Πάπυροι Επιστημονικό ΠεριοδικόThe Complete Greek Tragedies, Euripides I,...

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Πάπυροι - Επιστημονικό Περιοδικό τόμος 4, 2015 Papyri - Scientific Journal volume 4, 2015 Between Two Realms: Justice and Obligation in Medea Ανάμεσα σε δύο Βασίλεια: Δικαιοσύνη και Υποχρέωση στη Μήδεια CHRISTOPHER VASILLOPULOS, Professor, Eastern Connecticut State University, USA ΧΡΙΣΤΟΦΟΡΟΣ ΒΑΣΙΛΟΠΟΥΛΟΣ, Καθηγητής, Eastern Connecticut State University. Η.Π.Α. Email: [email protected] Θεσσαλονίκη 2015 Thessaloniki 2015 ISSN:2241-5106

Transcript of Πάπυροι Επιστημονικό ΠεριοδικόThe Complete Greek Tragedies, Euripides I,...

Page 1: Πάπυροι Επιστημονικό ΠεριοδικόThe Complete Greek Tragedies, Euripides I, Chicago, 1955 Πάπυροι - Επιστημονικό Περιοδικό Papyri

Πάπυροι - Επιστημονικό Περιοδικό τόμος 4, 2015 Papyri - Scientific Journal volume 4, 2015

Between Two Realms: Justice and Obligation in Medea Ανάμεσα σε δύο Βασίλεια: Δικαιοσύνη και Υποχρέωση στη Μήδεια CHRISTOPHER VASILLOPULOS, Professor, Eastern Connecticut State University, USA ΧΡΙΣΤΟΦΟΡΟΣ ΒΑΣΙΛΟΠΟΥΛΟΣ, Καθηγητής, Eastern Connecticut State University. Η.Π.Α. Email: [email protected]

Θεσσαλονίκη 2015 – Thessaloniki 2015 ISSN:2241-5106

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BetweenTwoRealms:JusticeandObligationinMedea

ΑνάμεσασεδύοΒασίλεια:ΔικαιοσύνηκαιυποχρέωσηστηΜήδεια

CHRISTOPHERVASILLOPULOSΧΡΙΣΤΟΦΟΡΟΣΒΑΣΙΛΟΠΟΥΛΟΣ

AbstractTheachievementoftheAeschyleanreconciliationorattheleastconflictresolutionofthecom‐

petingconceptionsofjusticepersonifiedbytheOldandtheNewGods,whichculminatestheEumeni‐des,amountstothediscoveryofthepolitical. Theneedsof thepolis,definedasacitizenrywhobe‐lievedtheaffairsofthestatewereattheirdisposal,nowdominatetheotherwiseimplacableandliteralrequirementsoftheolddispensation.Withoutquestioningthelegitimacyofthepre‐politicalconcep‐tionof justice, conceived as revenge and retribution,whichbindsOrestes,Aeschylus confounds thedemandsoftheFuriesandintheprocesslegitimatesanewjuris/politicalorder.Essentially,byinsti‐tuting a trial,whose jury is twelve citizens, Aeschylus substitutes a new conception of justice, nowconceivedas“dueprocess.”

ThescarequotesareneededbecauseAthenaremainspartoftheprocedure.Withthisqualifi‐cation,nowjustice iswithinthepolisandsoaretheFuries in theirnewguiseastheWell‐Disposed.WiththeindispensablehelpofAthena,indefianceofApollo,Atheniansarenolongerobjectsofthede‐structivecycleofrevengeandretributionwhichcharacterizedpre‐politicalconceptionofjustice. Todemonstratethepossibilitiesofthisnewformofjustice,Athenawhileofferinghergoodoffices,caststhedeterminingvoteinOrestes’trial.Thereismoretothisthanagoddessbiasingaverdict.Whatal‐lowsthepoliticalemergefromherperhapsshoddypractice is theundeniableneedtotranscendab‐solutistnotionsofjustice,tointerposespacebetweentheevent/responsecycleforpragmatichumanconcerns.Justicebecomespoliticized,thatis,becomesaccountabletothedecisionalmodesoftheciti‐zenry, ifnotentirelyintheirhands. IntheMedeaEuripidesoffersacomplexandperhapslesscom‐promisingvariantofjuris/politicalconflictresolution.Hetriestoallowfortheuntransformedpres‐enceoftheimplacable,butwithoutthegods,OldorNew.Byappreciatingthesubstantiveandthepro‐ceduralpropertiesofobligation,Euripidessuggestawaytoretaintheirrationalpre‐politicalsenseofjusticewithoutitspropertyofthecycleofretributionandwithoutasenseofjusticecompromisedduetohumanpragmatics. Euripidesisnotsuggestingthatinthiscase, it isnotprudenttoapplytheoldconceptionofjustice.HeindicatesthattheOldcannotbedispensedwith;echoingthetransformationoftheFuriesintotheWell‐disposed,butneedsanewguise.TheobligationtokeeppromisesbecomesthefunctionalequivalentofanAbsolute.Againstthisstandard,theprudentialargumentsofJasoncan‐notprevail.No trial ensues, as inEumenides,neverthelessEuripides’sobvious sympathy forMedeaandhisdisgustwith Jasonsuggests that should shehavebeen tried, amore sophisticatedandpolisfriendlyresultwouldhaveresulted.ButsinceMedeacouldnotgettoAthens,thetrialbecomesmoot.SherevertstoherpersonaasagoddessoftheOlddispensation.Inanimportantsense,sheappliestheoldconceptionofjusticeagainstherhumanpersonaaswellasJason.EuripidessuggeststhatanAthe‐nianpolisandcitizenrycouldhaveavoidedthiscatastrophebecauseitmighthaveunderstoodhiscon‐ceptionofjustice,whereintheimplacablebecomespoliticizedwithoutlosingitspowerasanabsolute.

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ΠερίληψηΗεπίτευξητηςσυμφιλίωσηςτουΑισχύλουήτουλάχιστονηεπίλυσητωνσυγκρούσεωντων

ανταγωνιστικώναντιλήψεωντηςδικαιοσύνηςπουπροσωποποιείταιαπότουςΘεούςτηςΠαλαιάςκαιτηςΚαινήςΔιαθήκης,ηοποίακορυφώνεταιστονΕυμενίδη,ισοδυναμείμετηνανακάλυψητηςπολιτι‐κής.Οιανάγκεςτηςπόλεως,πουορίζεταιωςπολιτείαηοποίαπίστευεότιοιυποθέσειςτουκράτουςήτανστηδιάθεσή τους, κυριαρχούνσήμεραστιςάλλοτεαδυσώπητεςκαικυριολεκτικέςαπαιτήσειςτηςπαλαιάςεξαίρεσης.Χωρίςνααμφισβητείτηνομιμότητατηςπρο‐πολιτικήςαντίληψηςτηςδικαιο‐σύνης,πουγίνεταικατανοητήωςεκδίκησηκαιτιμωρία,ηοποίασυνδέεταιμετονΟρέστη,οΑισχύλοςσυγχέει τις απαιτήσεις των Ερινύων και στη διαδικασία νομιμοποιεί μια νέα δικαστική / πολιτικήτάξη.Ουσιαστικά,μέσωτηςκαθιέρωσηςενόςδικαστηρίου,τουοποίουοικριτέςείναιοιδώδεκαπολί‐τες,οΑισχύλοςαντικαθιστάμιανέααντίληψητηςδικαιοσύνης,ηοποίατώρανοείταιως«νόμιμηδι‐αδικασία».

Ταεισαγωγικάθεωρούνταιαναγκαία, επειδήηΑθηνάπαραμένειμέροςτηςδιαδικασίας.Μετοντίτλοαυτό,τώραηδικαιοσύνηείναιμέσαστηνπόληκαιέτσιείναιοιΕρινύεςστονέοπροσωπείοτουςωςκαλοπροαίρετες.ΜετηναπαραίτητηβοήθειατηςΑθηνάς,στηνπεριφρόνησητουΑπόλλωνα,οιΑθηναίοιδενείναιπλέοναντικείμενατουκαταστροφικούκύκλουτηςεκδίκησηςκαιτωναντιποί‐νων,πουχαρακτηρίζεταιωςπρο‐πολιτικήαντίληψητηςδικαιοσύνης.Γιανααποδείξειτιςδυνατότη‐τεςαυτήςτηςνέαςμορφήςτηςδικαιοσύνης,τηςΑθηνάς,ενώπροσφέρειτιςκαλέςυπηρεσίεςτης,ορί‐ζειτονκαθορισμότηςψηφοφορίαςστηδίκητουΟρέστη.Υπάρχειπερισσότεροσεαυτόαπόό,τιμιαθεάμεπροκατάληψηγιατηνετυμηγορία.Αυτόπουεπιτρέπειηπολιτικήίσωςπροκύψειαπότηνκα‐κήςποιότηταςπρακτικήπουείναιηαδιαμφισβήτητηανάγκηναυπερβούμεαπολυταρχικές έννοιεςτηςδικαιοσύνης,γιαναπαρεμβάλειτοδιάστημαμεταξύτουκύκλουεκδήλωσης/απόκρισηςγιαρεα‐λιστικές ανθρώπινες ανησυχίες. Η Δικαιοσύνη γίνεται πολιτικοποιημένη, δηλαδή, γίνεται υπόλογηστουςτρόπουςλήψηςαποφάσεωντηςπολιτών,ανόχιεξολοκλήρουσταχέριατους.ΣτηΜήδειατουΕυριπίδηπροσφέρειμιασύνθετηκαιίσωςλιγότεροσυμβιβαστικήπαραλλαγήτωνδικαστικών/επί‐λυσητωνπολιτικώνσυγκρούσεων.Προσπαθείναεπιτρέπειτημημεταμορφωμένηπαρουσίατουςωςαδυσώπητη,αλλάχωρίςτουςθεούς,τηςΠαλαιάςκαιΚαινήςΔιαθήκης.Μεεκτίμησητιςουσιαστικέςκαιεπίτωνδιαδικαστικώνιδιότητεςτηςυποχρέωσης,οΕυριπίδηςπροτείνειέναντρόπογιαναδια‐τηρήσει την παράλογη προ‐πολιτική έννοια της δικαιοσύνης, χωρίς την ιδιότητα του κύκλου τωνανταποδόσεωνκαιχωρίςτηναίσθησητηςδικαιοσύνηςσεκίνδυνο,λόγωτηςανθρώπινηςπραγματο‐λογίας.ΟΕυριπίδηςδενυποδηλώνειότιστηνπροκειμένηπερίπτωση,δενείναιφρόνιμοναεφαρμο‐στείηπαλιάαντίληψητηςδικαιοσύνης.ΥποδηλώνειότιοιΠαλιοίΘεοίδενμπορούννακαταργηθούν,απηχώνταςτημετατροπήτωνΕρινύωνσεκαλοπροαίρετες,αλλάαπαιτώνταςένανέοπρόσχημα.Ηυποχρέωσηνατηρήσουντιςυποσχέσειςγίνεταιτολειτουργικό ισοδύναμοενόςαπόλυτου. Ενάντιασεαυτότοπρότυπο,ταεπιχειρήματατουσυνετούΙάσοναδενμπορούνναεπικρατήσουν.Δενπροκύ‐πτειδίκη, όπωςκαιστονΕυμενίδη,παρόλααυτά,παράτοότιηπροφανήσυμπάθειατουΕυριπίδηστηΜήδειακαιηαποστροφήτουστονΙάσοναδείχνειότιθαπρέπειαυτήναέχειδοκιμάσει,μιαπιοεξελιγμένηκαιφιλικήΠόλιςθαπροέκυπτεωςαποτέλεσμα.ΑλλάδεδομένουότιηΜήδειαδενθαμπο‐ρούσεναφτάσειστηνΑθήνα,ηδίκηκαθίσταταιάνευσημασίας.ΑυτήεπανέρχεταιστηνπερσόνατηςωςθεάτηςΠαλαιάςΔιαθήκης.Σεμιασημαντικήέννοια,εφαρμόζειτηνπαλιάαντίληψητηςδικαιοσύ‐νης ενάντια στην ανθρώπινη προσωπικότητα της όπως και ο Ιάσονας. Ο Ευριπίδης δείχνει ότι μιααθηναϊκή πόλη και οι πολιτεία θα μπορούσαν να έχουν αποφύγει αυτή την καταστροφή, διότι θαμπορούσανναέχουνκατανοήσειτησύλληψητηςδικαιοσύνης,όπουτοαδιάλλακτογίνεταιπολιτικο‐ποιημένο,χωρίςναχάσειτηνεξουσίατουωςαπόλυτο.

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Introduction Whatheavenlypowerlendsanear Toabreakerofoaths,adeceiver?Medea 1391‐2 1

I. TheEumenidesandMedea:RevengeandRetribution As a tribute to the power and necessity of political reconciliation, the EumenidesstandsinstarkcontrasttoMedea. InsteadofacelebrationinwhichGods,oldandnew,andmen,ordinaryandheroic,beginanewmodeoflife,freefromthecycleofrevengeandretribu‐tion,Medeaculminateswithamotherkillingherchildrenandherapotheosis,acelebrationofthepoweroftheOldGodsoverafaithlesshumanrealm.Tosuggestthatbothareplaysaboutpoliticalreconciliationmayseemfarfetched,excepttoviewMedeaasanexampleofaworldinwhichreconciliationplaysnopart.FromanAeschyleanperspective,Medearepresentswhathastobeovercome,hastobetransformed.Asaself‐confessedandimplacableFury,capableof themostheinousacts,Medea incarnates the implacabilityof theOldGodsand inevitablecatastrophe.OnthisreadingMedeaisacautionarytale:iftheFuriesarenottransformedintothe"Well‐Disposed",iftheAthenianconceptionofthepoliticalisnotabletobreakthecycleofrevenge and retribution, one divinely sanctioned crimewould follow another until the lastvictim'sheirperishes. Euripides, intheviewofthisessay,doesmorethandeliveranAeschyleancautionbymeansofaheroineturnedmonster.EuripidesamendstheAeschyleantermsofpoliticalrec‐onciliation,bysuggestingthatAeschylus'appreciationofthepoliticalisinsufficientlysophis‐ticatedtomaintaintheAthenianpoliticalorder.ItisessentialbringtheOldGods—or,moreprecisely,thehumanmotives,forces,orenergiestheypersonify—intotheNewOrderwithouttransformingthemandwithoutundercuttingtheirbasisinunreason,whilemakingthempartofajuris/politicalprocess.Inotherwords,AthensneedstheOldGodsandtheNew.Euripi‐des'conceptionofthepoliticalthusiscomprisedofanuneasymixtureoftheoldandthenew,the implacableand thereasonable, therationaland the irrational, the justand theprudent.By contrasting this understanding ofMedeawith Eumenides, it becomes apparent that Eu‐ripidesdiffersfromhisgreatpredecessor.Euripides'conceptionofthepoliticalresolvescon‐flictbyincorporatingbothsubstantiveandproceduralnotionsofjusticetousemoderntermi‐nology.Significantly,itdoesnotrequiredivinepresencetoworkproperly. Theplanoftheessayisasfollows:SectionIIoutlinesmyreadingofTheOresteiaandthediscoveryofthepolitical.SectionIIIpresentsatexturalanalysisofMedeaastheheroinestruggled between the conflicts of hermanifold nature: the human and the divine, theHo‐mericandchthonic,law‐abidingwifeandmotherandthechild‐killer.SectionIVexploreshowobligationservedtopoliticizetheimplacable. SectionVreassessesthediscussionofSectionIVinanefforttoexplicateEuripides'understandingofthejusticeasanoutcomeofaproperlyworkingjuris/politicalprocess.For the sake of the polis as a whole, the cycle of hubris and punishmentmust be broken.ChristianMeier2

1AllquotationsfromtheWarnertranslationofMedea.Thenumberswithinbracketsindicatelinesfromthetext.Grene,D.&Lattimore,R.,TheCompleteGreekTragedies,EuripidesI,Chicago,1955

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II. TheEumenidesandtheDiscoveryofthePolitical AlthoughtheEumenidesbeginswithaprayertotheEarthandThemis,twopre‐Olym‐picdeities,ApolloinhisfirstlinesdoesnottrytoconcealhiscontemptfortheOldGods,call‐ingthem"lewdcreatures","repulsivemaidens","grayandagedchildren,theywithwhomnomortalman,norgod,norevenbeast,willhavetodo" 67‐70 .TheFuriesself‐assessmentdiffered: Weholdwearestraightandjust.Ifaman Canspreadhishandsandshowtheyareclean, Nowrathofoursshalllurkforhim. Unscathedhewalksthroughhislifetime. Butonelikethismanbeforeus,withstained Hiddenhands,andtheguiltuponhim, Shallfindusbesidehim,aswitnesses Ofthetruth,andweshowclearintheend Toavengethebloodofthemurdered. 311‐20 SosecurearetheFuriesthattheyactinaccordancewithjusticethey"delegate"theirauthority to avengematricide toAthena,whowithmock incredulity asks: "Youwould turnover authority in this case tome?" 434 By the very establishment of the court AthenaerodestheFuries'power—theircapacitytoactwasnowcontingentuponatrial—yettheyarenot so foolish, as they quicklymake clear. ShouldOresteswin theywill become agents ofchaos,punishingnotonlyOrestesbutalsoAthens: WearetheAngryOnes.Butwe Shallwatchnomoreoverworks Ofmenandsoact.Weshall Letlooseindiscriminatedeath. 499‐506 ThustheFuriesbelievetheyretainalleffectivepower,despiteacquiescingtoAthena’swishes.The case is clear, their cause just, and their power complete should the verdict not reflectOrestes'obviousandincontestableguilt. Noone,notevenOrestes,deniestheonlyrelevantfact:hekilledhismother. TheFuriesdonotunderstandthatanewforceisemerging,which,ifitdoesnothavethepowertopreventtheirreignof"indiscriminatedeath",doeshavethepowertotransformtheirnature,or,moreprecisely, toconvincethemof thewisdomofsodoing. The transfor‐mationoftheFuries intotheEumenidesmarksthefinal takeoveroftheNewGods,becausetheOldGodsarenowsubject albeitbyvirtueoftheircompliance tothepowerwhichflowsfromthereconciliationofpoliticalmanandOlympiandeity.TheiractionsarenowcontingentuponaviolationoftheNewOrder,notmerelyuponaviolationoftheOldLaws.3

2ChristianMeier,TheGreekDiscoveryofPolitics,trans.DavidMcClintock, Cambridge:Harvard,1990,p.100 putsitthisway:"Theoldlaw,withitsimplacableinsistenceonpunishment,issevereand terrible. It affords no prospectofbreaking the curse thathangsover thehouseofAtreusandobligesOrestes toavengehis fatherbykillinghismother.Theconsequenceisanendlesschainofcrimeandpunishment—orcrimeandrevenge.TheErinyesdoallintheirpowertoensurethatthelawisenforced....Athena,ontheotherhand,maintainsthatitisaquaestiojuris:thequestionsheasksiswhetherornotOrestes'deedwasjust,andtoanswerthisquestionacourtoflawisneededtoassessthefactsofthecase."MyviewsaregreatlyindebtedtoMeier'sbrilliantanalysis.Wheretheydepartwillbemadeclearinthetext. 3. Consider his fuller definition. Meier, op. cit., p.4: "The political denotes a field of association and dissociation,namelythefieldorambienceinwhichpeopleconstituteorderswithinwhichtheylivetogetheramongthemselves andsetthemselvesapartfromothers.Itisatthesametimethefieldinwhichdecisionsaremadeaboutorderand

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How is this transformation effected? According toMeier, thenecessarilyunsatisfac‐tory nature of the pre‐political justice necessitates the discovery of the political. Definedsimplyasthecircumstancesunderwhicheverypublicmatter,includingwhatgetssodefined,isatthedisposalofthecitizenry.4Onlybysubsumingwithinthepolis thatis,thedecisionsofthecitizenry divinelydetermined,event/responsejusticecanthecycleofrevengeandretri‐butionbebroken.Judicialprocessreplacesthesimpleascertainingofthefacts,thedesigna‐tionoftheircriminalnatureandpromptpunishment.Factsbecomelegalfacts,relevantevi‐dence. CriminalitybecomesamuchricherconceptthanAdidx,xisprohibited,thereforeAcommittedacrime,thereforepunishmentiswarranted.Operationally,thetrialanditsproce‐duresinterjectspaceandtimebetweentheactandtheappropriatelegalresponse.Intothisspace/timeflowreason,politicalconsiderations,emotions,andalltheotherelementshumanconflictshortofviolence. Thecourt,however,isnotamechanismforproducingjustice,atleastnotinanarrowlyconceiveddueprocesssenseorinthepre‐politicalGreeksenseofrevengeandretribution.InAthena’shandsitisapoliticalagency.Thisisthesignificanceoftheequallydivided jurywhich freesOrestes,Athenaproviding thedecisive vote. "Athena’s decision ispartial,forsheexpresslystatesthat,havingnomotherherself,sheisboundtosidewiththemale—whichmeanssheisobligedtosidewiththeneworder,andhencewithOrestes....Itisclear, then, that forAeschylusAthena’s deciding vote is simply part of the decision‐makingprocess. It cannotbe taken to guarantee the rightnessof thedecisionor the infallibilityofjudgment."5Thetrialwillbediscussedbelow.HereitsufficestoseeAthenaasresolvingthedisputeinfavorofthenewandagainsttheoldcycleofrevengeandretribution."AtonepointAthenareproachestheErinyes,saying,`Youwouldratherbecalledjustthanactjustly' 430 .Anewandgenuinejustice,associatedwiththepolisanditsinstitutions,istoreplacetheold."6ForMeier,thisresolutionofthematter,despiteahungjuryandabiaseddecisionbyAthena,implied the discovery of the political. It was this reconsideration of otherwise implacablecombatantswhichsignifiedthediscoveryofthepolitical. The inability of a juridical proceeding to provide justice and thereby reconcile theinjunctionsoftheGodstohumanunderstanding ortheconflictsofhumanfactions impliestheneedforanothermodeofreconciliation. TheEumenides isAeschylus'attempttobreakthedeadlockwhichwouldotherwisecontinuetofuelrevengeandretribution.HisapproachispremisedontheinabilityofhumanstoachievejusticeevenwiththehelpoftheGods,alt‐houghit issuggestedthatthe juridicalprocesshastobeapplied, ifonlytodemonstratethetruthofthispremiseinagivencase.Asthepreferredsolution,justicehadtobeshowntobeunavailable.Onlythencouldanimperfectsolutionbelegitimate."Itisonlythroughthiscon‐frontationoftwopointsofview,bothequallyone‐sided,thatanewlawemergesthatfinallybreaks the self‐perpetuating vengeance... Given the extremepositions takenby both sides,

delimitation,aswellasotherquestionsofcommoninterest,and inwhichthere isacontentionforpositionsfromwhichthesedecisionscanbeinfluenced." 4.Meier,op.cit.,p.91:"WhatAeschylusdepictsintheOresteiarepresentsagreatadvanceinthehistoryofcivilization:theineluctablesequenceofself‐perpetuatingrevengeyieldstothelawofthepolis,self‐helptocitizenship,andthehigh‐handedpowerofthehouseortheindividualtothesovereigntyofthecity.Nothinglesswasinvolvedthantheestablishmentofthepolisasanentitythattranscendsallparticularistforces."Itshouldbeaddedthatthepolis,thatis,thecitizenry,whichdetermineswhatisconsidered"particularist". 5Meier,op.cit.,p.1076Meier,op.cit.,p.101

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eachmustberightandwrong.Obviouslybothweremeanttobehaveatfirstlikepoliticalfac‐tions."7 At this impasse another question forces itself upon the adversaries. "What wouldservethepolis,notwhichsidewascorrector intheright?" StatesmanshipisAthena'sgoal,notjustice.Athenabrakesthecycleofrevengebyremovingdivineconceptionsofjusticefromtheagendaandreplacingitwithtransformedroleswithinthepolis.Shethenmovestobreakthedeadlockoffaction.Humanjustice thatis,absolutepreferenceforparticularistrule alsohastoberemovedfromtheagenda.TheechoesofCleisthenesresoundinAeschylus'appealto thepoliticalorderovertheheadsof factions. "Howeversoundthereasons thatpersuadetheindividualtovoteinaparticularway,theultimatedecisionlieswiththemajorityandthisdecisionisbinding,eventhoughitmaynotnecessarilyrestoncompellingarguments.AsAes‐chylus sees it, not even the daughter of Zeus can guarantee the correctness of a particularjudgment: itmaywellbepartial,andthebestshecando is to trysubsequently toenshrinethisunquestionablypartialjudgmentinacomprehensivetrueorder."8 Thus understood the political realm is a compromise, at best a partial truth in twosenses:itsincompletenessanditspartisanship.PoliticaltruthlacksimpartialityandthereforecouldnotaspiretoJustice.NorwouldahumanabilitytograspTheTruthdomuchgood,notunlessall factionsnotonlyagreewith itssubstancebutwith its implications for theirwell‐being.TheTruthturnsouttobeplural.WhatsingularitycouldmanderivefromcontradictoryinjunctionsoftheGodsorcontradictorydemandsofself‐interestedfactions?"ForAeschylus,then, thereseemsat first tobenot justone law,beforewhichanycontraryassertionaboutwhat is lawful is ipso factowrongandunjust. Heseemsrather toadoptaneutralposition,fromwhicheachofthedisputantsappearstobemerelypartisan,defendingsomethingthatisvitallyimportanttosociety,yetfailingtorecognizesomethingelsethatisequallyimportant.Thismakesalternative conceptsof lawseem fundamentallyalike...."9When theGodsareatwar,humanssupplythecasualties.Whenfactionsareunreconciled,citizenssuffer.Prudencedictates an avoidance of the conflict by providing a political reconciliation the godswouldaccept and human beings could live with. Prudence is the measure of the political. ThefundamentalquestionisnolongerwhatJusticerequiresbutwhatenablesthepolistoavoidthecycleofrevengeandretribution,thescourgeofthepre‐politicalpast? InMeier'sunderstandingoftheEumenidestwoformsofjusticetwoabsolutelegalre‐quirementscollide.Thereisnopossibilityoflogicalreconciliationoracorrectverdict.Athenaprovidesanecessarypoliticalsolution.Aflaweddecisiontherebybecomespalatabletoalltheparties,especiallytheGods,OldandNew.Thepolisdevelopsaccordingto itsownlogicandmenarefreefromdivinelyimposedand,what'smoreimportant,inevitablecatastrophe.NotmerelyimpliedbyactionswhichcouldnotavoidoffendingthisGodorthat,catastrophewouldbeoftheirownmaking.Humansarenowresponsiblefortheiractionstothedegreethattheirerrors are truly theirs and not an inevitable consequence of a perverse universe whichdelightsintheirfutileeffortstoavoidpunishment.Errorswouldbepunished.TheGodswouldbe served. Athena's gift of the political provides the polis and its citizens with decisionalspace.Reasoncouldnowbeputtouseworthyofit,thesettlementofconflictwithoutresorttoviolence.Thecycleofrevengeandretributionisnowathumanity'sdisposal.MenandwomenarenolongerplaythingsoftheGods. 7Meier,op.cit.,p.1038Meier,op.cit.,pp.107‐89Meier,op.cit.,p.104

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Nevertheless, theGods remain in theAeschyleanworld, if only in their transformedstatus.Theyareanecessarychecktoman'spropensitytoself‐importance,tohubristicdisre‐gard of human limits. Themore the citizenry succeed in their rapidly developingpolis, themoretheworldbecomessubjecttotheirpoliticalmanipulation,themorenecessaryaredivinesanctions.More thanpietymandates thisAeschylean limit. It is entailed in the inability ofmaninprincipletoachieve justice.Thepolitical isatbestapragmaticsubstitutefor justice.Usedwisely,itenablesthepolisgreaterscopeforpublicactions,forthecitizenrywouldspendlesstimeandenergyfendingoffaperversecosmos.Usedunwisely,thepoliticalwouldsubjectthe polis to divine retribution, to justice, necessarily divine, necessarily inaccessible to thecitizenryontheirown.Aeschylus'visionofthepoliticalisthusprofoundlyreligious.TheGodsstill properly intervene in human affairs, although they are now expected to behavemorebenignly.Thecitizensarenowabletorespondtotheirresponsibilitiesmoreintelligently.Thepriceforthiszoneofdiscretionisthatthepunishmentoftransgressionswouldseemjustandnot the whimsy of the Gods. The price of adulthood is uncomplaining acceptance ofpunishmentwhendeserved.Howevermuchhumanbeingsmightlongtobeaplaythingagain,therewasnoturningback. Adistinguishedhusband Ihave—forbreakingpromises. 510 Medea

III. MedeaandthePowerofObligation InthefirstspeechofMedea,theNursesays: Shecallsuponthegodstowitness WhatsortofreturnJasonhasmadeofherlove... Amanwhoisnowdeterminedtodishonorher. 22&33 Thethemeisthussetfortheentireplay.Foralltherepresentativesofconventionalorderas‐sume the potency ofOlympic deities, particularly to rectify or avenge breaches ofHomericobligation,values,orcodesofbehavior.Medea,forherpart,oscillatesbetweenHomericdei‐ties and chthonic forces, finally resolving the issue in favorofherownchthonic ancestry.10Later in thespeech theNurseexplainswhyMedeacallsuponThemisandZeus, leavingoutMedea'sinvocationofArtemis 160 : OnThemis11,thegoddessofPromisesandonZeus, WhomwebelievetobetheKeeperofOaths. 169‐70 ArtemisisapparentlytoocloselyidentifiedwithvengeancetobenotedbytheNurse.12 Muchmore skepticalof theefficacyofOlympiandeities,Medeauttersanambiguousprayerthat“Lightningfromheavenwouldsplitmyheadopen" 144 .Lightningcouldeither

10.“Chthonic,”strictlyspeaking,referstogodsoftheearth. Iuseittorefergenerallytopre‐Olympiandeitieswhowerethepersonificationofnaturalforces,likethewind,thesky,thesea,andthelike.Pre‐OlympiandoesnotmeantheydisappearedfromthepantheonofOlympusorhadnorelationswithOlympiangods.Rather,itindicatestheirindependenceoforpriorexistence toZeus. They refer to theOldOrderof theUniversewhichZeusneverquitesucceededineliminating.11.Themis,aTitaness,wasthedaughterofGaea,thepersonificationoftheEarth,andUranus,thepersonificationofthesky.ShewasassociatedwithZeus,butnotdependentonhim.Shewasassociatedwiththepreservationofthenaturalorder. 12. Artemis, despite impeccable Olympian credentials as the sister of Apollo, had connections with the Moon,includingSelene,thesisterofHelios,whowasthegrandfatherofMedeaandHecate,thetriplegoddessofthemoon,earth,andunderworld.

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beaweaponofZeusorsimplyaforceofnature.WhenMedeaspeakstomortals,sheinvaria‐bly employs Homeric terminology and values, even after she reveals her connection tochthonicforces.ShecastigatesJasonforhis"shamelessness" 472 . Earlier at 395‐97, immediately after her conversation with the prudent Cleon, whoconsentstoallowherandherchildrenstayforonemoredayinCorinth,shesays: Itshallnotbe—Iswearitbyher,mymistress, Hecate,whodwellsintherecessesofmyhearth— Thatanymanshallbegladtohaveinjuredme.OnceitbecomesclearthattherewouldbenorectificationoftheinjurydonetoherbypoliticalorHomericmeans,MedeacallsuponagoddessoftheOldOrdertoavengeher.Thereferencetothehearthreinforcesherpoint,foritsuggestsMedea'spersonasmuchasanactualhearth.MedeaineffectcallsuponherselftoavengewhatneitherCorinthnorOlympushasthewillorthesenseofjusticetodo.Afterall,asshestatesat406,her"grandfatherwasHelios". HerreferencestoherancestryandtothechthonicforceswithinhermakeJason'sself‐servingreferencestoAphroditeorCypris 527‐31 evenmoresillythantheywouldotherwisebe: MyviewisthatCypriswasaloneresponsible Ofmenandgodsforthepreservingofmylife. Youarecleverenough—butreallyIneednotenter Intothestoryofhowitwaslove'sinescapable Powerthatcompelledyoutokeepmypersonsafe. Medea,thegranddaughteroftheSun,doesnothonorhiswordswithadenial.Medea'spassionateloveforJasonhasitssourceintherecessesofherhearth.Thebetrayalofthatlovewouldbeavengedbypowerandwillemanatingfromthesameplace.TospeakofAphroditeandMedeainthesamebreathisinsultingandabsurd.TheChorus,likeJason,makethesamemistake,forthesamereason.TheyfailtoappreciatethesourceofMedea'sgreatness.Alittlelatertheysay: ButifinmoderationCypriscomes, Thereisnopoweratallsogracious 630‐1 .Again, there is no response from Medea. Instead, Aegeus enters, affording Medea anotherchancetodemonstrateherpowersandherindifferencetoApolloat679. Apollo'sadvicetoAegeuswhowishedtohaveachildwas: Iamnottoloosenthehangingfootofthewine‐skin... ToMedea'sinquiry,Aegeusanswers:"UntilIreturnagaintomyhearthandhouse" 681 .ThesubstanceofApollo'sadvicetoanoldermanistohusbandhissperm.Moreproactive,Medea'ssolutionisofferedandreceivedwithoutanydoubtasitsefficacy. Iwillendyourchildlessness,andIwillmakeyouable Tobegetchildren.ThedrugsIknowcandothis. 717‐8 .Apollo'sadviceisthustrumpedbyeither orboth humanknowledgeandchthonicpowerintheformofapharmakon.ToemphasizethepoweroftheOldGods,whenMedeaimploresAe‐geustoswearthathewillgrantherrefugeinAthens,heresponds: IswearbytheEarth,bytheholylightofHelios, Byallthegods,Iwillabidebywhatyousay. 752‐3 .TheChorus,asiftoemphasizetheirconventionality,ignoresthechthonicreferencesandplea,tryingtorestoreOlympiancontrol: MayHermes,godoftravelers,

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Escortyoutoyourhome! 759‐60 .Havingnoneofit,Medeaimmediatelyresponds: GodandGod'sdaughter,justice,andthelightofHelios! Now,friends,hascomethetimeofmytriumphover Myenemies,andnowmyfootisontheroad. 764‐6 .ThistravelerhasnoneedofHermes'protectionanymorethansheneedsAphrodite'shelptoprecipitateherpassion. BythetimeofMedea'sfamous"waveringspeech" 1019‐1080 ,whichIprefertocallher "oscillating speech", it shouldbeno surprise forher to call explicitlyupon theErinyes:"No! By Hell's avenging furies, it shall not be." 1059 Again, she concludes by taking thechthonicforceintoherbeing: Butstrongerthanallmyafterthoughtsismyfury, Furythatbringsuponmortalsthegreatestevils 1079‐80 . TherealityofMedea'sawesomepower is impossible forconventionalCorinthians towarrant.AfterreportingthedeathsofJason'sbridetobeandherfather,Medeareplies 1126‐7 : Thefinestwordsyouhavespoken.Nowandhereafter Ishallcountyouamongmybenefactorsandfriends. TowhichtheincredulousMessengeranswered 1129‐30 : What!Areyourightinthemind?Areyounotmad, Woman? Medea'simplacablenaturestillrequiresreinforcing: Butspeak.Howdidtheydie?Youwilldelightmetwice Asmuchagainifyousaytheydiedinagony. 1134‐5 Hence the gruesomely graphic speech by the Messenger, the longest in the play bysomethirtylines,detailingthedeaththroesofMedea'svictims 1136‐1230 : Herheadthereoozedoutbloodandfiremixedtogether, Likethedropsonpine‐bark,sothefleshfromherbones Droppedaway,tornbythehiddenfangofthepoison. 1119‐21 .TheMessengerseemstobetryingtogiveMedeaa lastchancetocometohersenses, tore‐sumehermaternalhumanity.Tonoavail.Medea'schildrenfalltoherrage,butwithadiffer‐ence.Theyarekilledasasacrifice,asMedea—nowapotheosizedandhoveringoverthehouseinadragon‐drawnchariot—indicatestoJason 1178‐83 : Iwillburythemmyself, BearingthemtoHera'stempleonthepromontory; Sothatnoenemymayevillytreatthem Bytearinguptheirgrave.InthislandofCorinth Ishallestablishaholyfeastandsacrifice Eachyearforevertoatoneforthebloodguilt. Notice that once her fury has accomplishes its purpose,Olympic deities are reintro‐duced,andnotonlyinordertobeintelligibletoJasonandCorinthians.Medeaherselfrecog‐nizestheirpowernowthatorderisrestored.Abloodguilt,nonetheless,remainswhichmustbeatonedandwhichwastobeservedbyasacrificetoHera,goddessofwivesandmothers.13 13. Jones, John: On Aristotle and Greek Tragedy, Oxford, 1962, pp.112‐3: Jones best appreciates the concept ofpollutionand the limitsof theverdict. Speakingof theEumenideshesays: "He iscelebrating thevictoryofStatejusticeover family justice, and itmaybe supposed thathis reason for satisfaction is theobviousone: aproperly

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TheChorusutteredabravebenediction 1415‐19 : ZeusinOlympusistheoverseer Ofmanydoings.Manythingsthegods Achievebeyondourjudgment.Whatwethought Isnotconfirmedandwhatwethoughtnotgod Contrives.Andsoithappensinthisstory. Itdecidessomethingcertainly;averdictisreached,theknotiscut.Butitsolvesnothing.Theimageofdeadlockrecoversitsmassivesimplicitywhenweceasetobelievethatitistranscended….JohnJones14

IV. ObligationandthePoliticizationoftheImplacable ItisvalidtoreadMedea'srelianceontheOldGods—whetherthesourceoftheirpowerisinternalorexternaltoMedeaoroneandthesame—asareversiontotheirrational,subjecttothepre‐politicalordinancesoftheimplacable.Ifwestepbackfromthisdichotomizedun‐derstandingof thehumanpredicament, the triumphof the irrational inMedea, insofaras itobtains,becomesagreatdealmorecomplex.NotonlywillEuripides'"irrationality"beques‐tionedor,attheveryleast,placedinacontextsufficientlyrichtobeworthyofhisgenius,butMedea'sreversiontotheimplacablecanbeunderstoodinacontextappropriatetohermani‐foldnature. IfwereadMedeaasaplayassaturatedwiththepoliticalastheEumenides,alldichoto‐mizedappreciationsofEuripidesbecomesimplistic.FortheEuripideanpolitical,althoughinadifferentway, performs the same reconciling function that the Aeschylean does in the Eu‐menides. To deal with the cycle of revenge and retribution implied by contradictory butequallyjustlaws,Aeschylusbelievesaflawed judiciallyanddivinely politicalresolutionhasto be invented—and this with the intervention of Athena. The discovery of the politicalamounts to away of accommodating the ordinances of Apollowith those of the Furies bymeansofabiasedvotebyAthenamadepalatabletothelosingsidebyprovidingthemwitharolewithinthenewpoliticalorder.TheErinyeslosebutarenotvanquished.Theycontinuetocarry out theirmission to holdmen to the laws, however, theynowdo so fromwithin thenewlyformedpoliticalstructure.Athenadescribestheirnewrole 927‐931 : Inallgoodwill TowardthesecitizensIestablishinpower Spiritswhoarelarge,difficulttosoften. Tothemisgiventhehandlingentire Ofmen'slives.Sopleasedwere theFuries that the avoidanceof theirprior reason forbeingbecame theirchieffunction 978‐983 :

constitutedcourtoflaw,withrulesofevidenceandjudgesboundbyoathandenforceabledecisions,makesamoreefficient juridical instrument than the bloody and protracted vendetta. But further than that one ought not go.Aeschylus'stext,soakedasitisinaprofoundcollectivehorrorofpollutionandinrespectforritualcleansing,rendersuntenableallsuggestionofconsciousarchaizinginhistreatmentofmyth;heisnotlookingdownfromapositionofsuperior enlightenment upon the urgencies of the Oresteia, and this is the sense in which the trial affords nosolution.” 14Jones,op.cit.,pp.113

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Let Notthedrydustthatdrinks Theblackbloodofcitizens Throughpassionforrevenge Andbloodshedforbloodshed Begivenourstatetopreyupon. Thetransformationisthuscomplete.Thepre‐politicalbecomestheNewOrderofthepolis, subjects becoming citizens.TheNewGods and theOld are expected to accommodatethemselves to eachother.Their erstwhileplaythings,who servedonly asmortal victims totheir immortalbickering,nowbecomeobjectsofsolicitude,worthyofdivineconcern.Peaceandprosperityarenowthegoalsofall,divineandhumanalike,withinAthena'spoliticalcrea‐tion. EuripidesconcurswithnoneofthisAeschyleanepiphany,althoughherecognizestheneed for reconciliationandappreciates itspoliticalmode.Theresimilarities cease.As ishiswont, Euripides raises the stakes, asking even more from human beings than Aeschylus.TherewouldbenoprayersforhelpfromtheGods.They,OldandNew,arerestrictedtoforcesofretribution; theirwrathavoidedonlybyhumanaction.Fortunately,citizenshaveattheirdisposal amodeof settlingdisputes among themselveswhich can achieve farmore than ispossible in aworld fraughtwithAeschylean limits. Failurewould of course unleash untoldhorror,alltheworseforhavingalltoohumansources,howevermuchimputabletothegods.Medeaisataleoffailure.Withinitsgruesomeunfolding,however,lieswhatmighthavebeen,ifcitizenscouldhavefulfilledtheirpoliticalresponsibilities. RecallMedea's emphasis on obligation, on the requirement to keep oaths and fulfillpromises.Throughouttheplay,fromthefirstspeechtoline1392,thechordissounded.Inmyview,obligationinMedeaamountstothepoliticizationofimplacabledivineordinances.Itisnotanexaggeratedpre‐politicalsenseofobligationthatdrivesMedeatochthonicrevenge.Itis not Medea's lack of political sophistication that unleashes the furies within her breast.Quitetothecontrary,itisJason'sinabilitytoappreciatetherequirementsofthenewpoliticalorder.ItishisdenialofobligationthatprovokesMedea'sawesomeretribution.Jasoninsultsthebodypolitic, openingawound intowhichancientplagueswouldpourand fester. If thepresenceofobligationisnecessarytothepoliticalorder,ifitsabsenceimpliestheunleashingoftheFuries,anunderstandingofobligationbecomesessentialtoanappreciationofEuripi‐des'notionofthepolitical.AndtotheunderstandingοfMedea. For Euripides obligation is thoroughly human and thus at the disposal of men andwomen.Whetheritsultimatesourceisdivineornot,whetheritsfailuretogovernhumanac‐tionissanctionedbymanorGod,obligationisentirelycomprisedofhumanrelations.Inthisrespectitisprofoundlyrational.Consider,bycontrast,thereasonthepoliticalbecomesnec‐essaryintheEumenides.Aconflictbetweenonedivineorderandanothercreatescontradic‐torydemandsonOrestes.Thepoliticalbecomesawayofnotfulfillingoneobligationinorderto fulfillanother.HoweveroneviewsOrestes' finalstatus,absolvedandstainedorabsolvedandpurified, there canbenodoubt that thepolitical solutionenables thepolis to continuewitheveryprospectofsuccess.Attheveryleast,thepolisisnolongerpreytothecontradic‐toryadmonitionsof theGods.Humanbeingsstillsuffer for theirerrors,but thesemistakes,howeverinevitablygroundedinhumanimperfectionortheindeterminacyofevents,arenotimplications of strife between deities. Men and women pollute themselves. They are not,however,pollutedbyvirtueoftheirexistence.

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AlthoughtheAeschyleansolutionhastobeseenasaclearadvanceinthedevelopmentofthepolitical,unfulfilledobligationsareentailedintheavoidanceofthecycleofrevengeandretribution.Inonecase,humanbeingswouldremaininneedofabsolution.Inanother,theywouldremainstained,convictedifonlybythemselvesofcrime.Thepoliticalmightsaveciti‐zensof theneworderfromthe indiscriminatedeathdealingoftheFuries. ItcouldnotsaveOrestesfromhisawarenessthatheisamatricide.Politicalnecessitynowtriestoforestallthecatastrophethatpriorimplacableandcontradictorydivineordinancesimplied.Butthatisall.Thepoliscangoon,butitcannotachievejusticeanymorethanOrestescanregaininnocence.Hence the irreducible significanceof thegods in theAeschyleancosmos.By themselves thecitizenscannotachievejustice,eveniftheysucceedinavoidingthetemptationsthatareheirtotheircontrolofthepolis. Euripideanobligationispolitical,thatis,entirelywithinthedispensationofman,andthereforemuchmorerational,thatis,independentofthedivine,thantheAeschylean.Obliga‐tionissubjecttoreasonanditslimitsnottodivineinjunction.Unabletodemandcompliancetowhatcannotbefulfilled,thegodsareanirrelevancysolongastheneedsofthepoliticalor‐deraremet.ThereisnocontradictorysetofobligationsinMedea. MedeadoesnotdemandvengeancebecauseJasonfulfillsthewishesofanotherdivinity. JasonpresumablywouldbelessodiousifheweresusceptibletodivineforceslikeAphrodite,asheclaims. SheavengesherselfbecauseJasonprefersleadingamorecomfortablelifetokeepinghispromises.Jasonsuccumbstomiddleagenottoadivineinjunction,muchlessadivinelyordainedobsession,orcontradictorydivineordinances.EvenifJason'spreferencescouldnotbehelped histempta‐tionswereordinaryenough ,hiswallowinginthem,tosaynothingofhisinsultinglyspeciousrationales,indefianceofhissworndutyisentirelyunderhiscontrol,atleasttotheextentthatanyhumanactioniffreeofdivinedetermination.Hecouldhaveavoidedactingonthemwith‐outantagonizinganygod.Insteadbyviolatinghisobligationstohischildrenandhiswife,hedoescalldownthewrathofhiswife’sdivinealternativeexistence. If Jasonwereallowedtoshirkhis responsibilities so easily, therewouldbenobasis beyondmaterial calculation foranyhumanrelationship.Thestructureofthefamilywouldbecomesubjecttothepreferences,materialorotherwise,ofanyirresponsiblemaleandthepoliswhichsupportshim.Notonlywouldthepolisbeinjeopardy,tothedegreethatitrequiresresponsiblemalestofunction,itsconceptualbasiswouldbeobliterated. Thepoliscameintobeingbecauseofthelimitsofthebasileus‐basedsocietywhichpre‐cededit.Coercion,likewarriorvirtues,continuedtoconditionthesurvivalofthesociety,butthesubordinationofphysicalforcetothelawprovedtobeasuperiorwaytoorganizesociety.Superioritywasmeasuredbythestandardsofthetime,theabilitytodeliverwarriorvaluesatthepointofaspearwhenandwherethesocietyrequired.UnderthelawthepolisavoidedtheidiosyncraticarrayofforceswhichhadcharacterizedGreecefromtimeimmemorial.Hoplitedemocracyresultedfromthissuperiority.Althoughthesuperiorityof thehoplitepolitywasmaterialratherthanmoral,itsbasisinlawopenedthedoortomoralaswellaslegalobliga‐tion. WhiletheinconveniencesofthisstateofnaturewereasapparentandasfraughtwithpoliticalimplicationstoEuripidesastheywouldbetwenty‐threehundredyearslatertoLockeandwhiletheywithoutquestionwereforceswhichthechanneledAtheniansocietytowarditscitizen‐soldierdemocracy, thiskindofpolityallowedfor,andevendemanded,politicalpro‐cesseswhichweregovernedbymuchmorethanprudentialself‐interest.Foriftheself‐inter‐estofthebasileus,aristocrat,oranyotherpowerfulindividualcouldbesubordinatedtothe

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BetweenTwoRealms:JusticeandObligationinMedeaΑνάμεσασεδύοΒασίλεια:ΔικαιοσύνηκαιΥποχρέωσηστηΜήδεια

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needsofthepolisbyvirtueoflaw,sothencouldself‐interestorprudentialcalculation.ThisisnottosuggestthatAthensmusthavebeensubjecttomoralpressuresbyvirtueofitshavinganenforceablelaws.Itistosaythattheprocessofdeterminingtheinterestofthepoliswaspolitical. Itno longerwasat thedisposalofan individualorgroupof individualsbutat thedisposalofthecitizenry.Therewasthereforeachancethatanenlightenedorlongerrunpru‐dencemightobtain.Attheveryleastamorecomplexappreciationoftheinterestofthepoliswasentailedbymereforceofnumbers.Onemightbegintoseeasensethatthelegitimacyofthe polis and therefore its ability to deliver forcewhen andwhere itwanted in sufficientquantities might depend uponmore than material self‐interest or prudence narrowly re‐strictedtoimmediateadvantage.Asenseofpoliticalobligation,likepersonalobligation,isnotself‐limitedoreasilycabined,thenornow.Moresubjecttohumandecision,encompassingalargerzoneofdiscretion,thantheAeschylean,Euripideanobligationtranscendsaconceptofrationality limited to prudence. For Euripides the political does not emerge as a way ofavoidingobligations,whentheirfulfillmentimpliesundesirableconsequences.Obligationhasnobiteifitcouldnotbindoverandabovewhatprudentialcalculationorpoliticalcompromiseimmediately require. The political is an extension of obligation to the citizenry as awhole.Thepoliticalisthecollectiveexpressionofobligation.Itfunctionsforthecitizenryinthesamewaythatobligationfunctionsinpersonalrelations:itpreventscost‐benefitcalculationsfromconsuminghuman existence,while at the same time allowing for amore sophisticated andmultidimensionalmodeofdecision‐making.Obligationisnotmeanttointerferewithrationalandprudentpoliticalattemptstoshapehumanevents.Obligationisawindowwhichopensonmuchwidervistas inspaceandmuch longerperiodsof timethanthosewhichoccupies thepre‐politicalconcernsoftheDarkAges.Atthesametimeobligationcreatesforsuchdecisionsanauraof legitimacyinapublicnewlyconsciousof itselfanditsprerogatives. Itdoesmorethanpaytributetopre‐politicaltraditionsandage‐oldneedsforsocialstabilityandpersonalsecurity. Obligation pays heed to the ordinary citizen's sense of justice, a convictionwhichmustseemmore important themorepoliticaldecision‐makingbecomes. Itcanbeseenasacheck upon the sophisticated machinations, arguments, and ambitions of the new leaders,thosewhocouldnotbeeasilyheldtoaccountbytraditionalmeans.Notwithstandingitsim‐plicationsforlimitingthereachofnarrowclaimsofself‐interest,thepowerofEuripideanob‐ligation need not be considered amoral,much less a Kantian, argument, despite itsmoralproperties.Thekeepingofpromises—anissueonlywhentodosoimpliesalossofbenefits—canbe considered instancesof enlightenedself‐interest.Theexistenceof thepolis requiressacrificebyitscitizens.Onanygivendaytomeetanynecessity,citizenswereatthedisposalofthepolis,uptoandincludingtheirlives.NoAthenianquestionedthatcitizenshipentailedobligations.Inthisrespect,obligationhasanodoroftheimplacable,oftheabsolute, ifnotacategoricalimperative.Onemust,however,notinferapropositionfromanaroma. Bytheendoftheplay,apotheosizedasaFury,Medeacanbeexpectedtobesouredbythisstenchofthepre‐political.Buteventhen,whenJasoninvokestheFuries 1389‐90 : MayaFuryforthechildren'ssakedestroyyou AndJustice,Requitorofblood.Medearespondsinjudicialterms 1391‐2 : Whatheavenlypowerlendsanear Toabreakerofoaths,adeceiver?Medeaqualifiesthereignofterror,theindiscriminatedeathonemighthaveexpectedhertoreinstitutewithfullandabsoluteimplacability.EventheOldGodshavetoweightheevidence.

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BetweenTwoRealms:JusticeandObligationinMedeaΑνάμεσασεδύοΒασίλεια:ΔικαιοσύνηκαιΥποχρέωσηστηΜήδεια

86 ISSN: 2241‐5106 

Merefactualcomplicityinanallegedcrimedoesnotconstituteguilt.IntheEumenidesOres‐tes'matricideisconsideredsufficientcauseforretribution.ItrequiresAthena'sinterventiontomakeitajuridicalquestion.InMedea,theallegedmurders—thekillingofherchildren—donotrequiredivineinterventiontoinstituteatrial.Anypoliswhichtakestheenforcementofobligationsseriouslywouldhaveamechanismwhichdealtwiththeirallegedviolation.ThuswhilethereisnotrialandverdictinMedea,thelegitimatepresenceofapolitical/judicialdeci‐sionmode is undeniable.Medea does appeal tomagisterial authority to enforce her claim.Aegeusagreeswithher,butclaimsanabsenceofjurisdiction.OnlyJason—andonecouldnothaveaworsewitness—deniesitsrelevance. Again,EuripidesdoesnotsimplyadopttheAeschyleanapproach.Truetohiswont,hemakes the law more subject to human determination by politicizing the implacable. EvenconceivedasaFury,Medearemainsidiosyncratictotheend.Aswehaveestablished,Orestes'trialdoesnotresult in justicebut inapoliticalresolution. Towork, theresolutiondependsuponthetransformationoftheFuriesintotheEumenides. Inanimportantrespectthetrialitselfhadtobetransformedintoapoliticalmechanism,abrogatingitsprincipalpurpose.Eu‐ripides' conceptionof thepolitical requirednosuch transformationorabrogation. Politicalneedandsoundjudicialprocessdonotconflict,atleastnotintheAeschyleanmanner,forattheirsourcewastheneedforhumanbeingstocometopoliticaldecisions.Justasthereisnoneedforhumanstoaccommodate implacablegods—still less thepredicamentsconflictsbe‐tweenimplacabledeitiesimplyforhumanbeings—thereisnoneedtosacrificeeitherthere‐quirementsof justiceor the judicialcumpoliticalprocess.There is indeedaneedfor trans‐formation,butitoperatesatthefullyhumanlevel,atthepointwheresubstanceandprocessnotmerelyintersect,butinterpenetrate. The Aeschylean political arises from a confrontation of implacable opposites whichembroilhumanbeingsinanendlesscycleofrevengeandretribution.Inotherwords,adeci‐sionalprocess,aidedbythegods,hastoemergewhichhasthecapacityofpoliticizinghumanactions.Thisnewprocess,entailingthediscoveryofthepolitical,amountedtoacompromise,apoliticaltestamenttohumanity'sinabilitytoachievejustice,thatis,thehumanimpossibilityof obeying all theproper injunctionsof the gods.Whilehe appreciates theurgentneed forpoliticizinghumanaction,Euripidesunderstandsthepolitical/judicialprocessdifferently.Bypitchinghumanactionatalowerkey,hekeepsjusticewithinthehumanrealm.Justicecouldbeachievedbymeansofanentirelyhumanprocedure.Toaccomplishthisrequiresasoften‐ingofAeschyleaninjunctionsemanatingfromthedivinerealmortimeimmemorial.Theor‐dinancesofthegods,likecustom,remainproperguidelinesforhumanlaw,asEuripides'be‐lief intheimportanceoftheproprietiesattests.Theyarenot,however,whetherself‐contra‐dictoryornot,substitutesforhumanlawderivedfromthepolitical/judicialprocess.Inotherwords,intheEuripideanuniversedivineinjunctionsbecomepoliticized,immersedinthepo‐litical.Nolongerstandingoutsidethepolis,theybecomepartoftheprocessitself. Obligation,asMedearepeatedlyasserts, isoneofthesedivineinjunctions.ObligationinMedea,however,doesnotfunctionasanimplacableFury,whichhastobetransformedforhumanlifetocontinuewithoutcyclesofrevengeandretribution.Itisinthepoliticalrealmallalong. Only the failure to pay sufficient attention to its requirements mandates a divinetransformation. When Medea becomes convinced that Jason's obligations to her and theirchildrenwouldbefloutedandthatthepoliswouldsupportJasonintermsofnarrow andpre‐political self‐interestof the royal house, then andonly thendoesMedea transformherselfintoaFury.EuripidesthusreversestheAeschyleanprocess.Implacableretributionoccursin

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BetweenTwoRealms:JusticeandObligationinMedeaΑνάμεσασεδύοΒασίλεια:ΔικαιοσύνηκαιΥποχρέωσηστηΜήδεια

87 ISSN: 2241‐5106 

Medeawhenanotherwiseself‐sufficientrealmofthepoliticalbreaksdown.Implacableretri‐butionisnotacauseofthepolitical,asitisforAeschylus.Thefailureofthepoliticalis,forEu‐ripides, the cause of unspeakable horrorswhich all too often resultswhen the gods inter‐vene—evenasmetaphors—intheaffairsofthepolis. God,andGod'sDaughter,justice,andthelightofHelios!Medea 764

V. Janus‐facedObligationandJustice IfAeschyleanJusticerequiresthatalltheproperordinancesoftheGodsbefulfilled,theveryimpossibilityoffulfillmentimpliedforEuripidesthatjusticehastobeapoliticalmatter,thatis,completelyatthedisposalofthepolis.AeschyleanJusticecouldnotexistinapolisduetothecontradictorydivineinjunctions.OnecouldofcoursetrytoeliminatetheGodsfromtheaffairsofhumanity—anoptionwhosesimplicity,ifnotsacrilege,condemnsit.InsofarastheGodsarepersonificationsofhumanconvictions,desires,oremotions—as Ibelieve theyareforEuripides—theycannotbebanishedwithouttransforminghumanbeings.HumanbeingsarestuckwiththeGodsbecausetheyarestuckwiththemselves.Iftheproblemofjusticeliesinhumannature,asolutionwouldhavetobesimilarlylocated.Whatevercreatedorentailedcontradictionsorstrife‐‐alltooconvenientlyimputedtotheGods—wouldhavetoberesolvedbyahumanprocess.Hencethediscoveryofthepolitical. SofarEuripidesfollowsAeschylus.NotcontentwiththeAeschyleanpolitical—anotionwhich leaves justice unattainable by human means—Euripides needs a mode of conflictresolutionwhich brings or leaves justicewithin thepolis and susceptible to the political.Oneapproachwouldbetodosomethingabout thecontradictory"laws" orotherconflicts humannatureimplies.Twooptionsareavailable: 1 removecontradictionbychanginghu‐mannature;that is,makehumanbeingsperfectlyrational; 2 ormakethestrifecontradic‐tionimpliedlessimplacable;thatis,politicizetheimplacable. Aswehaveseen,Euripidesoptsforthesecondcourse.InitiallyfollowingAeschylus,hebringstheerstwhileimplacableintheformofanabsoluteinjunctionintothepolitical/judicialprocess,whereitsimplacabilityiscompromisedbyitsverypresenceinarationalprocedure.IntheEuripideanpoliticalprocess,thereisnotransformationoftheAngryOnesintotheWell‐Disposed.Insteadthereisaninterpenetrationofthesubstanceoftheabsolutewiththepoliti‐calprocess,theimplacablebecomingplacable,thedivinebecominghuman—butnottheab‐solutebecomingrelative.Atleastnotintheordinarysenseofthetermorinanordinaryway. To relativize the absolute is forEuripides just asunacceptable as tobanish it to therealmoftheGods.Anysuchcompromisewoulddefeathisaimofbringingjusticewithinthepolis. Moreover,relativizing justice impliestransformationofhumannature.Humanbeingswouldnolongerbewillingorabletosacrificeinbehalfofaconvictionthat"thisisjustright",or"thismustbestopped",or"thismustbedone".Euripidesissimplynotwillingtocapitulatetorelativismortoeitherawhitebreadorself‐interestconceptionofhumannature.Hewantstoretainallofhumannature—includingitsirrationalelements‐‐withallitscapacitiesforcre‐ationanddestruction,fortheself‐fulfillmentwhichonlyindividualachievementorself‐abne‐gation—inapublicorprivateforum—canproduce.Thisisthetaskofthepolitical,thejustifi‐cationofthepolis.Itsmodeisthepolitical/judicialprocess.Itscardinalconceptisobligation. Obligationperformsthisimportantfunctionbecauseitfacesintwodirections:towardsubstantive justice "it is required" and toward procedural due process "you must keep

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BetweenTwoRealms:JusticeandObligationinMedeaΑνάμεσασεδύοΒασίλεια:ΔικαιοσύνηκαιΥποχρέωσηστηΜήδεια

88 ISSN: 2241‐5106 

yourpromises" ;towardanabsoluteinjunction theWillofGodortheNecessitiesofNature andtowardacontractualagreement thewilloftheparties .Furthermore,itblendstheideaofmere self‐interest and divine requirement by imbuing voluntary agreements uncoercedpromises with the properties of the nearly absolute. Agreements can only be properlyamendedbymutualconsent. Unilateralabrogationjustifiesretribution.Althoughapromisemaynotberequired,oncemadeithastheforceoflaw—itsprovisionsjustlyenforced;itsvi‐olationjustlypunished. Ifoneplacesobligationinamorepublicandpoliticalcontext,thecontractualnatureofpromise‐keeping necessarily softens. Implied contracts—obligations incurred by virtue ofcitizenship—areasimportantinthepublicrealmasactualcontractsareintheprivate.Atthesametimetheseobligationspartakeoftheabsolute,thatis,theyarelessamendable,lesscon‐ventional "If onewas a citizen, onemust..." . To refuse risks ostracism. Obligation in thissense ispartof thepolitical,partof theoverarchingstructureofrules,values,customs,andpatternsofbehaviorofthepolisasawhole.Obligationisanordinancewhichderivedfromtheexistenceof thepolis.Nonetheless,obligationcan take the formof legislation, that is,beanoutcomeofpoliticsorthepolicyprocess.Obligationinthisformisapromisecitizensmaketoeachother,toobeythislaw,notmerelytobelaw‐abiding.Obligationinthepublicrealmthusmirrorsitscapacitiesintheprivate,elevatingfreelyenteredintoobligationsofthecitizenry—statedorimplied—intothosethatareenforceablebythepolis. ThisJanus‐facedpropertyofobligation—initsprivateandinitspublicmode—enablesthepolis toaspire to justicebypurelyhumanmeans.Byemployingreason, includingadueregardfortheirrationalbasisofmanyhumanpreferences,withinaprocesswhichiscomplex,fluid,andsubtle,humanbeingsmightfashionoutcomeswhichmeettherequirementsofjus‐tice.Thisisnotsobecausethisprocedureapproximatesdivineordinancesorre‐solveddivinecontradictions,butbecausejusticeiscontainedintheprocessitself.Nolongerdivine,ifiteverwas, justice, like the state, is at the disposal of the political and thus of its citizens. Bypartakingoftheprudentialandthe lawful,by itsdueregardforpoliticsandthepolitical,ofpolicyandconstitution,by itsconcern for the feltnecessitiesof the timesandthemoreen‐duringconvictionsofmankind,obligationbothchecksandlegitimatesthegrowingauthorityoftheincreasinglypowerfulstate.Notonlyisobligationthemostimportantexpressionofthepoliticizationoftheimplacable,itisthemeansbywhichathoroughlypoliticalsocietykeepsjusticewithinthewallsofthepolis.