1900 -1940

1

1900-1940

2

(. 6-9) . 1 O , Technocracy . (. 10-87) 1. . (.10-14) 1. Technocracy. (. 14-27)

, Technocracy. (.17-23)

americanismus . (. 23-29)

1.. Technocracy. (. 30-63)

. (. 30-35) . (. 35-44) . (. 45-52) . (. 52-61) . . (.61-63)

1. . . (.64-72) 1. . (. 73-89)

. (. 73-77)

. (. 77-80) . (. 80-84) . (. 84-87)

3

. 2 . . 19 20 . (. 88-151)

2.. . (. 89-121)

1836-1863, . (. 93-97)

1863-1887, . (98-101)

1887-1914, . (102-112)

1914-1920. . (. 112-120)

2. (. 121-128) 2. . (. 129-139) 2. . (. 139-146) 2.. . (. 146-151) 2 . (. 152-161) . 3 . . (. 162-201) 3.

. (. 162-173) 3. ; (. 173-183)

, , . ;

3. : (. 184-187) , , .

3. , . . (. 187-195)

: . (. 187-188) . (. 188) . (. 188-193) . (. 193-195) . .

20 30. (. 196-202)

3 . (. 203-227)

4

. 4 . . (. 229-300) 4.. . (. 229-234)

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, , , , , .(234-237)

: , , , . . (. 237-247)

. . (. 248-251)

, . (. 251-268) 4. . (. 268-293)

. (. 268-273) . (. 273-280) . (. 280-293)

4.. , . (. 293-300) 4 . (. 301-308) (. 309-319) (. 319-335)

5

, . 19 20. , 1837 1950, . ... , , , , . . , . , .. (Engineering Studies) (Science and Technology Studies). , , , . , , , , . : , , , , , , , . , : , . , technocracy , , .

6

, . , 1836 . , , , , 19 1923. . , . , , , , , , , . , . , , , . 1920-1940. , . , . , ,

7

. , , , .

, . Virginia Technological Institute Harvard. , , , , , . , 6 . , , , , , . , , . Gary L. Downey, , Engineering Studies, Virginia Technological Institute. Antoine Picon, Harvard . . , . , , . , , , , , , , , , , , , . / , , ,

8

. , . , , , .

9

. 1 , echnocracy

1. . o 19 20 . 100 . , , , . . 18 .

O . Misa . , . . . Raymond Williams , , , , , , . Marx, 19 . 1 . 20, . , 20 . 1 Thomas Misa, The Compelling Tangle of Modernity and Technology, T. Misa, P. Brey, A. Feenberg, Modernity and Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, MIT, 2003, p. 5, 7, 10, 12.

10

, . , . . Salomon, (technology) (technique), . , , , . (technologie) (technique). , . (technique) (technology) , (technologie) (technique technic ).2 K. Jacobsen, , . . . .3 David Noble L. Marx Jacob Bigelow, Harvard, 1829, The Elements of Technology. Bigelow , , .

2 Salomon 1728 Philosophia rationalis sive logica Christian Wolf . , J. Becman , management. JeanJacques Salomon, What is Technology? The Issue of its Origins and Definitions, History and Technology, v. 1, 1984, p. 113, 125. 3 K. Jacobsen, K. Andersen, T. Halvorsen S. Myklebustin, Engineering Cultures: European Appropriations of Americanism, M. Hard and A. Jamison eds. The International Appropriation of Technology, Discourses on Modernity, 1900-1939, MIT, 1998, p. 105.

11

, , , , , , .4 Leo Marx Bigelow. . MIT 1861, , . (science based industries), , , .. . . 5 . , , , . 1880 1920. , , , , , . , , . , Descartes, Bacon Locke, 19 , , , . , , , management. ,

4 David Noble, America by Design. Science, Technology, and the Rise of Corporate Capitalism, Oxford University Press, 1977 p. 3-4. 5 L. Marx Technology the Emergence of a Hazardous Concept Social Research. Vol. 64, n. 3, 1997, p. 973-976

12

, , .6 , , . , , , , . , , , .7 L. Marx , . , Bigelow , , . , , , . . . . , , , . ,

6L. Marx Technology, the Emergence of a Hazardous Concept Social Research. Vol. 64, n. 3, 1997, p. 973-976. , Lindy Biggs, The Rational Factory, Baltimore, Maryland, The John Hopkins University Press, 1996, p. 3-6. 7 L. Marx , , , , . , , , . Leo Marx, The Idea of Technology and Postmodern Pessimism, Merrit Roe Smith and Leo Marx, edit., Does Technology Drive History? MIT Press, 1995, p. 247-248.

13

. 8 technocracy. , , . . . 1. Technocracy , , . . . , .9 , , , , , . , . , D. Edgerton, .10 . , 8 L. Marx Technology the Emergence of a Hazardous Concept Social Research. Vol. 64, n. 3, 1997, p. 967-968, 977-980. 9Jean Pierre Vernant, : , , , , 4. Aristotle Tympas, What Have We Been Since We Have Never Been Modern? A Macro-Historical Periodization based on Historiographical Considerations on the History of Technology in Ancient and Modern Greece 10 David Edgerton, From Innovation to Use: Ten Eclectic Theses on the Historiography of Technology, History and Technology, 1999, vol.16, p. 111-136.

14

. , .

20 , , . , .

, . , , 18 . , .11 , , . , , . . , . .12 11 Thomas Hughes, Merrit Roe Smith, Leo Marx, David Noble, David Hounshell, Thomas Misa, John Sttaudenmaier, John Jordan, Lindy Biggs, Charles Maier .. Andrew Jamison, Mikael Hard, Peter Wagner, Kjetil Jakobsen .. . 12 P. Wagner, Social Reflections: The Technology Question during the First Crisis of Modernity, eds, M. Hard A. Jamison, The Intellectual Appropriation of Technology, Discources on Modernity, 1900-1939, Cambridge, Massachusetts, MIT Press, 1998, p. 228. . , , . ,

15

, , , , . . , , , . , 19 20, . , , , . , , . , . , : , , , , , . O M. R. Smith L. Marx, , , ,

, , , . , Bruce Bimber. Three Faces of Technological Determinism, eds. Merrit Roe Smith and Leo Marx, Does Technology Drive History? the MIT Press, 1995, p. 80-100.

16

, . .13 . , , , , , ` , , , , , , , . , . , , , . . , , Taylor, Ford Veblen . americanismus.14 , technocracy , . . Thomas Hughes, , 20 . 15

13 Merrit Roe Smith and Leo Marx, Does Technology Drives History? Massachusetts, MIT Press, 1995, ntroduction. 14 Charles Maer Between Taylorism and Technocracy: European Ideologies and the Vision of Industrial Productivity in the 1920s, Journal of Contemporary History 5, 1970, no. 2: 27-61. 15 Thomas Hughes, American Genesis, U.S.A. VIKING,1989, p.186

17

. , , . , , , , , , , , .. . , , . , , Frederick Winslow Taylor, Henry Ford, Samuel Insull Th. Veblen. Taylor . , Taylor, 19 , . , . Taylor , , . , . , , Taylor, . , , , . , Scientific Management, , .

18

, . , , , , . Principles of Scientific Management, : , .16 ... 1911 , , , , , , , . Taylor . , . .17 o Henry Ford 20 . , , , . , , , , , , standards ,

16 . . . 188 247, 17 Taylor: Edwin Layton, The Revolt of Engineers, Social Responsibility and the American Engineering Profession, Baltimore and London, The John Hopkins University Press, 1986, p. 134-154. Alfred Chandler, The Visible Hand. The Managerial Revolution in American Business. Cambridge, Massachusetts, The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1999 (15th printing), p. 272-283. John Jordan, Machine Age Ideology. Social Engineering and American Liberalism, 1911-1939, the University of North Carolina Press, 1994, p. 40-46. Thomas Hughes, American Genesis, U.S.A. VIKING, 1989, p 249-295. David Noble, America by Design. Science, Technology, and the Rise of Corporate Capitalism, Oxford University Press, 1977, p. 267-276. Charles Maer Between Taylorism and Technocracy: European Ideologies and the Vision of Industrial Productivity in the 1920s, Journal of Contemporary History 5, no. 2: p. 30-32.

19

. , , . Highland Park, 1913 River Rouge Plant 1920, , , . , , , Henry Ford 1913 1925 . Taylor. H . 18 . , , . . , , , , . , . Samuel Insull. Ford Insull ... , , , , , , , .19

18 Ford : Thomas Hughes, American Genesis, U.S.A. VIKING,1989, p 249-295. David Hounshell, From the American System to Mass Production, 1800-1932. The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States, Baltimore, The John Hopkins University Press, p. 217-263. Ruth Schwarz Coawn, A Social History of American Technology, Oxford University Press, 1997, p.221-248. Lindy Biggs, 1996, p. 95-161. 19 David Nye, Electrifying America, p. 236-237. Thomas Hughes, American Genesis, p. 226-246.

20

19 , , , , . . Thorstein Veblen.20 O Veblen . , , , . , . Ford Insull . , , , , , , , , , ... , , , .21 Veblen . . Veblen , The Engineers and the Price System, 1921, , , Technocracy. 20 Veblen : John Jordan, Machine Age Ideology, p. 40-46. Thomas Hughes, 1989, p. 246-247. Edwin Layton, 1986, p. 1-3, 225-228. David Noble, 1977, p. 244-246. Andrew Jamison, American Anxieties: Technology and the Reshaping of Republican values, eds, M. Hard A. Jamison, The Intellectual Appropriation of Technology, Discources on Modernity, 1900-1939, Cambridge, Massachusetts, MIT Press, 1998, p. 81-87. 21 Th. Veblen, Engineers and the Price System, New Brunswick and London, Transaction Edition, 1983 (first edition 1921), . 131-145. , Th. Veblen, , , . , 1982, . .

21

Veblen , , 1929 . , . , . P. Wagner . 22 , , , . , , . , . , Los Alamos, , Big Science, . 1929 New Deal. Tennessee Valley Authority. , .. . Roosevelt . : ... , , ,

22 P. Wagner, Social Reflections: The Technology Question during the First Crisis of Modernity, eds, M. Hard A. Jamison, The Intellectual Appropriation of Technology, Discources on Modernity, 1900-1939, Cambridge, Massachusetts, MIT Press, 1998, p. 230-231, 235.

22

.23 technocracy . , . . , , .

, . , , , . , . , . americanismus technocracy , , . , . , , .

Hegel, 1830, , : .24 , Gramsci, , : .

23 Thomas Hughes, 1989, p. 364. 24 K. Jacobsen, K. Andersen, T. Halvorsen, S. Myklebust, Engineering Cultures: European Appropriation of Americanism, eds, M. Hard A. Jamison, The Intellectual Appropriation of Technology, Discources on Modernity, 1900-1939, Cambridge, Massachusetts, MIT Press, 1998, p. 101-129.

23

.25 . 19 , , 20, . , , , , . , . , . .

Thomas Hughes American Genesis 20 . , , , management. . , Le Corbusier Gropius, Ford Taylor , , , . , , .26 T. Misa , , .27 avant guards, , . . , . , , ,

25 Charles Maer Between Taylorism and Technocracy: European Ideologies and the Vision of Industrial Productivity in the 1920s, Journal of Contemporary History 5, no. 2, 1970, p. 27. 26 Thomas Hughes, 1989, p. 295-352. 27 T. Misa, 2003, p. 6.

24

, . , , , . , , , , technocracy, .28

. Maier , . , - , . , . 29

, . , , . , , , , , , ..

, . , . Maier

28 P. Wagner, 1998, p. 246-251 29 Charles Maier, 1970, p. 28.

25

. management , . 30

. . , , , .

P. Wagner . . , . Max Weber .31

, . , , , , .32 , Kultur, Kultur ivilization. , J. Herf .33 ,

30 Charles Maier, 1970, p. 28-29. , Charles Maier, Recasting Burgois Europe: Stabilization in France, Germany and Italy after World War I, Prinston, 1975.31 P. Wagner, 1998, p. 235-238. 32 Mikael Hard, German Regulation: The Integration of Modern Technology into National Culture, eds, M. Hard A. Jamison, The Intellectual Appropriation of Technology, Discources on Modernity, 1900-1939, Cambridge, Massachusetts, MIT Press, 1998, p. 36-46. . , , 1987, 7, . 209-224. 33 Jeffrey Herf, 1984, . 184-228.

26

, Walter Rathenau, management . O Rathenau . AEG, , , , , , 34 . , , .35

K , . , , , Herf, Hard, Maier, . , . . Jeffrey Herf, The Reactionary Modernism. . , , . , , , , , , ., .

34. M. Hard, 1998, p. 46-56. 35 Herf, 1984, . 229-261.

27

.36

technocracy. , technocracy . (produttovismo) . , , . , .37

1917 .38 , Indiana Ford Detroit . , , . To , ,39 . , , , ... , , Insull . Scientific Management Taylor 20 ,

36 Michael Tad Allen, Modernity, the Haulocaust, and Machines without History, Technologies of Power, Essays in Honor of Thomas Parke Houghes, eds. M. Thad Allen and Gabrielle Hecht, MIT, 2001, p. 175-214. Edmund N Todd, Engineering Politics, Technological Fundamelism, and German Power Technology, Technologies of Power, Essays in Honor of Thomas Parke Houghes, eds. M. Thad Allen and Gabrielle Hecht, MIT, 2001, p. 145-174. 37 Charles Maier, 1970, p. 40-43. 38 Kendal Bailes, Technology and Society under Lenin and Stalin: Origins of the Social Technical Intelligentsia 1917-1941, Princeton University Press 1978. 39 Jonathan Coopersmith, The Electrification of Russia, p. 151-192

28

scientific management.

, 1924, . : . , , ... .40

. , , ... , , .

40 Thomas Hughes, American Genesis, p. 251

29

1. technocracy. , , . , . , .

, . , . , 1900-1940 .

Marx . . , , , . , standards , 19 H...41

. , , , . . . , 41 Chris Smith and Peter Whalley, Engineers in Britain, Peter Meiskins & Chris Smith (edit.), 1996, p. 27. M. Berg, The age of Manufactures 1700-1820, London, Routledge, 1994, 2nd edition, p. 13-50, 57-77. Ian Inkster, Science and Technology in History, An Approach to Industrial Development, USA, Rutgers University Press, 1991, p. 61-76.

30

, 19 . . 42 , , Oxbridge, , , , . P. Lundgreen, . .43 . , . gentleman. . , . , , , engineering, . . , , Smith Whalley , (shop-

42 Chris Smith and Peter Whalley, 1996, p. 31-33. M. Berg, 1994, p. 57-77. Ian Inkster, 1991, p. 60-86. Eric Hobsbawm, Industry and Empire. The Birth of the Industrial Revolution, N.Y. New York Press, 1968, p. 150-173, 185-204. 43P. Lundgreen, Engineering Education in Europe and the USA, 1750-1930: The Rise to Dominance of School Culture and the Engineering Profession, Annals of Science vol. 4, 1990, p.46.

31

culture) , .44

, , , . , , . , ad hoc . 1929 , management B .

. , 30, 20 .45

, 20 , , . engineering, 1820. , , . 1880 , . , . 20 . , , , . A. Guagnini 44 P. Whalley, Negotiating the Boundaries of Engineering: Professionals, Managers, and Manual Work, Research in the Sociology of Organizations, 1991, V. 8, p. 208. 45 K. Jacobsen, 1998, p. 110. M.C. Duffy, Engineering Production and Economic Growth, 2002, web paper, Chris Smith and Peter Whalley, 1996, p. 36-37.

32

. . .46 Imperial College 1907 , , . Oxbridge. . 20 , , , Oxbridge .47 . (Corps of Royal Engineers) 17 18 19 . To 1812 , , 1860, . , , , . . . , Society of Civil Engineers (SCE), 1771 46 1900 2000, Chris Smith and Peter Whalley, 1996, p. 33. 1910 613. A. Guagnini, Worlds Apart: Academic Institution and Professional Qualifications in the Training of Mechanical Engineers in England 1850-1914, in R. Fox, A. Guagnini eds. Education, Technology and Industrial Performance in Europe,1850-1939, Cambridge UP 1993, p. 16-18, 33. 47 K. Jacobsen, 1998, p. 105-106.

33

. , gentlemen , , , , , , , . 19 , . 1818 (Institution of Civil Engineers, ICE). SCE. ICE . .48 . 20 . . , , . . 1846 (Institution of Mechanical Engineers, ). , . Smith Whalley .49 . , , . , , , . 1911 .50

48 Peter Lundgreen, 1990, p. 46-51. 49 Chris Smith and Peter Whalley, 1996, p. 45 50 A. Guagnini, 1993, p. 27-28.

34

, 1910 17 . . . . , , Samuelson 1868, Finiston Committee 1980, , . , . . design , P. Whalley.51 , . 19 , Watt Stephenson . . , , , , , status .

. Sain Simon A. Compte, . , , management . 51 P. Whalley, 1991, p.

35

Taylor Ford 20 , , , . , . , management . , , . Jacobsen, , , , .52

, , management (Michelin) (Citroen). management Fayol. K. Jacobsen .. management , , Taylor. management . , . Fayol.53

, , Sain-Simon , , . , , .

Maier, technocracy, , , , .

52 Jacobsen 1998, p. 112. 53Jacobsen 1998, p. 113-114. Andre Grelon, The Training and the Career Structures of Engineers in France, 1880-1939, R. Fox and Anna Guagnini edit. Education, Technology and Industrial Performance in Europe, 1850-1939, Cambridge University press, 1993, p. 54-55. . , Fayol, , , 30, 1926.

36

Veblen . Vichy . Taylor Gantt .54

. 19 , .

19 20 . Grandes Ecoles . Grandes Ecoles . , . , , . , , , , Ecoles d Application. ( ) . , , 20 . , , , status. status Ecole Centrale, 19 Grandes Ecoles, 1880-1930 gadzarts, Ecoles des Arts et Metiers, . gadzarts 80% , , ,

54Charles Maier Between Taylorism and Technocracy: European Ideologies and the Vision of Industrial Productivity in the 1920s, Journal of Contemporary History 5, no. 2, p. 38. K. Jacobsen, 1998, p. 111-113.

37

, . . 55

17 . Corps du Genie Militaire 1676 Ecole d Artillerie 1679. , des Ponts et Chausses, 1716, 1747 Ecole Nationale des Ponts et Chausses, . 1783 Corps des Ingenieurs des Mines . II , 1794, , Convention Ecole Polytechnique. 100 , . (Ecole Nationale des Ponts et Chausses, Ecole des Mines, Ecole du Genie Maritime ..) Ecole Polytechnique (ecoles d application) . polytechniciens 19 20 . 56 . Ecole Polytechnique . . Grandes Ecoles, .

, . . , , .57

55 Eda Kranakis, The Social Determinants of Engineering Practice: A Comparative View of France and America in the 19th century, Social Studies of Science, vol. 19, 1989, p. 10. 56Terry Shin, From Corps to Profession: the Emergence and Definition of Industrial Engineering in Modern France, Robert Fox, George Weisz edit. The Organization of Science and Technology in France 1808-1914. Cambridge University Press and Editions de la Maison des Science de l Homme, 1980, p. 183-208. Stephen Crawford, The Making of the French Engineer, P. Meiksins, Ch. Smith edits, 1996, p. 98-102. 57 Stephen Crawford, 1996, p. 104-106.

38

Alder , ancient regime, , , . .58

A. Picon , , Latour Gallon, . . 59 , 18 19, , , laissez-faire, laissez-passer. Ponts et Chausses ancient regime . Ecole Polytechnique .

E. Kranakis . 19 , , , , . , . Navier, o Dupin, o M. Levy, o J. Resal, L. De Bussy, , , 19 , W. Taylor, T. Edison, E. Sperry, E. Thomas, J. Westinghouse, H. Ford, W. and O. Wright, .60 Jacobsen , , . , 58 K. Alder, Engineering the Revolution, Arms and Enlightenment in France, 1763-1815, Princeton University Press, 1997, p. 310, 346. 59 A. Picon, Towards a History of Technological Thought, in R. Fox ed., Technological Change, Harwood, 1996, p. 37-51. 60 Eda Kranakis, The French connection: Giffords injector and the nature of heat, Technology and Culture, vol. 23, 1982, pp. 3-38, The Social Determinants of Engineering Practice: A Comparative View of France and America in the 19th century, Social Studies of Science, vol. 19, 1989, pp. 5-70, Constructing a Bridge, MIT Press, 1997.

39

, . , . , . , , . . .

Ecole Polytechnique . , . , . . Ecole Polytechnique Grandes Ecoles, , 19 , . , .61

T. Shinn status. . . , . . , . , . .62

61 Jacobsen et al. 1998, p. 110-111. 62 Terry Shin, 1980, p. 187-188.

40

, 19 , . Ecole Polytechnique 10% , 63 5% . 64 Ecoles d Arts et Metiers . . 12 15 , , . . . , . , . , , , , , ( ), , , , , , . 19 . 1909 (calculus), , 7 . 6, 1907 .65 1829 Ecole Centrale des Arts et Manufactures. H Centrale . polytechniciens. ,

63 Lundgreen, 1990, p. 39. 64 T. Shinn, Pillars of French Engineering, Social studies of science, v.29, 1999, p.143. 65 Eda Kranakis, The Social Determinants of Engineering Practice: A Comparative View of France and America in the 19th century, Social Studies of Science, vol. 19, 1989, p. 10-12. Andre Grelon, 1993, p. 43-46. Stephen Crawford, 1996, p. 108-111.

41

, . Ecole Centrale , , 1870. , , , , . status Grandes Ecoles . Ecole Polytechnique. engineering . Centrale Ecole Polytechnique, 19 , Ecole Polytechique. Centraliens Polytechniciens. Centrale , . Centrale Ecole Polytechnique Grandes Ecoles Ecoles Arts et Metiers. 19 20 .66

19 . . , , , , . , , , . , Baccalaureat. 1880 .67 . . , , , , 66 Eda Kranakis, 1989, p. 10-12, 39. Terry Shin, 1980, p. 190-194. 67 1880 1939 65 . Andre Grelon, 1993, p. 44.

42

, , , . . ( ) 19 , 20 . 19 , . . . .68 , management Taylor Fayol . , Fayol. , 1930 , . . , Societe des Ingenieurs Civils 1848 Centrale. , . 68 Eda Kranakis, 1989, p. 28-29. Terry Shin, 1980, p. 204-205.

43

1880 1930, . , (USIC), , . 1920 , , Union des Syndicates d Ingenieurs Francais (USIF). USIF 4000 50-60000 . , , , . 1917 Astier . , , , , . . 1930 . 1934 . . , 1937, (Federation Nationale des Syndicates d Inginieurs FNSI), 20000 . . . A. Grelon : , . , . . , .69

69 Andre Grelon, 1993, p. 60-61.

44

civilization ultur 19 . 19 ,70 . . , .

1729 , 1755, Ecole de genie, Ingenieuracademy. E 18 . 1799 Bauakademie. (Ingenieure) Baubeamte. , , , . , . 71

19 , Humbold , , Polytechische Schulen, Technische Hochschulen. (Gymnasia), .72

1859 Realschule. , status Gymnasium. , . . 70 O . Inkster Bairoch , optimum 100 1750 1900 : , 1750: 2.4, 1830:17.5, 1860: 54, 1900: 100. , 1750: 3.7, 1830: 6.5, 1860: 11.1, 1900: 71,2. Inkster, 1991, p. 137. 71 Lundgreen, 1990, . 41. 72 K. Gispen, New Profession, Old Order. Engineers and German Society, 1815-1914, Cambridge University Press, 1989, p 24.

45

19 . , , 19 Gymnasium.

Technische Hochschulen , , , , Grandes Ecoles, . Manegold , .

, Technische Hochschulen , , . Technische Hochschulen . geist, . . . 73

1870 Technische Hochschulen . , , .74 1879 Technische Hochschulen, 73 K. Manegold, Technology Academized: Educationand Training of the Engineer in the 19th Century, E. Layton, P. Weingart (edits), The Dynamics of Science and Technology: Sociology of Sciences, Doedrecht, Holland: D. Reidel Publishing Company, 1978, p.153 74 2% Gymnasium Abitur , Lundgreen . P. Lundgreen, Education for ScienceBased Industrial State? The Case for 19th century Germany. History of Education, vol. 13, 1984, p. 67.

46

. 1899 , status, . . , .

, 1880 1914. , , management . , Technische Hochschulen , Technische Mittelschulen. , , , , . 75

19 20 . Technische Hochschulen Technische Mittelschulen Technische Hochschulen, status 19 .

19 20, , , , , , (the science based industries), . , , .76

, , : . , , , . , 75 Kees Gispen, The Long Quest for Professional Identity: German Engineers in Historical Perspective, 1850-1990, P. Meiskins, C. Smith, 1996, p. 136-145. 76Lundgreen 1990, . 57. Sombart 1913 , Sombart, , . 152, .

47

. Koenig, , , . 77

,78 ,79 , . Koenig , , . . 80

Verein Deutscher Ingenieure, , 1856. , . , .81

Verein Deutscher Ingenieure , , .82 , geist, , , 19 .

77 W. Koenig, Science-Based Industry or IndustryBased Science? Electrical Engineering in Germany Before World War I, Technology and Culture, v.37, 1996, . 100. 1880 40% , 1895 2%, p. 79. W. Koenig, Technical Education and Industrial Performance in Germany: a Triumph of Heterogeneity, R. Fox, A. Guagnini (edits), Education, Technology and Industrial Performance in Europe, 1850-1939, Cambridge University Press, 1993, p. 65-87. 78 O Wengenroth Status ridden society, Wengenroth, web paper. 79 Shadwell Inkster, . 101. 80W. Koenig, Technical Education and Industrial Performance in Germany: a Triumph of Heterogeneity, R. Fox, A. Guagnini (edits), Education, Technology and Industrial Performance in Europe, 1850-1939, Cambridge University Press, 1993, p. 81-84. 81 K. Gispen, 1989, . 51. 82 K. Gispen,1989, p. 52-60.

48

VDI . , 1877, .83

, , , . .84

1909 Verband Deucher Diplom-Inginieure. VDDI , VDI Technische Mittelschulen. , Bund der Technisch Industriellen Beamten (BUTIB), 1904, Technische Mittelschulen . BUTIB, , 24.000 . H VDDI, 4000 , , , VDI management.85

20 , , managers ancient regime, geist 1940.

. , . , , , , , Kant, o Wolff Shiller. .

83 K. Manegold, 1978, p. 142. 84Maier, 1970, . 27-51. 85 Kees Gispen, 1996, p. 147-155

49

, . , , , , manager. technocracy .

managers, . management leitung (). , , Fuhrer , , , .

, , . management , , geist. , , . , Jacobsen, Ford . Ford , . 86

, K. Ludwig87 . . , Kultur Zivilisation. , . , , . ,

86 Jacobsen et al. 1998, p. 110-111, 117-123. 87 Herf, 1984, .189.

50

, .

, , , . .

1904 Max Eyth, , geist. geist , . , Eyth, , . , .88

Kultur - Zivilization, , , . 20 . , , .

, Herf, , . .89 Hard

88 Jeffrey Herf, 1984, . 193. 89 .. . 188

51

Kultur, , ivilization.90

18 19, , , . 19 . . O Layton 1816 30 , , 1850 2000, . 1880 7000. 40 , 1920 136.000, 1930 226.000 1940 260.000.91 19 , status. . . 19 . 20.92 . Tomas Hughes, The American Genesis: A Century of Invention and Technological Enthusiasm, , .93 , .94

90 M. Hard, 1998, p. 42. 91 Edwin Layton, The Revolt of Engineers, Social Responsibility and the American Engineering Profession, Baltimore and London, The John Hopkins University Press, 1986, p. 3. 92 P. Meiksins, Engineers in the United States: A House Divided, Peter Meiksins & Chris Smith, 1996, . 65 93 T. P. Hughes, American Genesis: A Century of Invention and Technological Enthusiasm, Penguin, 1989, p. 1. 94 . Lindy Biggs, The Rational Factory, Baltimore, Maryland, The John Hopkins University Press, 1996, p.

52

David Hounshell, , From the American System to Mass Production, 1874-1880 Singer 250 500. Hounshell .95 Thomas Misa, , Nation of Steel: The Making of Modern America, 1865-1925, 1870-1880, , . H , Bessemer, .96 H. Ford.97 20 , . General Motors, Ford 20 , , 40 , General Motors , .98 , West Point, 1802, . Ecole Polytechnique . , , , 99 , .100

95 David Hounshell, From the American System to Mass Production, 1800-1933, The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States, Baltimore and London: The John Hopkins University Press, 1984, p.122. 96 Thomas Misa, Nation of Steel: The Making of Modern America, 1865-1925, Baltimore and London: The John Hopkins University Press, 1995, p. xx-xxi 97 David Hounshell, 1984, p. 9. 98 David Hounshell, 1984, p. 13. 99 Edwin Layton, Mirror-Image Twins: The Communities of Science and Technology in 19th Century America, Technology and Culture, vol. 20, no. 1, January 1979, p 570-571 100P. Meiksins, Engineers in the United States: A House Divided, Peter Meiskins & Chris Smith, 1996, . 64-66. Kranakis, 1989, p. 55.

53

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