974X E Y

A

Y , ,

A A () -c A ()

1975

A A

1976

H

1977A O A , X

A N B

M DNA A AIDS X

A

1978X A

A M SV40

1979 Y

H ITOPIA TN EITHMN MEXPI HMEPA xli

1980 K

1981E

Y

1982A

E T E

1983E

E

1984H DNA A

1985E X

1986O O

E X

1987M M N M

E

1988A

H -14 T

1989E B II K A

A X

1990A

T T X

1991A M

O M A O

xlii TO XPONIKO TN EITHMONIKN ANAKAYEN

T A

1992T E K A Y

RNA

1993T M B , ,

H ITOPIA TN EITHMN MEXPI HMEPA xliii

O (4.000.000 .X. - 3500 .X.)

T , , Homo sapiens sapiens ( -). H , , - , . O Homo habilis, 2.000.000 .X., , , , . 500.000.X., Homo erectus, , . M , -. M , , , , - , . O Homo erectus . O 50.000 .X. H 20.000 .X. . - 10.000 .X., , - . T 10.000 .X., - . K , 8000 .X. A , 10.000 , - . H ( 12.000 .X.) - . H (8000 .X.) , , (5000 .X.) . 7000 .X., : , , , . T , , , , , 3500 .X. T , -, . H 3500 .X. . H . , , - . T , , .M .

4.000.000 .X.IOH BAIH

T . X . . -

, : A -. X , , .

, . E , -

ISAAC ASIMOV:

1

, , . , , .

O , - ( - ) .

E, : T - . X , .

K ( ), . O , , . , , - . A , - , : A .

O - . T , .

T . E , .

, , ( 427- 347.X.) . O , ( ) ( ), .

A , , .

T , - . T - . O . K , , .

Y, , , , - . , - . , , . M , . T , . Y , , .

A , , - . , - .

M . O - , , . O . A , .

O , , , , .A ;

ISAAC ASIMOV:

2

E , , S. A .K . (H , , , , . T - ).

O P N (Raymond Arthur Dart, 1893-1988), N- A. T 1924 N - , . T N A. T 1925 N - A ( austral, ). N - -, .

T 1974, A , N T (Donald Johanson), ( - ). O -, , . K , .

H Australopithecus afarensis. O Afars, -- A . O - A, .

H , . O 0,90 1,20 30 . T - .

O , , . M - , , , . , , - .

; M , - ;

, , , , . , , . .

H , , . T . O .

M - A- . . K - , . E - .

O , , , - . , , .

ISAAC ASIMOV:

3

H , - . T , - . T , , . - .

K , - , . , .

O , , - .A - ( ), .

2.000.000 .X.IINA EPAEIA

M , . H , , . , () , - . K .

A , , . O , .., , .

. , . E, -.

O , , - 1.000.000 .X. , , . M , , .

M , Homo (). , , , ( ) .

1960, M (Louis Seymour Bazett Leakey,1903-1972), M, T O, T, Homo. O Homo habilis ( ), .

O Homo habilis . T 1986 - Homo habilis 1,8 . , 105 .

O Homo habilis , - ( ). T

ISAAC ASIMOV:

4

, , , , . T - , . T , - .

A , - . A . E , - .

A . O Homo habilis - , - (.., , ). , , .

M , , Homo habilis , . E, . T , , . , , , . K , .

O , , , ., , , , Homo.

500.000 .X.TIA

M 1.600.000 .X., Homo habilis . O, , Homoerectus ( ), . A Homo habilis - , .

A 1.000.000 .X. 300.000 .X., Homo erectus . , , 1,80 . 68 . O , , - .

T Homo erectus - . . - .

O Homo erectus : E 3.500.000 , A. O Homo erectus . M 500.000 .X. A, E A, - I.

, Homo erectus I, I, O M E N (Marie Eugne Dubois, 1858-1940) , 1894, , . M - N Pithecanthropus erectus ( ).

, 1927 , K N- M (Davidson Black, 1884-1934), Sinanthropuspekinensis ( ).

ISAAC ASIMOV:

5

T, , , Homo. O N erectus , - 2.500.000 Homo erectus, N.

T Homo erectus, . K - , , - 90 , . , Homo erectus I.

T . O Homo erectus , , . A . - , Homo erectus . T Homo erectus A ( M ) .

. A 500.000 . E -. K , , . K- , .

, , - . H . O . O 400.000.000 . A , .

E, , . K, Homo erectus - , .

M . , . M , - , , . , . A , , - , .

H . , . Homo erectus , - , Homo erectus .

, , Homo erectus , - . , .

H , -. M - . M , - , . M, Homo erectus -, .

E, . A , . T . E , -

ISAAC ASIMOV:

6

, . E, Homoerectus . - .

T, Homo erectus , .. - . M , .

A, , Homo erectus . A , , , . A ( , ), .

K, , , . O - , -, , , , . - , .

200.000 .X.PHKEIA

T 200.000 .X., Homo erectus - . , , - , : . O 200.000 .X. .

T 1856, N, - . , K N Neanderthal (N) - N.

A . -. T . E , , .

E ( B), N Homo sapiens ( -). M Homo sapiens, - .

N , - . O M (Paul Broca, 1824-1880) - N .

T N Homo neanderthalensis. , N , , . K ; Y - N . N - Homo sapiens neanderthalensis Homo sapiens. O - .

ISAAC ASIMOV:

7

O N 200.000 .X. 30.000 .X. A E. , -. T - . K, , .

O N . O , , , , . T N , , , - . M , .

E, , - . A - , - .

20.000 .X.TEXNH

M 50.000 .X. N , , , , . M , . E Homo sapiens sapiens .

A 50.000 .X. 30.000 .X., Homo sapiens , - , , N, 30.000 .

O . , Homo erectus. A 40.000 .X. 30.000 .X., - - A A A B A. M - . K I.

H , 10.000 .X., N A, , . - , A , .

, . , - , - .

T 1879, I , M (Marcellino de Sautuola, 1888), A I, , , : T! T!. O , , , 20.000 .X.

T . A , -. T , - .

ISAAC ASIMOV:

8

T -. M , . O - , - -. E , - .

BEH KAI TOA

, - . , 20.000.X.

T , . M , , -, . , - .

T ( , ). T .

YXNOI

M , - . , . , .

M , , - . A . M (.., ) , . T - , . A , - .

Y 20.000 .X.

12.000 .X.EHMEPH TN ZN

1950 , K I. O 12.000 .X.

, . M . K - , . A , .

, , - . , , , .

ISAAC ASIMOV:

9

M .M 10.000 .X. , M A. O -

, . A ,, . E, , - . (T -).

M , - . E , - .

YMHPMATIKAA .

8000 .X.EPIA

O . E , . A - , - .

A , . T , .

8000 .X., , , , -.

O, . K - , , - . K - .

, , - , .

H - . O , .

H I, . A . O , - - .

, , . H K E B - , , .

A A , , K, -. O -

ISAAC ASIMOV:

10

. (T , - , ). , , B K .

H . T .

A . -, , . A - , , - .

O , , , . . A , , . .

, , . T - . ( , , ), ( - , ), - . T , .

, I, , 8000 .X., (Jarmo). A P M (Robert J.Braidwood) 1948. A , . H - , , , .

H . A .., . . E, - , , - .

, , . A, , , .

YMHPMATIKAO . T A - E, . H - , A A A. O .

T 10.000 .X. 3 . (K N-, 2 ). T 8000 .X., , 5 -. M .

ISAAC ASIMOV:

11

7000 .X.KEPAMIKH

O - . , -. E , , .

E , - , . , .

T, : . T - .

T , , - . , - .

, , . , , - . M . T .

A ; , ; M - . 9000 .X., .

. , 7000 .X.. A , , - .

T , -. M , -. A , . - .

, . - . E, , .

, , - . , .

A, , , . M , , . , - ( ). O - , .

ISAAC ASIMOV:

12

O - . , - , , .

YMHPMATIKAH I, I, , 2.500 .

6000 .X.INO

T , , - . , . T .

H , 6000 .X., . M .

T, , - . H , - , . M - . A , - . E , , .

T , , , , . .

XEIE

O , . , .

E, . . E, . 6000.X. , - , . K- , , -.

PEANIA

O . A 6000 .X. . O, ( ) . M , , - . H -, , , . H - .

YMHPMATIKAE ( B), - .

ISAAC ASIMOV:

13

5000 .X.

APEYH

H . , - , , . A -, , , .

M ( ) . , .

, , . , , - . A , .

E , , . K - ( , - , ), , .

T , -. A - , .

, , . H . , , .

, , , - . M , . , -, .

O - E T, I ( ), 5000 .X. -- N A. , N , , , , . H N .

ZYO

T : . E , , - . O . T , . H - , 5000 .X. A .

ISAAC ASIMOV:

14

4000 .X.XAKO

A Homo habilis 4000 .X. , , - , . H - , -, . A E, P T K (95-55 .X.) , K T (Christian Jrgensen Thomsen, 1788-1865), 1834.

H E, , , M N .

M , , E - . E, , - , .

O . Y , - , . M . T - , . , . H -, , , , .

5000 .X. . , , - , . T , ( ) . O . O -, , , , , . (H K, ).* [* ..M.: A - , (cuprum), (copper), (cuivre), (Kupfer), (cobre), (koppar), (kuper). H -. M - , , . , - .]

- , - . T . , . H - 4000 .X.

A, . M - . T, , , , , . K . , - . M , .

ISAAC ASIMOV:

15

M , . A, - . O . H - , , - . A , , -, , . -, , - , .

YMHPMATIKAO - , I, . A I , M-N (Mohenjo-Daro), 1922.

3600 .X.HIAKA POOIA

A , . , , . - H . H .

, , . K H, - . K , , - . T ( ) , H, .

A A, . O A-, , 4000 .X.

OPEIXAKO

O -. O . M , , , .

. T - . , . (A ).

E, . --. T , .* [* ..M.: . H bronzo, - Brundisium, B M - .]

O . H - , , .

ISAAC ASIMOV:

16

O , . T 3000.X., M A E O, - , .

T E O I O, T (1200 .X.), T , .

O A K(3500 .X. - 475 .X.)

T M A A, - . H 3.100 .X., - N-, 800 , . T - K . 2.500 .X. - K , K A. O , , : , , , . E 1500 .X. - , . H - . E, M . H 1100 .X., , - , M, . H E, 800 .X., . E - , E , . A , E - . O , - . O E , , , . -, , . , - A . E , , A - . E , , . O E I , , 5 .X., - . O E - , 500 .X. T 100 .X., E, P M. O P , - , - P A, . P, 5 .X., E. E M.

ISAAC ASIMOV:

17

3500 .X.TPOXOOPA OXHMATA

, -. A , , - , .

A, , , -, (.., ), .

M -. O , . H - , , - . E .

, , , , . , .

- . X , .

T 3500 .X.

OTAMIE EMBOI

O . T , , , .

A , N . A, , , - . O N , T . (O T ).

N , - . , , , .

H A , , . T . O . M . O , N . (O M, , - , ).

, A , - A . O - A.

T 3500 .X., N 3000 .X. M. A , X, -. E A , A .

ISAAC ASIMOV:

18

PAH

E , . O , , ( ).

. O -, , .

E , . , - , .

, -. , , , . A , , . T, . A -, .

O . - . H - .* M , , - . , - .E, , - . [* ..M.: O cuneiform = , -form, forma , .]

A ( ) . , .

H A, , , - . H , - , . O A- .

H . E . O , , , . A - , -.

A - , .

E , , , . , , : , , .

M , , . A , . M , 3500 .X.

ISAAC ASIMOV:

19

APOTPO

A, , . A - , , -.

T , , , . A . T 3500 .X.

3100 .X.ENH

K - , .

O -, - , - . , - , -, , , .

A , A. H N , 800 .

T 3100 .X. , N ( A) - ( A) M, .( A , M, 300 .X. A, . K , A ).

A , A . .

3000 .X.

KHPIA

T . E : T , .A, -, . .

T 3000 .X. , .

ISAAC ASIMOV:

20

MIA MATIA E 4.000.000 XPONIA EITHMONIKN ANAKAYENO (4.000.000 .X. - 3500 .X.)IOH BAIHIINA EPAEIATIAPHKEIATEXNHBEH KAI TOAYXNOIEHMEPH TN ZNEPIAKEPAMIKHINOXEIEPEANIAAPEYHZYOXAKOHIAKA POOIAOPEIXAKO

O A K (3500 .X. - 475 .X.)TPOXOOPA OXHMATAOTAMIE EMBOIPAHAPOTPOENHKHPIAHMEPOOIAIINA MNHMEIAOOTEXNIAYAIAYTOKPATOPIEAOAMAHMATIKA KAI ATPONOMIAZYMHNOMOEIAIATPIKHAABHTOMONOEMOBAENAYIOAIHPOAIEYPAEIAZOOIKOI KHOIHIAKA POOIABIBIOHKENOMIMATAEKEIEITOIXEIAAPPHTOI APIMOIXAPTEATANTIKO KEANOANATOMIAABAKAAPOITHONEIPAATOMAEIHIAKATAETEANTATE XOEAA KENTPA TOY YMANTOOIKHH AIPIKOTHTA TH HENTE TOIXEIATAINOMHH TN ZNOYPANIOI XAPTEBOTANIKHPOMOIEMETPIAAIPPOIEAPTHPIEEKEAOMEEO TH EHNH KAI TOY HIOYAPOKEYPAMOXOIMEEO TH HXPONOOIAINIKO TEIXOEPAMHNHH AOTAH TH EHNHOYPANIO XAPTHYHTO YAIYPOTPOXOIIEKTO ETOOI ZNE TH HAPMAKOOIAENEPEIA AO TON ATMOXAPTIEKENTPIKO YMANNTIAIO MYEOAEBPAAXHMEIAANABOEIXEIPAMAO

O M (476 - 1453)TPOYOIMETAIAPOTPO ME ANATPETHPAYPO YPOPEANHOIKO OYETAA AONMHENKAEAPKTIKO KYKOIANIAEPIAYXENIO AOOYPOIANIABINANIAOTIKHBAITPIANEO ATPOKOMHTHIPOYNIAEITEE ANTHPIEANEMOMYOIMANHTIKH YIAITBEPHAPABIKOI APIMOIAIANPAKAHAIOIOPTIKA YAIAYPITIAANHTIKOI INAKEMANHTIKOI OOIKATOTPAH A ANATOHANEMHAIKO TOOEIIKO OYAETAMENA OTAO KOMHTH TOY TZOTTOKANAPIOI NHOIANATOMIAMHXANIKA POOIAKANONIAKAPANTINAINIKO KEANOMAEPAAZOPEPOOTIKHYPOBOIKOAPKEBOYZIOKOIOI AKOI

H A E E (1454 - 1700)TYOPAIAEH TN KOMHTNAKPTHPIO TH KAH EIAO NEO KOMOMANHTIKH AOKIHYIHINIAAMEPIKHOPHTA POOIANOTIA AAAOPINTAMEIKOEPIOY TH HEPOYTPITOBAMIE EIEIOI OYPE TN KOMHTNOTAMO MIIIHOTAMO AMAZONIOHIOKENTPIKO YTHMANEE ANATOMIKE EPEYNEAPNHTIKOI APIMOIXEIPOYPIKHTPINOMETPIKOI INAKEANHTIKOI INAKEEYTAXIANH AIABOPEIOANATOIKO EPAMAOMOOIEOPYKTOOIAKANOEITHMONIKE ETAIPEIEMOYKETOAKOMIOI XAPTEYEPKAINOANHBOPEIOYTIKO EPAMAAOTAH TN KOMHTNEPAMA TOY NTPEKEKKPEMEIBHPIAPHOPIANO HMEPOOIOYPOTATIKHEKAIKOI APIMOITH TN MATNAOKPYTOPAHHEKTIKE MHXANEMIKPOKOIAAEBPIKA YMBOAEPMOMETPOAPXAIOOIAANATOIKE INIETO MEAINIKH AXHMEIAH H MANHTHEBIKE BABIETZEMTAOYNTHEKOIOKEMEKANHTIKE TPOXIEO AAIAEHNHIAAPOITHHIAKE KHIENEEMA TH ANPOMEAOAPIMOIMETABOIMOKOO TOY MAINH TOY YPOTAXYPOMIKE AMAEEITHMONIKH MEOOIAAHOAPIMIKOI KANONEAEPIAANHTIKOI INAKEBOY O PTOENHKYKOOPIA TOY AIMATOEITHMH KAI PHKEIAMANHTIKH AOKIHANAYTIKH EMETPIATO TEEYTAIO EPHMA TOY EPMAKOKTAYPONHMAKININHAPOITIKH MHXANHNOTIO EIPHNIKOBAPOMETPOAEPANTIEATMOAIPIKH IEH KAI YOMETPOYPOTATIKH IEHIOI ATEPEH HIKIA TH HONOMAIA EPIOXN TH EHNHEMAEIAEPIA TN IANOTHTNATMOAIPIKH IEHAKTYIO TOY KPONOYPOO ME EKKPEMETH TN MATNEPYPA AIMOAIPIAMEAH YPTHTPIXOEIH AEIATATIKO HEKTPIMOXHMIKA TOIXEIAOEOBAIKH IOPPOIANOMO TOY MOBAIIKH ETAIPEIAMEAH EPYPA KHIAKYTTAPOEPIAH TOY TOEPITPOH TN ANHTNAMA TOY TOIATHPHH TH OPMHABIOENEHKATOTPIKA THEKOIAAEIPOTIKO OIMOOPOAOIMATAIH IAAHTO XPMA TOY AIMATOIABHTHOI OPYOPOI TOY KPONOYH AOTAH TOY APHH TAXYTHTA TOY TOOI AKTYIOI TOY KPONOYMIKPOOPANIMOITA ATPA TOY NOTIOY HMIAIPIOYTEINA KYMATAXYTPE TAXYTHTAMYE KAI OTAIAMIONIA TA YTABAKTHPIAMEEO TH HANTATIKOI APIMOIMETEPOOIKO XAPTHTAINOMHH TN YTNOI NOMOI TH KINHHAKOMIA EHXHMA TH HYAOINAKETAINOMHH TN ZNYOOITIKE MHXANEINAKE NHIMOTHTAO IO TOY ANPAKPYXOYEITHMONIKA TAIIAOKO KAI EPMOKPAIA TN AEPINYAIKO YTHMA

O A (1701 - 1780)OI TPOXIE TN KOMHTNPEH TN YTNANAPTHH EATHPIN TI AMAETATIKO HEKTPIMOPOO YMOYKOK KAI IHPOTOYEKIATMOMHXANH NIOYKOMENEMBOIAMO KATA TH EYOIAYPAPYPIKO EPMOMETPOEKEIH TOY HIOYATPIKH KINHHNHO TOY AXAXPONOMETPO OIOYAOANHH TOY TOBEPIEIO OPMOOONTIATPIKHHEKTPIKH AIMOTHTAAXPMATIKOI AKOIIEH TOY AIMATOYO HEKTPIKA PEYTAITAMENH ATATO XHMA TH HTAINOMHHAHEI ANEMOIMHXANIKHKOBATIOKINHTIKH EPIA TN AEPINBPAXH OPHYPAKIMAKA KEIOYH EIKAIA TOY KONTMAXEPMATPA TOY PAKINOYYEPBATIKOI APIMOIOYOYNIKH AHNOAIMA KAI IHPOKOPBOYTOMHEYKOXPYOBIOOIKH EEIHXHMATIMO TH HNIKEIOEKYKOAIEIEAEIKEPAYNOEHH KAI EPMOTHTAIOEIIO TOY ANPAKAAAIAIMOIO KOMHTH TOY XAEOOMETPIKH OKIMHEMBPYOOIAEIMOIEPMOXPHTIKOTHTAAOOIAH ATMOAIPA TH APOITHEIKPOYHANANOYA EPMOTHTAEIKONIAHATMOMHXANHOYTNIMOYPOONONEYPAABIOENEHAYTPAIAAEPIOYXO NEPOOOTIKH XHMEIAKTIKH MHXANHOTAMO NEIOPEYMA TOY KOOYIAYTA AEPIANEEMATAYTA KAI IOEIIO TOY ANPAKAKAYHIAMANTIAZTOANTAPKTIKO KYKOBAKIOIOYONOXPIOYXOMATIKE AHEIAKTYITIAYEZYO TPEEMOYBENIOTA NHIA XABAHONIMOOIHHTOYNEHHEKTPIKH IEEPH

H B A E A (1781 - 1850)OYPANOIOI ATEPEKPYTAOPAIAKIH TOY AONA TOY APHATMOMHXANHMETABHTOI ATEPE EKEIEKINHH TOY HIOYANANOH KAI KAYHAEPOTATOBOPAMIOHAITEIAIETIAKOI AKOIYPOONO KAI NEPOOIKOI AOI TON APHAAKATEOYPIOMHNH KAI NEEMATAAAIAOMOIOMOPIMOOPEIBAIANOMO TOY KAI-YAKXHMIKH ONOMATOOIAATMOOIOAEBPA KAI MHXANIKHXHMIKH YENEIAOPYOPOIOEAIATHPHH TH MAZAOYPANIOBIOMHXANIKH EANATAHMETPIKO YTHMATITANIOOTAMO KOOYMIAEKKOKKITIKH MHXANHYXIATPEIAOI AKTE TH BOPEIA AMEPIKHNHI BANKOYBEPMETEPITEANIE AIEKONEPBOOIHH TPONAMAIMOYOEH TOY NEEMATOEKAETANOXPMIOAEITTOH MAZA TH HYKPITIKH ANATOMIAHYMIKH EEIHYPH AMMNIAANTAAKTIKA EAPTHMATABHPYIONOMO TN TAEPN ANAOINTPMATAAPEEIH THH TH POZETTAHEKTPIKH YTOIXIAIAAH TOY NEPOYYEPYPH AKTINOBOIATIMO ME TAEPIOPTOEIIO TOY AZTOYITOIYPHATO EYKOXPYOAPAEIO ZAKAPHMHTPAAONYAYEPIH AKTINOBOIATEINA KYMATANIOBIOATEPOEIEITANTAIOATOMIKH EPIAMETEPITEHMHTPIO, OMIO, IPIIOXPHH AEPOTATOY IA EITHMONIKOY KOOYATMAMAAOTAMO MIZOYPIMOPINHAAPAINHNATPIO KAI KAIOATMOOIOOMENO O MHXANIMO TH EEIHAEPOYNAMIKHEKEAOXPIOYOEH TOY ABOKANTPOIIOKATAYH ANTIPAENKATATPOIMOTO YMAN MHXANHXHMIKA YMBOATAINOMHH TN YTNAMATIKE PAMMEEIEO OH TOY TOOPANIKE PIZEYOEH TOY PAOYTKYPOTPTOI POMOITHOKOIOXPOYHKAMIO, IIO, EHNIOEKAPIA TEINA KYMATAO KOMHTH TOY ENKEATOMIKA BAPHEIIKH EPMOTHTAATMOOIO AAHHEKTPOMANHTIMOYKINHTEPIA THN ANTAPKTIKHEPIATIKA PAMATAHEKTPOENH KINHHAINOMENO ZEEMEKAETNEEPMIKH POHYOOITEPOBOIKH EMETPIAIOYANOOYIEPOYIKAOYTHTA TN ATPIKN YPNO EYKOXPYO KATAYTHIOMEPHYPOOIHH AEPINHEKTPOMANHTETIMENTO OPTANTAOOH ATMOMHXANHAOTAH TOY HIOYEIEI EMTOY BAMOYYPITIOATMAMAEAPIIOATPIKH EHKHPIAATIMATIMOMH EYKEIEIA EMETPIABPMIONOMO TOY MTPOBIOIPOTIKH EIKAAPIA TN HATIKNTAINOMHH TN TPONKINHH MPAOYNYNETIKH OYPIANTIAIA XOPHOPIOPIMA NIKOAXPMATIKO MIKPOKOIOEPIA TN OMANOMOIOMOPIMOHEKTPOENNHTPIEHEKTPOKINHTHPEIPTABOPEIO MANHTIKO OOYPHNA TOY KYTTAPOYIAXYHXPOOPMIOKYKNENOMOI TH HEKTPOYHIATAHEPITIKH MHXANHKYTTAPINHHPO AOAINOMENO KOPIOIEPITPOAEINHTHH NTANIEEOXH TN AETNNXPOYH KAI KYTTAPATPIXOTOMHH NIAAOTAH TN ATEPNKYTTAPIKH EPIAKYTTAPA MAIAPTENHKIKA MOPTOPAIATOPAHH TH EHNHKAOYTOYKHEKTPIKO TOIXEIO KAYIMOYANTAPKTIKHTPAEZA AOY TOY POOHATOANANIOEPMOXHMEIAOZONYNTIMOAPNHTIKO TOPAIAOO ME EIKPOYTHPAEIPMA BIAXHMIKO IAMAAINOMENO NTOEPKPANIAKO EIKTHMHXANIKO IOYNAMO TH EPMOTHTAKYKO TN HIAKN KHINTETPAEANTEPH ANAYTIKH EMETPIAEYPA XOYHTTOOYNYEPKEANEIOTHEPAO YNOO TOY EIPIOYATPAIAEIPOEIH NEEMATAMONIMA AEPIAANAIHIAOEINAHAITOKPYTAIKH AYMMETPIAPTOAMAHNOEIH PAHPATOMHXANHIATHPHH TH ENEPEIAEIOXEIO YPETOANYNO TOKETONITPOYKEPINHYMBOIKH OIKHPAIMATA AO APYPOAOYTO MHENNEEMA TOY KAPKINOYMETATOIH AMATIKN PAMMNTAXYTHTA TOY TOOPIO PONEYPIKE INEEYTEPO NOMO TH EPMOYNAMIKHYEPYPA KYMATA

T E A (1851 - 1894)EPITPOH TH HAPIH KAI OYMBPIHAINOMENO TZAOY-TOMONENOYPOKOIOOI HIAKE KHIE KAI H HANEKYTHPEHIKIA TOY HIOYANEMOTEPOKHPOZINHXOEPAMEO-ATANTIKH YAOPPAXHMH EYKEIEIA EMETPIAYNAMIKE PAMMEHNE KAEPEIMOPAOYPOYINHYKOONOXAYBAYNETIKE BAEANPO TOY NEANTEPTAATEPIHOI AKTYIOI TOY KPONOYEEIH ME TH YIKH EIOHOMH TN OPANIKN MOPINKYTTAPOAOOIAYEIAHEKTPIMO TO KENOETPEAIOHEYPEYTHAMATIKE PAMME KAI TOIXEIAHIAKE EKAMEIKINHTIKH EPIA TN AEPINABIOENEHOPANIKH YNEHMHXANH ETEPIKH KAYEHIAKE POEOXEH YOEH TOY ABOKANTPOMEAN MAAPXAIOTEPYEIKA TOY MPOKAAIOMIKPOBIAKH EPIA TN AENEINAMYPO YNOO TOY EIPIOYYPOONO TON HIOXPOATEH HH TOY EYKOY NEIOYPAKIMENA OEMIKA OIAOYBOA OAAIMOAIPINHAINOMENO EPMOKHIOYNOMO TN OKTANYNEH TN ATEPNBAPBITOYPIKAINIOH YH TOY NEEMATO TOY PINAENETIKHBENZOIKO AKTYIOAPIMO TOY ABOKANTPOA XEIPOYPIKHOI EIEI TOY MAOYETAINIA TOY MEMIOYKYINPIKE KEIAPIEYNAMITIAKINIKO EPMOMETPOXAMATA KEPKOYNTIHPO TON YPHNA TH HYTAH ENO KAINOANOYHPO TOIXEIOPAOMHXANENOMO PAE TN MAZNAEPOEHHIONANPO TOY KPO-MANIONBAYBIOI OPANIMOIEPIOIKO YTHMA TN TOIXEINNOYKEKO OYKPIIMH EPMOKPAIABIOEPAIANHIIA TOY ANKEPXANKEOYOTHTHEPAO XPHMATITHPIOYTPOIAEEIH TOY ANPOYHPE TOPAIKE AKEOIKIIE YTNIAMEBAKTHPIOOIAATPIKH TOPAIAEIPAMATIKH YXOOIANOMOI TN AEPINEPAYEPBATIKOI APIMOIAIMOETAIAAIOTETPAEPIKO ATOMO ANPAKAYEPEEPAMENOI APIMOIHEKTPIKO PEYMA KAI KPYTAOIONIMOOIHHPAIOMETPOTHENOTETPAXPONO KINHTHPAXHMIKH EPMOYNAMIKHKAIEPEIA BAKTHPINKAOIKE AKTINEMEEO TN PTENNYPO OYONONOPAOOI IPYE TOY APHOI OPYOPOI TOY APHENZYMAEOXIKE AOEEIYTTEPBIOHEKTPIKO POEEYH TH EHNHAKXAPINHKANIOOYIO, OMIO KAI AMAPIOEPMOTHTA KAI AKTINOBOIAEONOIATOPAHH NEEMATNEIMOPAOAOINIOAYNEIHTOHEKTPOMHXANIKO YOOITHOPTIMENE KAOIKE AKTINEYHH IEHIEZOHEKTPIMOYMBOOMETPOEMBOIAMO KATA TOY ANPAKANEYMONIOKOKKOBENEIO IAPAMMAXPMATINHTAXYTHTA TOY TOEPIATIKA PAMATAYMATIHO YEPBATIKO APIMO KPAMA XAYBAENAAOMENO PEYMAAINOMENO ENTIONPEIONMEIHAOKYTTAPAIEPITIAOYBOO MAIMEYONIKHEPMOTHTA KAI EPMOKPAIAHEKTPOYTIKH IATAHOMH TN AKXAPNKOKANHXPH BAKTHPINATMOTPOBIOINOTYIKH MHXANHTYOPAOYAOYPINE KAI YPIMIINEPAEOYMIO KAI NEOYMIOMANYA BEMAXMETAXHMATITHAYTOKINHTOAKTYIKA AOTYMATAAOYMINIOEPMANIOOPIOYPOIOIAYIKE AKTINENOMO TOY PAOYEMEYH TOY AZTOYTO EIPAMA MAKEON-MOPYTOHEKTPIKO AINOMENOAPIMO TOY MAXEATIKO EITPOPAIOKYMATAAPXH TOY E ATEIEXPMOMAAOKAYMMA TH POIANIAIAOH TH TOPAIANEYPNIKH EPIATETANOAIMATIKHENEPEIA ENEPOOIHHAMATOKOIK IOI ATEPEEPITPOH TOY EPMHXOPITIAANTITOINHO ANPO TH IABAAMATOHIOPAOXEIPOYPIKA ANTIATOPAHH ATEPOEINBAPYTIKH KAI APANEIAKH MAZAEMEIH MONAA HEKTPIMOYANPAKOKOPOYNIOANEMOTEPAAMAEIAIEH TOY TOYTOH ITZEPANTOXEIO NTIOYAPYXANAYHYPETO TN BOOEINMHKH KYMATO KAI EPMOKPAIAENAAOMENO PEYMAAPKTIKO KEANOAPON

A (1895 - 1945)AKTINE XMATIIA KAOIKN AKTINNTAXYTHTA KAI MAZAHIO THN HMANHTIMO KAI EPMOTHTAPAIOKEPAIEAKTINOBOIA TOY OYPANIOYTEPHTIKA NOHMATA KAI MANHTIMOYPAMATA KAI ENZYMAAKOYTIKHTO HEKTPONIO YOATOMIKO MATIIOAKTINOBOIA TOY OYPANIOYAKTINOBOIE AA KAI BHTATO NIKEIO KATAYTHKOYNOYIA KAI EONOIAAMOPAOMEAO IAATIKO THEKOIOKINHTHPA NTHZEONIO KAI PAIONEON, KPYTON KAI ENONYPO YPOONOOIBHEPIHHTO IOMITOXONPIAEINEPINHYOBPYXIOAKTINIOOIKH KAI EMETPIATEPEO YPOONOKBANTAAYHH TH MAZAMATIIA BHTAAKTINE AMMAPAONIOMETATOIXEIH TN ATOMNEKOMH HEKTPONINMETAAEIOMAE AIMATOKITPINO YPETOONEIPAPYTOANHEEYEPE PIZEHAIOYXOYMENO AEPOTATOKNOENEPEIA TH PAIENEPOY AKTINOBOIAPAIOEIKOINNIAEYPIOANTIPATHPIA KPINIAPXPMOMATA KAI KHPONOMIKOTHTAEKKPIMATINHKHPONOMIKOTHTA TN ZNANAYAKTIKO OKYPPAH TPAYMATNEIPA TN PAIENEPN TOIXEINTOHEKTPIKO AINOMENO KAI HEKTPONIATPMA KENNEY-XEBIANTTPATOAIPAYMBOIKH OIKH KAI MAHMATIKAYEPMIKPOKOIOAEPOANOIATHMIKH THHHEKTPOKAPIOPAHMAHEKTPONIKO ANOPTHOMH TOY ATOMOYYNENZYMAOPANIKOI IXNHETENOBOKANHATPIKA PEYMATAOI ETEPIKOI OPYOPOI TOY IAEIIKH EPIA TH XETIKOTHTAMAZA-ENEPEIATOHEKTPIKO AINOMENO KAI KBANTAKINHH MPAOYN KAI MEEO TN ATOMNXPMA KAI ATPIKH TEINOTHTAYOEH TN ANHTOEINENIAMEA METABOIKA POONTAOPMONEYNEH XAPAKTHPITIKNYHH IEHEIKTH NOHMOYNHPAIOKYMATA KAI HXOTPIOOTPIKOI ATEPOEIEIMATIIA AAXAPAKTHPITIKE AKTINE XTPITO NOMO TH EPMOYNAMIKHH ENNOIA TN BITAMINNMANHIO KAI XPOYHXPMATOPAIAPAIENEPEIA KAI HPAIOXPONOOHHOYTETIOYNETIKA ETIIAXHMEIOEPAEIAPOOIAKAIEPEIA ITNEAPTHMENH ANTIPAHXPOXPONOMEEO TOY ATOMOYYPOOIHH TOY HIOYMETPHTH KAKEPHIAKE KHIE KAI MANHTIMOPIKETIEYNAPMOOHH EN EIPAMEOO XAMEPYIHTYOPIBOZHONIIANHMA BOPAMIOYBAKEITHAYNEXEIA MOXOPOBITITBOPEIO OOYOYNETA XAPAKTHPITIKAMAHMATIKA KAI OIKHYPHNA TOY ATOMOYAAMO NEEOPTIO TOY HEKTPONIOYKOMIKH AKTINOBOIAYEPAIMOTHTAXPMOMIKOI XAPTEOKOONO IOEIMOI KAI PHMATAYPOANANOTIO OOAYTOMATO EKKINHTHPAKHEIETAXYTHTA NEEMATNMETATOIH TN HEIPNEPIAH AKTINN XOIKIIE NEONIOIKH POHBITAMINEYPOONH TOY AIANPAKAIOTOAIOTOA TOY MOYBOYKBANTIH TN TPOXIN TOY HEKTPONIOYHNA KOYITZAMTHPE AZTOYAINOMENO TAPKAOTAH TN NEN TOY MAEANOYOZONOAIPABITAMINE A KAI BEIH MIKAEI-MENTENYKOYHATOMIKO APIMOMHKO KYMATO AKTINN XIONTA KAI KPYTAOIENEPEIA MATIIN BHTAPTONIOKYPIA AKOOYIAEYKOI NANOIIA IXAKETYOXOINHMANYA KAI YPHNA TH HMEXABIOPIMOEAPAYPEOINHBAKTHPIOAOIEEITIKE TPOXIE TN HEKTPONINMETATPOH YPOONOY E HIONENIKH EPIA TH XETIKOTHTAMAYPE TPYEHEKTPONIA KAI XHMIKOI EMOIYEPETEPOYNO EKTHIATOH TOY YMANTOMIKPOKPYTAIKH EPIAHTHEKOIO 2,54 METPNPTAKTINIOONAPTO KENTPO TOY AAIAAMATIKOI TYOIPAIENEPOI IXNHETEOPANTEAMATOPAO MAZAYPHNIKH ANTIPAHEKTPOH TOY TO AO THN BAPYTHTAEIKOINNIA TN MEINIAMETPO TN ATEPNKAINOANEI THN ANPOMEAIAOENPOXPONOOHHKIMATIKOI KYKOIANAIMIAAEPIE MAZEINOYINHAKETYOXOINHPAXITIAOYTAIONHMANHTPOTETPAAIYIOYXO MOYBOETPEH KAI ETPEH TYOOKIMAIA POPAXOYMEPIAO TAO TOY TOYTAXAMNBITAMINH EAYHTIKH OPMONHYOZYMHPOEEYH TH ZHNEYPIKE INEIATOH TOY YMANTOMATIIAKH YH TN KYMATNKYMATIKH YH TN MATIINEIEI NTEMA-XOYKEOEOBAIKA ZEYHOMH YNENZYMOYKHEIE THN ANPOMEAANIOYKEYH YEPYOKENTPHHAYTPAOIHKOTATITIKH 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